THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 


108  ANGELES, 


story  in  Brown  Untv&rsis^     -.    ,   , , 

Editorial  contributor  to  the  lfentury*\w«Fns>^ 
thor  of  a  ."  History  of  Historical  Writing  in  AraSivw^  . 


Hrofessor  of  History  in  Br 
Editorial  c 
Author  of  a  ."  History  of  Historical  Writing  in  , 


ILLUSTRATED  WITH  NEARLY  300  PORTRAITS. 


HISTORY  PUBLISHING  CO. 
BOSTON,  MASS. 


DICTIONARY 


OF 


UNITED  STATES  HISTORY 
1492-1899. 


Four  Centuries  of  History. 


WRITTEN    CONCISELY   AND  ARRANGED   ALPHABETICALLY 
IN   DICTIONARY   FORM. 

833  d 


BY 

J.  Franklin  Jameson,  Ph.D., 

Professor  of  History  In  Brown  University,  formerly  of  Johns  Hopkins  University, 

Editorial  contributor  to  the  Century  Dictionary, 
Author  of  a  ."  History  of  Historical  Writing  in  America." 


ILLUSTRATED  WITH  NEARLY  300  PORTRAITS. 


HISTORY  PUBLISHING  CO. 
BOSTON,  MASS. 


COPYRIGHT 

1894,  1896,   1897,  1898. 

JAMES  DRUMMOND  BAI.I,. 

1899. 
HISTORY  PUBLISHING  Co. 


STATE  NORMAL  seaeoi, 

liOS  HJiGEUES, 


PUBLISHERS'  PREFACE. 


IN  offering  this  valuable  book  to  the  public,  inasmuch  as  the  subject  is  of 
vital  and  growing  interest  to  every  individual  in  this  country,  we  feel  that 
we  are  striking  the  popular  chord  and  filling  a  long  felt  need.  As  to  the 
comprehensiveness  and  accuracy  of  the  work,  we  need  only  to  refer  you  to 
the  name  of  our  author,  whose  life  work  is  given  to  historical  research  and 
instruction,  and  whose  name  stands  high  as  an  authority  in  historical  writing. 
This  work  will  be  of  special  value  to  teachers  and  pupils  in  all  colleges  and 
schools,  as  it  enables  them  to  refer  in  ati  instant  to  the  facts  and  incidents  of 
United  States  History,  thereby  saving  much  time  and  labor.  It  will  be 
equally  valuable  to  all  other  individuals  who  desire  a  comprehensive  and 
accurate  work  of  reference  on  the  history  of  this  country. 

We  have  planned  to  furnish  the  reader  a  volume  valuable  from  every 
point  of  view — authorship,  subject,  illustrations,  readable  type,  quality  of 
paper,  beautiful  and  substantial  bindings,  and  skilled  workmanship,  all  of 
this  combined  with  a  low  price  putting  the  book  within  the  reach  of  all 
those  who  desire  it.  A  most  attractive  feature  of  this  book  is  the  large 
number  of  portraits  of  illustrious  Americans.  Many  of  these  portraits  are 
very  rare  and  were  secured  only  after  a  long  and  diligent  search,  and  we 
desire  to  acknowledge  our  indebtedness  to  the  friends  of  many  of  these 
eminent  citizens  for  assistance  rendered  us  in  securing  original  portraits. 

The  people  of  America  are  a  reading  people,  and  we  launch  this  book 
with  great  confidence,  believing  that  it  will  be  fully  appreciated. 

THE  PUBLISHERS. 


NORMAL 

liOS  flJiGEUSS,  CRU. 


PREFACE. 


THE  preparation  of  this  book  was  due  to  the  belief  that  a  DICTIONARY  OF 
UNITED  STATES  HISTORY,  in  which  the  facts  of  our  history  should  be  con- 
cisely stated,  in  alphabetical  form,  for  ready  reference,  would  be  useful  to 
that  large  and  increasing  number  of  readers  who  are  interested  in  the  story 
of  our  nation's  development.  Usefulness,  accordingly,  has  been  the  foremost 
consideration  during  the  progress  of  the  work.  In  order  that  such  a  book 
of  reference  should  be  useful,  it  is  necessary  that  it  should  be,  first,  compre- 
hensive, and  secondly,  accurate.  Great  pains  have  been  taken  to  make  it 
accurate,  and  it  is  hoped  that  the  efforts  thus  made  have  not  been  without 
effect.  In  order  to  establish  any  claim  to  comprehensiveness,  a  few  words 
of  explanation  are  necessary,  that  the  reader  may  know  just  what  the  book 
is  intended  to  include.  In  the  first  place,  it  is  confined  to  the  history  of  the 
United  States.  The  histories  of  other  parts  of  America,  or  of  the  world, 
are  included  only  in  so  far  as  they  have  some  relation  to  United  States  his- 
tory. Within  the  field  thus  defined,  articles  will,  it  is  believed,  be  found 
upon  nearly  all  important  subjects.  If  any  have  been  omitted,  it  has  not 
been  for  want  of  care.  The  following  classes  of  subjects  included  may  be 
specified:  political  occurrences  of  various  sorts;  wars  and  insurrections; 
battles,  and  even  important  skirmishes,  of  all  our  wars,  including  sea-fights 
and  sieges;  colonies  and  settlements  upon  any  part  of  our  present  territory; 
colonizing  companies;  the  several  States  and  Territories;  those  cities  and 
towns  which  may  fairly  be  called  historic,  or  whose  importance  on  other 
grounds  makes  their  history  interesting;  famous  old  manors,  houses  and 
communities;  political  parties  and  factions;  political  terms  which  have 
played  a  prominent  part  in  American  history;  departments  of  government, 
offices,  courts  and  institutions,  Federal,  State,  colonial  or  local;  Indian  tribes 
that  have  had  a  history;  famous  ships;  noted  legal  cases  of  historic  impor- 
tance, such  as  constitutional  cases  decided  by  the  Supreme  Court  or  fugitive 
slave  cases;  historic  laws,  British  and  American;  treaties  with  foreign  coun- 
tries and,  under  the  name  of  each  such  country,  the  history  of  our  diplo- 
matic relations  with  its  government;  colleges,  universities,  libraries  and 
other  educational  institutions;  learned  societies,  especially  those  devoted  to 
historical  studies;  famous  historical  publications;  newspapers,  especially  those 
which  were  earliest  published  in  the  country,  or  in  their  respective  States; 
coins;  historic  songs,  etc. 

(3) 


4  PREPACB. 

One  class,  larger  than  any  of  those  yet  mentioned,  deserves  a  more  explicit 
reference;  namely,  the  class  of  biographical  subjects.  Effort  has  been  made 
to  include  a  brief  article  on  the  life  of  every  man  or  woman  who  has  played 
a  considerable  part  in  the  public  life  of  the  colonies  or  United  States,  either 
in  the  civil  or  the  military  and  naval  departments.  Thus,  in  the  earlier 
period  have  been  mentioned  such  persons  as  the  leading  explorers  and  colo- 
nial governors,  while  in  the  later  period  the  biographies  embrace  concise 
statements  respecting  the  Presidents  and  Cabinet  officers,  and  the  leading 
Governors,  Senators,  Congressmen  and  judges,  generals  and  naval  officers.  It 
has  been  thought  that  information  respecting  these  characters  in  public  life 
will  especially  be  sought  by  those  who  use  the  book.  Names  eminent  solely 
in  literature  and  science,  names  of  artists,  divines  and  merchants,  have  nat- 
urally been  less  fully  represented  and  more  briefly  treated.  Historical  writers 
have  been  more  fully  represented  than  others.  Finally,  beside  Americans, 
many  Britons  and  other  foreigners — monarchs,  ministers,  generals  and  others 
— are  included  because  they  had  much  to  do  with  the  history  of  the  United 
States. 

Attention  is  called  also  to  the  tables  and  historical  lists:  that  of  the  Cabinet 
officers,  prepared  from  information  supplied  by  the  Department  of  State, 
and  those  of  the  Signers  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  of  the  members 
of  the  Convention  of  1787  (see  Convention),  of  the  Presidents^  of  the  Vice- 
Presidents,  of  the  Speakers  of  the  House  of  Representatives,  of  the  Justices 
of  the  Supreme  Court,  of  the  Presidential  elections  (see  Elections),  of  the 
sessions  of  Congress,  and  of  the  States  and  their  populations. 

Acknowledgments  are  due,  for  much  valuable  assistance  rendered,  to  Mr. 
Edmund  K.  Alden,  an  assistant  editor  of  the  "  Century  Dictionary,"  and  to 
Mr.  George  Carey,  formerly  of  the  u  Review  of  Reviews."  Further  acknowl- 
edgments are  due  to  the  writer's  father,  John  Jameson,  Esq.,  A.  M.,  to  Mr. 
Seth  H.  Chace,  of  Brown  University,  to  Messrs.  J.  Q.  Dealey,  J.  F.  Greene 
and  S.  S.  Colvin,  instructors  in  that  university,  to  Mr.  Henry  K.  Rowe,  of 
Colby  Academy,  and  to  Mr.  A.  A.  Freeman,  teacher  of  history  in  Phillips 
Academy,  Andover,  who  have  rendered,  in  special  departments,  assistance 
highly  appreciated. 

J.  FRANKLIN  JAMESON. 
BROWN  UNIVERSITY, 

Providence,  R.  I. 


Dictionary  of  United  States  History. 


"A.  B."  Plot,  a  plot  to  destroy  Crawford's  popularity  and  political  power 
by  accusing  him,  in  1824,  of  malfeasance  in  the  office  of  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury,  which  he  then  filled.  A  series  of  letters  appeared  in  a  Washington 
newspaper,  signed  "A.  B.,"  reflecting  upon  Crawford's  integrity,  and  demand- 
ing investigation.  They  were  written  by  Ninian  Edwards,  who  had  just  been 
appointed  to  the  Mexican  mission.  In  March,  just  previous  to  his  departure 
for  Mexico,  Edwards  acknowledged  their  authorship.  He  was  brought  to 
Washington  and  failed  to  sustain  his  charges,  so  Crawford  was  exonerated. 

Abenakis,  a  tribe  of  Indians  living  in  and  near  what  is  now  Maine,  with 
whom  the  New  Englanders  had  occasional  wars,  as  in  1702,  1722,  1724.  See 
Rasle,  S£bastien. 

Abercrombie,  James  (1706-1781),  a  British  major-general,  commanding  in 
America  during  part  of  the  French  and  Indian  War,  1758.  He  failed  disas- 
trously in  an  attack  on  Ticonderoga  in  July,  1758,  losing  2000  men  killed  and 
wounded  out  of  a  force  of  15,000,  and  was  replaced  by  Sir  Jeffrey  Amherst. 

Abingdon,  Va.,  was  captured  on  December  15, 1864,  by  Burbridge's  division 
of  Stoneman's  (Federal)  cavalry,  which  defeated  Echols  (Confederate). 

Ableman  vs.  Booth,  an  important  Supreme  Court  case  from  Wisconsin. 
In  1854,  Booth  was  tried  before  a  commissioner  appointed  by  the  U.  S.  District 
Court  of  Wisconsin  for  violation  of  the  Fugitive  Slave  Law  of  1850.  He 
was  commanded  to  appear  before  the  District  Court,  and,  failing  to  do  so, 
was  imprisoned  by  the  U.  S.  Marshal  Ableman.  The  Supreme  Court  of 
Wisconsin  issued  a  writ  of  habeas  corpus  and  Booth  was  released.  Later 
the  U.  S.  District  Court  found  an  indictment  against  him.  He  again 
appealed  to  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  State  and  was  released.  The  case' 
came  before  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States  in  1858.  That  body 
reversed  the  decisions  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Wisconsin.  Booth  had  pleaded 
the  unconstitutionality  of  the  Fugitive  Slave  Law.  The  constitutionality  of 
that  law  was  now  maintained  by  the  court.  It  was  also  held  that  the  marshal, 
in  matters  of  habeas  corpus,  must  obey  the  sovereignty  of  the  United  States 
rather  than  that  of  the  State,  the  latter  having  no  authority  within  the 
limits  of  the  sovereignty  assigned  by  the  Constitution  to  the  United  States. 

Abolitionists,  a  party  or  body  of  men  bent  on  securing  the  immediate 
abolition  of  slavery  in  the  United  States.  Throughout  the  eighteenth  century 
there  had  been  a  sentiment,  more  or  less  widespread,  in  favor  of  the  emanci- 
pation of  slaves.  At  about  the  close  of  the  Revolutionary  War  most  of  the 

(5) 


6  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Northern  States  provided  for  emancipation,  immediate  or  gradual.  Before 
the  end  of  the  century  several  abolition  societies  had  been  formed.  In  1816 
interest  in  the  matter  revived,  and  the  American  Colonization  Society  was 
organized,  its  object  being  to  promote  emancipation  and  to  colonize  the  freed 
negroes  in  Africa.  But  the  movement  took  on  a  new  character  with  the 
beginning  of  the  work  of  William  Lloyd  Garrison  in  1829,  and  with  the 
formation  of  the  American  Anti-Slavery  Society  in  1833,  and  the  term  Aboli- 
tionist is  generally  applied  rather  to  those  who  took  part  in  this  new  agitation 
than  to  their  less  uncompromising  predecessors.  Garrison  demanded  the 
immediate  and  total  abolition  of  slavery  throughout  the  country,  all  laws 
and  constitutions  to  the  contrary  notwithstanding.  The  Abolitionists  soon 
divided,  Garrison  and  his  followers  holding  aloof  from  all  connection  with 
political  action  under  the  Constitution,  and  advocating  disunion,  while 
another  wing  of  the  agitators,  under  the  name  of  the  Liberty  Party  (see  art.), 
put  forward  candidates  and  took  part  in  the  presidential  elections  of  1840 
and  1844.  In  1848  these  joined  the  Free-soilers  (see  art),  and  in  1855  and 
1856  the  Republican  party.  Throughout  the  years  from  1833  to  1863  the 
Abolitionists  continued  their  agitation.  They  did  much  to  rouse  Northern 
sentiment  against  slavery,  to  bring  on  the  Civil  War,  and  to  secure,  among 
its  results,  the  emancipation  of  all  slaves.  The  leaders  of  the  radical  Aboli- 
tionists were,  beside  Garrison  himself,  Wendell  Phillips,  John  G.  Whittier, 
Edmund  Quincy,  Samuel  J.  May,  William  Jay  and  others. 

"Abominations,  Tariff  of,"  a  name  given  to  the  tariff  of  1828  because 
of  the  extremely  high  protective  duties  which  it  placed  on  all  manner  of 
both  manufactured  articles  and  raw  materials. 

Abraham,  Plains  of.  On  the  evening  of  September  12,  1759,  General 
Wolfe  made  a  desperate  attempt  upon  Quebec.  While  the  fleet  made  a 
feigned  attack  below  the  town  Wolfe  and  his  men  scaled  the  heights  above 
the  city,  routed  the  sentries  and  took  his  position  with  3500  troops.  The 
French  under  Montcalm  arrived  early  in  the  morning,  made  a  somewhat 
disorderly  attack  and  were  beaten.  Both  generals  fell.  The  loss  of  the 
English  was  664,  of  the  French  640. 

Academic  des  Etats  Unis,  or  the  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences  of  the 
United  States  of  America.  This  institution,  after  the  model  of  the  French 
Academy  of  Sciences,  and  whose  plan  was  brought  to  America,  in  1788,  by 
the  Chevalier  Quesnay  de  Beaurepaire,  was  to  have  been  located  at  Rich- 
mond, Va.  A  large  sum  was  subscribed  by  the  citizens  of  Richmond  and 
by  wealthy  planters,  and  one  professor,  Dr.  Jean  Rouelle,  was  appointed,  but 
the  plan  failed. 

Academies,  a  name  given  in  the  United  States  to  two  classes  of  institu- 
tions: learned  bodies,  such  as  the  National  Academy  of  Sciences,  and  incor- 
porated private  institutions  for  secondary  education.  Of  the  former  class, 
the  American  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences  was  founded  at  Boston  in  1780, 
the  Connecticut  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences  in  1799,  the  Pennsylvania 
Academy  of  Fine  Arts  in  1807.  The  National  Academy  of  Sciences  was 
founded  in  1863,  to  "investigate,  examine,  experiment  and  report  upon  any 
subject  of  science  or  art"  whenever  called  upon  by  any  department  of  the 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  7 

national  government.  Of  the  latter  class,  a  few  dozen  were  in  existence  in 
1789.  Perhaps  the  most  famous  of  these  are  Phillips  Academy,  Andover, 
Mass.,  and  Phillips  Academy,  Exeter,  N.  H.,  founded  in  1780  and  1781, 
respectively. 

Acadia,  or  Acadie,  the  name  given  by  the  French  to  a  province  of  their 
colonial  empire  in  America,  consisting  of  what  is  now  Nova  Scotia,  New 
Brunswick  and  part  of  Maine,  the  important  part  being  Nova  Scotia.  De 
Monts  settled  it  in  1604.  It  was  claimed  by  Bngland.  Argall  conquered  it 
in  1613.  James  I.  gave  it  to  Sir  William  Alexander,  but  he  could  not  hold 
it.  It  was  in  English  hands  from  1654  to  1657.  It  was  conquered  by  Sir 
William  Phipps  and  New  England  troops  in  1690,  but  retaken  in  1691. 
Further  attempts  were  made  in  1704, 1707  and  1710.  The  last  was  successful, 
and  in  1713  the  treaty  of  Utrecht  gave  Acadia  to  England.  Under  British 
government  the  Acadians  were  accused  of  abusing  their  privileges  as  neutrals. 
In  1755  several  thousand  of  them  were  transported,  with  much  harsh  treat- 
ment, to  the  British  provinces  southward.  (Longfellow's  "  Evangeline.") 
Many  made  their  way  to  Louisiana. 

Acre  Right,  the  share  owned  by  any  one  in  the  common  lands  of  New  Eng- 
land towns.  Their  value  varied  ^in  different  towns,  but  was  a  fixed  quantity 
in  each  town.  In  Billerica,  for  instance,  a  ten-acre  lot  or  right  was  equivalent 
to  113  acres  of  upland  and  twelve  acres  of  meadow,  and  so  on  in  exact 
proportion. 

"Active,"  case  of  sloop.     (See  Olmstead  v.  Rittenhouse.) 

"  Acts  and  Resolves,"  a  publication  issued  by  the  government  of  Massa- 
chusetts, edited  by  Abner  C.  Goodell,  Jr.  It  comprises  all  the  acts  and 
resolves  of  the  Massachusetts  Legislature  from  1691  to  1780,  including 
those  obsolete  and  repealed.  Publication  began  in  1869. 

Acts  of  Trade.     (See  Navigation  Acts.) 

Adairsville,  Ga.,  scene  of  an  engagement  in  the  Civil  War,  May  17,  1864, 
between  Sherman's  forces  and  those  of  Joseph  Johnston — one  episode  in  the 
continuous  fighting  which  marked  Johnston's  retreat  from  Dalton  to  Atlanta. 

"Adams  and  Liberty,"  a  song  written  by  Robert  Treat  Paine,  Jr.,  which 
enjoyed  great  popularity  during  the  time  of  John  Adams'  spirited  resistance 
to  French  aggressions  in  1798  and  1799.  The  air,  formerly  called  "Anacreon 
in  Heaven,"  is  that  now  known  as  the  "  Star-Spangled  Banner." 

Adams,  Abigail  (1744-1818),  wife  of  President  John  Adams,  daughter  of 
Rev.  William  Smith,  of  Weymouth,  Mass.  She  was  a  woman  of  great  spirit, 
good  sense,  strength  of  character  and  patriotism.  Her  letters  to  her  husband, 
published  1848,  are  interesting  and  valuable  historically. 

Adams,  Charles  Francis.  (1807-1886),  son  of  John  Quincy  Adams,  was 
born  in  Boston,  but  was  in  Europe  most  of  the  time  till  1817.  Was  gradu- 
ated at  Harvard  College  in  1825,  studied  law,  and  married  a  daughter  of 
Peter  C.  Brooks.  He  was  a  Representative  in  the  Massachusetts  Legislature 
from  1831  to  1834,  and  a  Senator  from  1835  to  1837.  He  edited  the  Writings  of 
John.  Adams,  ten  volumes,,  and  was  for  three  years  the  editor,  of  a  daily  paper 


8  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

in  Boston.  Originally  a  Whig,  he  in  1848  became  the  candidate  of  the  Free- 
soil  party  for  the  vice-presidency  on  the  ticket  with  Van  Buren.  From  1859 
to  1 86 1  he  was  a  member  of  Congress,  and  from  1861  to  1868  Minister  of  the 
United  States  in  Great  Britain.  The  relations  of  England  to  the  United 
States  during  the  Civil  War  made  this  post  a  very  trying  one,  and  Adams's 
cact,  firmness  and  success  were  extraordinary.  Few  men  performed  services 
so  valuable  to  the  Union.  Life  by  his  son,  C.  F.  Adams,  Jr.  a  noted  historical 
writer. 

Adams,  Hannah  (1756-1832),  of  Massachusetts,  famous  as  one  of  the 
earliest  feminine  writers  in  America;  wrote  a  History  of  New  Kngland,  1799, 
and  a  History  of  the  Jews,  1812. 

Adams,  Henry  (Brooks),  born  1838,  third  son  of  Charles  Francis  Adams, 
as  assistant  professor  of  history  at  Harvard  College  (1870-1877)  stimulated 
historical  instruction  in  American  universities,  and  in  1889-1891  published 
a  classic  History  of  the  United  States  under  Jefferson  and  Madison. 

Adams,  John  (1735-1826),  second  President  of  the  United  States,  was 
born  in  Braintree  (Quincy)  Mass.,  October  19,  1735,  the  son  of  a  small 
farmer.  He  was  graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1755,  then  taught  school 
and  studied  law  in  Worcester.  Taking  up  practice  in  Boston,  he  soon 
acquired  prominence  as  a  politician  and  writer,  especially  against  the  Stamp 
Act  and  other  injurious  acts  of  the  British  government.  All  his  writings 
were  spirited,  terse,  clear  and  pungent.  In  1774  he  was  a  delegate  to  the 
Continental  Congress  and  was  active  in  its  work  and  that  of  the  Provincial 
Congress  of  Massachusetts.  In  the  Congress  of  1775,  he  urged  indepen- 
dence, and  was  made  chairman  of  the  Board  of  War.  He  was  one  of  the 
committee  of  five  which  drew  up  the  Declaration  of  Independence.  After  a 
brief  mission  to  France  in  1778,  he  was  again  sent  out,  in  1779,  as  one 
of  the  commissioners  to  negotiate  a  treaty  of  peace  with  Great  Britain, 
which  was  signed  in  1783.  He  also  negotiated  a  loan  with  the  Dutch.  In 
1785  he  was  appointed  the  first  Minister  of  the  United  States  to  Great 
Britain,  in  which  capacity  he  showed  himself,  as  always,  active,  bold  and 
patriotic,  but  could  not  negotiate  a  treaty  of  commerce.  Returning  in  1788, 
he  was  in  1789  chosen  the  first  Vice-President  of  the  United  States,  and  soon 
became,  in  opposition  to  Jefferson,  a  leader  of  the  Federalist  party.  In  1797, 
he  became  President,  with  Jefferson  as  Vice-President,  Timothy  Pickering 
Secretary  of  State  (1800,  John  Marshall),  Oliver  Wolcott  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury  (1800,  Samuel  Dexter),  James  McHenry  Secretary  of  War  (1800, 
S.  Dexter),  and  Charles  Lee,  Attorney-General  (1798,  Benjamin  Stoddert, 
Secretary  of  the  Navy).  The  administration  had  many  difficulties,  arising 
partly  from  the  unfriendly  course  of  the  French  Directory  toward  the  min- 
isters sent  to  them,  (see  Directory;  Pinckney,  C.  C.;  X.  Y.  Z.  Mission),  partly 
from  the  Cabinet,  partly  from  the  rivalry  of  Hamilton,  and  partly  from  the 
President's  own  warmth  of  temper,  vanity  and  hasty  indiscretion  in  speech 
and  writing.  Popular  with  the  mass  of  his  party  by  reason  of  his  integrity 
and  patriotism,  he  alienated  the  leaders  by  concluding  an  agreement  with 
France  and  by  reconstructing  his  Cabinet.  These  dissensions,  and  the 
unpopularity  of  the  Alien  and  Sedition  Acts  (see  arts.),  gave  the  election  of 


DICTIONAR\  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  9 

1800  to  Jefferson  and  the  Democrats.  Adams  retired  to  private  life  in 
Quincy,  Mass.  In  retirement  he  wrote  much,  vivaciously,  often  wittily, 
sometimes  with  impulsive  bitterness,  on  public  affairs,  past  and  current. 
He  became  reconciled  with  Jefferson,  and  died  on  the  same  day  with  him, 
the  fiftieth  anniversary  of  the  Declaration,  July  4, 1826.  Lives  by  J.  T.  Morse 
and  C.  F.  Adams.  Writings  edited  by  C.  F.  A. 

Adams,  John  Quincy  (July  11,  i767~February  23,  1848),  sixth  Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States,  was  the  eldest  son  of  John  Adams.  A  boy  of 
precocious  talents,  he  was  early  taken  abroad  by  his  father,  studied  at  the 
University  of  Leyden,  and  at  fourteen  began  his  public  career  as  secretary  to 
Francis  Dana,  Minister  to  Russia.  He  was  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1788, 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1791,  and  at  once  began  to  write  on  public  affairs. 
From  1794  to  1797  he  was  Minister  to  Holland;  from  1797  to  1801,  Minis- 
ter to  Prussia.  In  1803,  the  Federalists  elected  him  to  the  U.  S.  Senate. 
Approving  Jefferson's  embargo,  he  became  estranged  from  the  Federalists, 
acted  with  the  Republicans,  and  in  1808  resigned.  In  1809,  Madison 
appointed  him  Minister  to  Russia,  and  in  1814  he  was  one  of  the  commis- 
sioners who  negotiated  the  treaty  of  Ghent;  he  then  became  Minister  to 
England.  From  1817  to  1825,  he  was  Secretary  of  State  to  President  Mon- 
roe. In  the  election  of  1824,  though  he  received  but  eighty-four  electoral 
votes  to  ninety-nine  for  Jackson,  he  was,  by  a  coalition  of  his  friends  with 
those  of  Clay,  chosen  President  by  the  House  of  Representatives.  He 
appointed  Clay  Secretary  of  State;  Richard  Rush  Secretary  of  the  Treasury; 
James  Barbour  Secretary  of  War  (1828,  Peter  B.  Porter);  Samuel  L.  South- 
ard Secretary  of  the  Navy  and  William  Wirt  Attorney-General.  Calhoun 
was  Vice-President.  A  cry  of  "  bargain  and  corruption "  with  Clay  was 
raised,  though  without  foundation.  Adams'  administration  was  marked  by 
intelligence  and  firmness,  and  by  extreme  integrity  in  all  matters,  especially 
that  of  appointments,  but  was  made  a  stormy  one  by  the  bitter  attacks  of  his 
enemies  in  Congress  and  by  his  own  unbending  and  pugnacious  character. 
He  favored  protection  and  internal  improvements  at  Federal  expense.  (See 
also  art.  Panama,  Congress  of.)  He  failed  of  re-election  in  1828.  In  1831, 
still  vigorous  at  sixty-four,  he  entered  Congress  as  an  independent  member 
for  the  Quincy  district  in  Massachusetts,  which  he  continued  to  represent 
till  his  death.  A  model  legislator,  active  and  efficient  in  every  valuable 
department  of  congressional  business,  his  most  memorable  services  were  in 
behalf  of  the  right  of  petition,  threatened  by  the  pro-slavery  members,  and 
in  other  assistance  to  the  anti-slavery  cause.  (See  also  Broad  Seal  War.) 
He  died  at  his  post  in  the  Capitol  on  February  23,  1848.  Twelve  volumes 
of  his  diary  have  been  published,  abounding  in  information  and  acute 
though  censorious  judgments  on  the  events  of  his  long  public  career,  and  in 
evidence  of  his  high  character  and  patriotism.  Lives  by  W.  H.  Seward  and 
J.  T.  Morse. 

Adams,  Samuel  (1722-1803),  orator,  patriot  and  agitator,  was  born  in 
Boston,  a  second  cousin  of  John  Adams,  and  studied  for  a  time  at  Harvard 
College.  Unsuccessful  in  business  and  in  the  office  of  tax-collector  for  the 
town  of  Boston,  he  soon  began  to  take  an  active  part  in  the  Boston  town- 
meetings.  In  1764  he  drew  up  Boston's  early  protest  against  Grenville's 


io  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

scheme  of  taxation.  From  1765  to  1774  he  was  a  member  for  Boston  in  the 
House  of  Representatives  of  Massachusetts,  in  which  he  was  among  the 
foremost  in  debate  and  as  a  writer  of  State  papers.  He  was  an  adroit  poli- 
tician, prudent,  yet  zealous  and  inflexible  in  his  love  of  liberty.  He  led  in 
the  protests  against  taxation  without  representation,  and  in  1770  secured 
from  Hutchinson  the  removal  of  the  troops  from  the  city.  He  instituted  the 
system  of  town  committees  of  correspondence.  From  1774  to  1781  he  was 
a  member  of  the  Continental  Congress;  he  signed  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence, and  had  an  important  part  in  making  the  Massachusetts  Constitu- 
tion of  1780.  He  was  in  1781  a  member  of  the  Massachusetts  Senate,  and 
in  1788  of  the  State  Convention  which  ratified  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
States.  Opposed  to  some  of  its  provisions,  he  finally  concluded  to  vote  for 
it,  which  was  of  much  influence  upon  others.  In  the  party  divisions  which 
soon  followed,  he  was  of  the  Democratic-Republican  party.  From  1789  to 
1794  he  was  Lieutenant-Governor  of  Massachusetts,  from  1794  to  1797  Gov- 
ernor. Adams'  public  services,  of  the  first  importance  in  the  earlier  stages 
of  the  revolutionary  struggle,  became  less  valuable  when  the  tasks  of  the 
hour  were  those  of  constructive  statesmanship  and  administration,  for  which 
he  had  little  talent;  but  perhaps  no  one  did  more  to  bring  about  the  Revolu- 
tion. Lives  by  S.  A.  Wells  and  J.  K.  Hosmer. 

Addington,  Isaac  (1645-1715),  secretary  of  the  province  of  Massachu- 
setts from  1690  to  1715,  and  also  successively  Judge  of  the  Court  of  Common 
Pleas,  Chief  Justice  of  the  Superior  Court,  and  Judge  of  the  Probate  Court 
of  Suffolk. 

Adalbert  College  was  founded  in  1826  at  Hudson,  O.,  under  the  name 
of  Western  Reserve  College.  In  1882  it  was  transferred  to  Cleveland,  taking 
the  name  of  a  chief  benefactor's  son.  The  Medical  Department  was  estab- 
lished in  1842;  the  Case  School  of  Applied  Science  in  1881.  All  are  con- 
sidered parts  of  Western  Reserve  University. 

Adet,  Pierre  Auguste  (1763-1832),  chemist  and  politician,  was  Minister 
of  the  French  Republic  (the  Directory)  to  the  United  States  from  1795  to 
1797.  Resigned  in  protest  against  actions  of  the  American  government 
which  he  regarded  as  violations  of  neutrality  in  the  war  then  pending. 

Administrations.     (See  Cabinet.) 

Admiral.  This  grade  in  the  U.  S.  Navy  (as  distinguished  from  vice- 
admiral  and  rear-admiral)  was  first  established  by  Act  of  Congress  on  July 
25,  1866.  There  have  been  but  two  admirals;  Farragut  was  commissioned 
in  1866,  Porter  on  Farragut's  death  in  1870.  On  the  death  of  Admiral  Por- 
ter the  grade  became  extinct  (1891).  It  was  revived  for  Dewey  1899. 

Admiralty  Courts.  In  the  colonial  period  the  governor  of  each  colony 
was  vice-admiral  in  his  colony,  and  as  such  had  the  right  of  deciding  mari- 
time cases,  though  often  a  judge  was  appointed  by  him  for  the  purpose. 
The  Constitution  of  the  United  States  vests  this  jurisdiction  in  the  Federal 
Courts.  The  District  Courts  judge  such  cases  in  the  first  instance.  (See 
Prize  Courts). 


DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  n 

Adventists,  or  Second  Adventists.  About  1833  Wm.  Miller  began  to 
lecture  on  the  second  coming  of  Christ,  predicting  that  it  would  occur  in 
1842.  Other  dates  were  subsequently  set;  but  at  present  the  leaders  of  the 
sect  content  themselves  with  general  prophecy  of  an  early  advent.  In  1890 
the  sect  numbered  60,000  members. 

African  Company,  originating  in  an  association  formed  at  Exeter,  England, 
in  1588,  was  chartered  as  a  joint-stock  company  in  1618.  Under  successive 
charters  it  continued  in  existence  till  1821,  almost  without  interruption.  In 
the  period  before  the  Revolution  it  was  much  engaged  in  the  slave  trade  with 
the  American  colonies. 

Agamenticus  (now  York),  Me.,  one  of  the  settlements  which  :?»ir  Ferdi- 
nando  Gorges  made  as  lord  proprietary  of  the  province  of  Maine.  It  was 
settled  in  1621.  In  1642  it  received  a  charter  of  incorporation,  under  the 
name  of  Gorgeana. 

Agassiz,  Louis  J.  R.,  (1807-1873),  was  born  in  Switzerland.  In  1846 
he  came  to  the  United  States,  and  remained  here  as  professor  of  geology  and 
zoology.  In  both  these  sciences  he  did  work  of  inestimable  value,  and 
exerted  great  influence  upon  their  development  in  America  by  his  enthu- 
siasm, energy  and  organizing  ability. 

Agrarians,  the  name  sometimes  applied  to  the  "  loco-foco "  or  "  equal 
rights"  party  formed  in  1835,  and  which  denounced  special  privileges. 
Later  the  Abolitionists  and  Republicans  were  branded  as  Agrarians  by  the 
pro-slavery  party. 

Agricultural  Colleges.  The  first  important  institution  of  this  sort  in  the 
United  States  was  the  Agricultural  College  of  the  State  of  Michigan,  estab- 
lished in  1857,  though  that  of  Pennsylvania  was  established  in  1854.  The 
Morrill  Act  of  1862  gave  each  State  30,000  acres  of  government  land  or  its 
equivalent,  multiplied  by  the  number  of  the  State's  senators  and  representa- 
tives, to  found  a  college  of  the  agricultural  and  mechanical  arts.  More  than 
forty  institutions  of  this  sort  have  resulted.  In  1890  the  Federal  subvention 
was  increased. 

Agricultural  Experiment  Stations.  The  first  government  station  of  this 
sort  was  established  at  Middletown,  Conn.,  in  1875.  Professor  W.  O.  At- 
water's  success  in  conducting  this  station  led  to  the  establishment  of  others 
in  different  parts  of  the  country.  Nearly  everv  State  has  one  or  more.  In 
1892  there  were  fifty-three  fully  equipped  experimental  stations,  employing 
in  all  about  400  trained  specialists  in  conducting  scientific  investigations. 

Agricultural  Societies.  The  first  in  the  United  States,  the  South  Carolina 
Agricultural  Society,  was  founded  in  1784,  the  Philadelphia  Agricultural 
Society  in  1785,  that  of  New  York  in  1791,  that  of  Massachusetts  in  1792. 
The  first  quasi-national  society  of  this  sort,  the  Columbian  Agricultural 
Society,  originated  in  a  convention  held  in  Washington  in  1809. 

Agriculture,  Department  of,  an  executive  department  of  the  Federal 
government,  the  head  of  which,  the  secretary  of  agriculture,  is  a  member 
of  the  Cabinet.  The  department  was  founded  by  Act  of  May  15, 1862.  It 
was  given  equality  with  the  other  chief  executive  departments  by  the  Act  of 


12  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

February  u,  1889,  and  its  head  became  in  1889  a  member  of  the  Cabinet. 
The  weather  bureau  was  transferred  to  it  from  the  Department  of  War  in  1891. 
Aguinaldo,  half-blood  Philippine,   insurgent  leader,  first  against  Spain, 
then  against  the  United  States. 

Aix-la-Chapelle,  or  Aachen,  in  Rhenish  Prussia,  is  of  importance  in 
American  history  because  of  the  Treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  concluded  in 
1748,  which  ended  the  War  of  the  Austrian  Succession  (King  George's  War). 
The  treaty  restored  Louisbourg  and  Cape  Breton  *x>  the  French,  which  gave 
great  offence  to  the  New  Englanders,  who  had  conquered  these  possessions. 

Akerman,  Amos  T.,  born  in  1823,  was  District-Attorney  for  Georgia  from 
1866  to  1870.  He  was  Attorney-General  of  the  United  States  in  Grant's 
Cabinet  from  1870  to  1872. 

Alabama,  a  Southern  State;  the  ninth  State  admitted  after  the  original 
thirteen.  The  region  occupied  by  the  State  was  originally  a  part  of  the 
territory  of  Georgia,  though  the  southern  portion  was  the  subject  of  dispute 
with  Spain,  and  indeed  with  the  Federal  government.  In  1802  Georgia 
ceded  all  her  western  lands  to  the  latter,  and  what  is  now  Alabama  became 
a  part  of  the  territory  of  Mississippi,  organized  in  1798  (1804).  The  portion 
south  of  lat.  31°  and  west  of  the  river  Perdido  was  acquired  by  seizure  during 
the  war  of  1812.  During  1813  and  1814  occurred  the  war  with  the  Creeks 
(see  art.),  whose  defeat  by  General  Jackson  at  Horse  Shoe  Bend  caused  them 
to  concede  nearly  all  their  territory.  Rapid  settlement  followed.  In  1817 
Mississippi  became  a  State,  the  eastern  portion  of  the  territory  being  erected 
into  the  territory  of  Alabama.  The  name  is  Indian,  and  is  said  to  mean 
•'  Here  we  rest."  The  population  of  the  new  territory,  from  but  33,000  in 
1817,  grew  to  be  128,000  in  1820.  On  December  14,  1819,  it  was  admitted 
as  the  State  of  Alabama.  Of  the  population  mentioned,  86,000  were  whites 
and  42,000  slaves.  Population,  continuing  to  grow  rapidly,  reached  nearly 
a  million  in  1860,  and  in  1890  was  1,513,000.  On  January  u,  1861,  Alabama 
seceded  from  the  Union.  The  act  of  secession  was  revoked  in  1865.  1867-68 
the  State  was  under  military  rule.  In  1868,  under  a  new  constitution,  Ala- 
bama was  declared  by  Congress  to  be  restored  to  the  Union. 

"Alabama,"  Confederate  cruiser,  was  built  by  an  English  firm  at  Liver- 
pool expressly  for  the  Confederacy,  and,  against  the  urgent  remonstrances  of 
the  American  Minister,  was  permitted  by  the  British  government  to  escape 
(July  29,  1862).  At  Terceira  she  received  from  other  English  vessels  her 
armament  and  crew,  and  set  out,  under  Captain  Raphael  Semmes,  to  destroy 
the  commerce  of  the  United  States  (August  29).  By  the  end  of  October  she 
had  made  twenty-seven  prizes.  After  a  long  cruise  in  the  waters  of  the  West 
Indies,  Brazil  and  the  East  Indies,  the  "Alabama  "  came  to  the  harbor  of  f 
Cherbourg,  France.  Off  this  harbor,  after  a  memorable  fight,  she  was  sunk 
by  the  U.  S.  steamship  "  Kearsarge,"  June  19,  1864,  after  having  destroyed 
sixty-five  vessels  and  $10,000,000  worth  of  property. 

"Alabama"  Claims,  claims  of  the  United  States  Government  against  that 
of  Great  Britain,  growing  out  of  the  depredations  of  the  cruiser  "Alabama  " 
and  other  similar  cruisers.  May  13,  1861,  the  Queen  had  issued  a  proclama- 
tion of  neutrality  in  the  American  Civil  War,  forbidding  her  subjects  to  take 
part  with  either  combatant,  and  granting  belligerent  rights  to  both.  Great 
Britain's  Foreign  Enlistment  Act  of  1819  also  forbids  the  equipment  of  any 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  13 

land  «r  nav^l  forces  within  British  dominions  to  operate  against  any  friendly 
nation.  Nevertheless,  the  "  Florida,"  "Alabama,"  "  Georgia,"  "  Shenandoah," 
and  other  vessels  built  in  Great  Britain,  were  allowed  to  escape,  and  as  Con- 
federate cruisers  inflicted  enormous  damage  on  American  commerce,  nearly 
driving  it  from  the  seas.  C.  F.  Adams,  Minister  to  Great  Britain,  protested 
vigorously.  After  the  war  the  United  States  Government  urgently  pressed  a 
claim  for  compensation.  On  January  12,  1866,  it  offered  to  submit  the  whole 
controversy  to  arbitration.  Great  Britain  proposed  limitations  unacceptable 
to  the  United  States.  A  treaty  negotiated  by  Reverdy  Johnson  providing  for 
arbitration  was  rejected  by  the  Senate.  Finally  a  Joint  High  Commission, 
meeting  at  Washington  in  1871,  agreed  upon  the  Treaty  of  Washington, 
which  provided  for  arbitration  of  the  Alabama  claims  and  several  other 
disputed  matters  by  a  board  of  five  arbitrators,  appointed  respectively  by  the 
President  of  the  United  States,  the  Queen  of  England,  the  King  of  Italy, 
the  President  of  Switzerland,  and  the  Emperor  of  Brazil.  Those  appointed 
were,  in  the  above  order,  Mr.  Charles  Francis  Adams,  Sir  Alexander  Cock- 
burn,  Lord  Chief  Justice,  Count  Federigo  Sclopis,  M.  Jacques  Staempfli,  and 
Viscount  Itajuba;  Count  Sclopis  presided.  The  tribunal  met  at  Geneva  on  , 
December  15,  1871.  It  rejected  the  American  claims  for  indirect  damages, 
but  decided  that  the  government  of  Great  Britain  had  been  culpable  in  not 
doing  more  to  prevent  the  sailing  and  success  of  the  cruisers,  and  awarded 
to  the  United  States  the  sum  of  $15,500,000  as  damages. 

Alabama  Historical  Society.  Founded  in  1837  with  its  headquarters  at 
Tuscaloosa,  site  of  the  State  University.  It  has  a  large  membership,  but  a 
poor  library. 

Alamance,  or  Great  Alamance,  a  creek  in  North  Carolina,  tributary  to 
the  river  Haw.  Here,  in  1771,  Governor  Tryon,  with  1000  militia,  defeated 
3000  "  regulators,"  or  rebels  against  the  royal  government,  killing  some  200. 
Out  of  a  large  number  taken  prisoners  six  were  executed  for  high  treason, 
and  the  insurrection  was  suppressed. 

Alamo,  a  fort  at  San  Antonio,  Tex.,  memorable  for  a  siege  and  massacre 
in  1836,  during  the  war  of  Texan  independence  from  Mexico.  Santa  Anna, 
with  from  1500  to  2000  Mexicans,  besieged  140  Texans  in  the  fort  for  two 
weeks.  Finally,  March  6,  the  fort,  desperately  defended,  was  taken  by 
assault,  only  six  of  the  defenders  remaining  alive.  These  six  were  at  once 
butchered  by  order  of  Santa  Anna,  among  them  Colonel  David  Crockett. 

Alaska,  a  territory  of  the  United  States,  formerly  constituting  Russian 
America.  In  1741  Vitus  Bering,  sailing  for  the  Russians,  discovered  the 
range  of  Mt.  St.  Elias.  In  1783  the  Russians  established  a  trading-post  on 
the  island  of  Kadiak.  In  1799,  by  consolidation  of  existing  companies,  the 
Russian-American  Fur  Company  was  organized,  and  from  this  time  to  1862 
enjoyed  a  monopoly  of  trade  in  Alaska  and  the  rule  of  the  country.  By 
treaty  of  March  30,  1867,  the  United  States  bought  Alaska  (area  580,000 
square  miles)  from  Russia,  paying  $7,200,000  In  1884  Alaska  was  organized 
as  a  district,  with  executive  officers  appointed  by  the  President,  but  without 
representative  institutions. 


14  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Albany,  capital  of  New  York.  In  1614  a  trading-post  was  established 
here  by  the  Dutch,  and  called  Fort  Nassau,  later  Fort  Orange,  or  New 
Orange.  When  the  English  took  New  Netherland,  in  1664,  they  changed 
the  name  to  Albany,  in  honor  of  James,  Duke  of  York  and  Albany,  the 
proprietor  of  the  province.  Albany  was  incorporated  as  a  city  in  1686,  was 
the  meeting  place  of  the  first  colonial  convention  in  1754,  and  became  the 
capital  of  the  State  in  1797. 

Albany  Convention,  1754.  At  the  instance  of  the  Lords  of  Trade,  com- 
missioners from  the  colonies  of  New  Hampshire,  Massachusetts,  Rhode 
Island,  Connecticut,  New  York,  Pennsylvania  and  Maryland  met  at  Albany 
on  June  19,  1754,  to  arrange  a  treaty  with  the  Six  Nations.  They  also  pro- 
ceeded to  consider  a  plan  of  colonial  union  proposed  by  Franklin,  a  member, 
and  adopted  it.  It  provided  for  a  president-general  of  all  the  colonies,  with 
veto  power,  and  a  grand  council,  to  consist  of  from  two  to  seven  members 
from  each  colony,  chosen  by  the  assemblies  to  serve  three  years.  These 
should  have  power  to  control  Indian  affairs,  to  raise  and  equip  forces  for 
colonial  defence,  and  to  lay  taxes  therefor.  The  crown  rejected  the  plan 
because  it  gave  too  much  power  to  the  colonies,  the  colonies  because  it  gave 
too  much  power  to  the  crown;  but  it  was  among  the  beginnings  of  national 
union. 

"Albany  Regency,"  a  name  given  to  the  group  of  politicians  who,  from 
1820  to  1854,  managed  the  concerns  of  the  Democratic  party  in  New  York 
State.  Its  power  was  founded  on  the  system  of  nominating  conventions  and 
on  the  system  of  appointment  to  office  as  a  reward  for  partisan  services.  Its 
chief  members  were  Martin  Van  Buren,  William  L.  Marcy,  Silas  Wright, 
Edwin  Croswell,  Benjamin  F.  Butler  and  John  A.  Dix.  Its  position  at  the 
State  Capital  gave  it  its  name. 

Albemarle,  the  first  permanent  settlement  in  what  is  now  North  Caro- 
lina, was  founded  on  the  banks  of  the  Chowan  and  the  Roanoke  by  Roger 
Greene,  in  1653,  at  the  head  of  a  small  body  of  Dissenters  from  Virginia. 

"  Albemarle,"  a  Confederate  ironclad  ram  which,  in  April  and  May,  1864, 
destroyed  or  disabled  several  of  the  Federal  gunboats  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Roanoke  River,  and  captured  Plymouth,  N.  C.,  with  1600  Federal  pris- 
oners. On  the  night  of  October  27,  Lieutenant  Gushing,  U.  S.  N.,  a  youth 
of  twenty-one,  in  command  of  a  torpedo  launch,  getting  within  twenty  yards 
of  the  "  Albemarle  "  before  he  was  discovered,  blew  her  up  with  a  torpedo 
and  made  a  miraculous  escape. 

Albuquerque,  New  Mexico,  an  engagement  in  the  Civil  War,  April  8, 
1862,  the  Federal  Colonel  Canby  attacking  Albuquerque  as  a  part  of  the 
operations  by  which  he  defeated  General  Sibley's  attempt  to  conquer  New 
Mexico  for  the  Confederacy. 

Alcalde,  the  principal  official  in  the  local  government  of  the  earlier  towns 
of  California.  The  office  was  borrowed  from  the  Spanish  settlements,  and 
was  first  introduced  in  the  mining  camps,  where  the  miners  made  laws  and 
elected  officers  to  enforce  them. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  15 

Alcott,  Amos  Bronson  (1799-1888),  a  transcendental  philosopher,  noted 
as  an  original,  ingenious  and  sympathetic  teacher,  and  as  a  lecturer  and 
giver  of  formal  conversations.  Resided  at  Concord  all  his  latter  years.  Was 
the  father  of  Louisa  M.  Alcott. 

Alden,  John  (1599-1687),  the  hero  of  Longfellow's  "Courtship  of  Miles 
Standish,"  accompanied  the  Pilgrims  from  Southampton  as  a  cooper.  The 
youngest  of  the  Pilgrims,  he  afterward  became  a  magistrate  of  the  colony, 
and  was  such  for  more  than  half  a  century. 

Aldie,  Va.,  scene  of  a  fierce  cavalry  fight  in  the  Civil  War,  June  17,  1863, 
Stuart's  Confederate  cavalry  vainly  assailing  a  part  of  Pleasonton's  forces, 
during  the  great  Confederate  invasion  of  the  North. 

Aldrich,  Nelson  W.,  Senator,  born-  1841,  a  business  man,  representative 
from  Rhode  Island  from  1879  to  1881,  was  Senator  from  that  State  from  1881 
to  the  present  time  (1897).  Senator  Aldrich  has  -had  an  important  part  in 
all  recent  financial  legislation,  and  is  an  important  authority  on  all  matters 
of  the  tariff 

"  Alert,"  Sloop.     (See  "  Essex.") 

Alexander  VI.,  Pope  from  1492  to  1503,  (Rodrigo  Borgia),  by  his  bull  of 
partition,  May  4,  1493,  divided  the  non-Christian  world  into  two  parts,  Spain 
to  have  the  western  half  and  Portugal  the  eastern.  The  line  of  division  was 
to  be  a  meridian  100  leagues  west  of  the  Azores  and  Cape  de  Verde  Islands. 
Afterward  (1494)  a  meridian  370  leagues  west  of  the  Cape  de  Verde  Islands 
was  substituted. 

Alexander,  son  of  Massasoit,  King  of  the  Pokanohets,  chief  after  his  father's 
death  in  1660,  died  in  1662  at  Plymouth.  King  Philip  was  his  brother. 

Alexander,  Archibald  (1772-1851),  eminent  Presbyterian  divine,  born 
in  Virginia,  was  president  of  Hampden-Sidney  College  from  1796  to  1801, 
and  from  1812  to  his  death  was  professor  of  theology  in  the  Theological 
Seminary  at  Princeton,  and  highly  influential  in  relation  to  American  theo- 
logical thought. 

Alexander,  Sir  William,  called  Lord  Stirling  (1726—1783),  was  born  in 
New  York  City.  In  1757  he  laid  claim  before  the  House  of  Lords  to  the 
earldom  of  Stirling,  but  in  vain.  He  became  Surveyor-General  of  New  York. 
In  1775  he  became  a  colonel  in  the  Revolutionary  army,  a  brigadier-general 
in  1776,  and  a  major-general  in  1777.  He  distinguished  himself  at  Trenton, 
Brandywine,  Germantown  and  Monmouth. 

Alexandria,  Va.,  was  founded  in  1749.  When  the  District  of  Columbia 
was  formed,  Virginia's  cession  included  this  town.  In  1814  it  was  captured 
and  plundered  by  the  British.  In  1846  it  was  retroceded  to  Virginia.  It 
was  entered  by  the  Union  troops  in  1861  under  Colonel  Ellsworth,  who  was 
shot  while  hauling  down  the  Confederate  flag.  It  subsequently  became  the 
seat  of  government  of  the  Virginian  counties  which  adhered  to  the  Union. 

Alexandria  Conference.  On  March  20,  1785,  two  commissioners  from 
Virginia,  George  Mason  and  Alexander  Henderson,  met  three  from  Maryland, 


1 6  DICTIONARY  o»  UNITBD  STATES  HISTORY. 

Daniel  Jenifer,  Thomas  Stone  and  Samuel  Chase,  at  Alexandria,  commis- 
sioned to  treat  concerning  the  jurisdiction  over  the  waters  between  the  two. 
After  four  days  they  adjourned  to  Mount  Vernon  at  Washington's  request,  and 
separated  on  the  twenty-eighth.  They  discussed  commercial  regulations, 
etc.,  and  their  report  to  the  Virginia  Legislature  caused  the  summons  of  the 
Annapolis  Convention  of  1786  and,  indirectly,  that  of  the  Philadelphia  Con- 
vention of  1787. 

Alexandria  Government.  After  the  secession  of  Virginia,  April  17,  1861, 
the  Union  members  of  her  Legislature,  mostly  from  the  western  part  of  the 
State,  met  at  Wheeling  and  organized  a  State  government,  which  was  recog- 
nized by  Congress  as  the  government  of  Virginia.  Francis  H.  Pierpont  was 
Governor.  After  the  admission  of  West  Virginia  this  Virginia  government 
was  transferred  to  Alexandria.  President  Johnson  recognized  it  as  the  lawful 
government  of  Virginia.  It  continued  in  operation  until  1867. 

Alger,  Russell  A.,  born  1836  in  Ohio.  He  was  a  general  in  the  Union 
Army,  rising  from  the  ranks.  Governor  of  Michigan  1884.  Commander-in- 
chief  of  G.  A.  R.  in  1889.  Became  Secretary  of  War  March  5,  1897;  resigned 
because  of  popular  dissatisfaction,  July  19,  1899. 

Algerine  War.  Following  the  example  of  other  Christian  powers,  in  their 
dealings  with  the  piratical  governments  of  Northern  Africa,  the  United  States 
Government  had,  in  1795,  signed  a  treaty  with  the  Dey  of  Algiers,  paying 
him  a  million  dollars  for  the  ransom  of  American  captives  and  promising  an 
annual  payment  of  tribute.  In  1812  the  Dey  declared  war  against  the  United 
States.  When  the  war  of  1812  with  England  was  ended,  Congress  declared 
war  on  Algiers,  and  Commodore  Decatur,  with  ten  vessels,  sailed  against  her. 
Such  successes  were  obtained  over  the  Algerine  Navy  that  by  the  time 
Decatur  reached  Algiers  the  Dey  was  ready  to  submit.  He  signed  a  treaty 
giving  indemnity,  renouncing  all  claim  to  tributes  or  presents,  and  promising 
not  to  reduce  prisoners  of  war  to  slavery.  Decatur  then  exacted  similar  sub- 
mission from  Tunis  and  Tripoli. 

Algiers.  The  treaty  of  1795  with  Algiers  secured  commercial  privileges 
to  the  United  States  on  the  payment  of  tribute.  By  the  treaty  of  September 
5,  1815,  the  United  States  secured  from  the  Dey  of  Algiers  exemption  from 
tribute  and  release  of  captives  from  slavery,  and  indemnification  for  violation 
of  the  former  treaty.  This  treaty  was  renewed  a  year  later.  All  are  obsolete 
by  France's  absorption  of  Algiers. 

Algonquins,  a  family  of  Indian  tribes,  bearing  a  strong  resemblance  to 
each  other  in  manners  and  customs  and  language,  which  at  the  time  of  the 
beginning  of  English  colonization  numbered  about  a  quarter  of  a  million, 
and  occupied,  beside  part  of  Canada,  most  of  the  area  now  in  the  United 
States  east  of  the  Mississippi  and  north  of  latitude  37°.  They  were  in  the 
hunting-and-fishing  stage,  tilling  little  ground,  and  nomadic.  The  chief 
tribes  in  the  family,  beside  the  Canadian  members,  were  the  Abenakis, 
Massachusetts  tribes,  Pequods,  Narragansetts,  Mohegans,  Delawares,  Nanti- 
cokes,  Powhatan  tribes,  Pampticoes,  Shawnees,  west  of  the  Alleghanies  the 
Chippewas,  Pottawatomies,  Miamis,  Sacs,  Foxes,  Kickapoos  and,  west  of  the 
Mississippi,  the  Blackfeet  and  Cheyenn.es. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  17 

Alien  and  Sedition  Acts,  two  acts  of  Congress,  passed  by  the  Federalists 
in  1798,  under  the  excitement  of  hostile  relations  with  France  and  bitter 
feeling  against  the  influence  of  the  French  Revolution.  The  Alien  Act 
authorized  the  President  to  order  out  of  the  country  all  such  aliens  as  he 
might  judge  to  be  dangerous  to  the  peace  and  safety  of  the  United  States  or  to  be 
plotting  against  them.  The  Sedition  Act  provided  heavy  fines  and  imprison- 
ment for  any  who  should  conspire  to  oppose  the  United  States  Government  or 
laws,  or  who  should  print  or  publish  any  false,  scandalous  or  malicious  writings 
against  the  government,  Congress  or  the  President,  intended  to  bring  disre- 
pute or  hatred  upon  them  or  stir  up  sedition.  These  laws  were  regarded  by 
the  Republican  Party  as  unconstitutional,  and  subversive  of  the  liberty  of 
the  press  and  of  speech,  and  were  denounced  in  the  Kentucky  and  Virginia 
Resolutions.  They  expired  in  1800  and  1801  respectively. 

Allatoona,  Ga.  During  Sherman's  march  to  the  sea  the  Confederates  on 
October  5,  1864,  attacked  Allatoona,  where  General  Corse  repulsed  them  after 
an  heroic  and  desperate  defence,  losing  one-third  of  his  garrison. 

Allen,  Ethan  (1737-1789),  born  in  Connecticut,  removed  in  early  life 
to  Vermont,  and  was  for  the  remainder  of  his  life  its  most  conspicuous 
citizen.  He  had  an  active  part  in  the  resistance  of  the  "  Green  Mountain 
Boys"  to  the  New  York  government.  May  10,  1775,  with  a  small  force  he 
captured  Ticonderoga  from  the  British.  Crown  Point  and  Skenesborough 
were  also  taken.  For  three  years  ensuing  Allen  was  a  captive  with  the  British. 

Allen,  Ira  (1752-1814),  brother  of  Ethan,  served  in  the  Revolution  and 
was  the  first  secretary  of  the  State  of  Vermont,  also  its  treasurer  and  sur- 
veyor-general. Wrote  a  history  of  Vermont  (1798). 

Allen,  William  Henry  (1784-1813),  was  first  lieutenant  of  the  "United 
States  "  under  Decatur  when  she  captured  the  "  Macedonian  "  in  1812.  As 
commander  of  the  "  Argus  "  he  distinguished  himself  by  taking  many  prizes, 
but  was  killed  in  the  fight  with  the  "  Pelican." 

Allen's  Farm,  one  of  the  actions  in  the  "Seven  Days,"  June  29,  1862. 
The  Federal  General  Sumner,  having  bivouacked  at  Allen's  Farm  on  his 
retreat  from  Fair  Oaks,  was  attacked  here  for  two  hours  by  the  Confederate 
General  Magruder. 

Allerton,  Isaac  (1583-1659),  an  important  member  of  the  company  who 
came  on  the  "  Mayflower,"  and  often  business  agent  of  the  Pilgrims.  Subse- 
quently disagreeing  with  them,  lived  at  New  Amsterdam  and  New  Haven.  , 

Alliance.  The  only  important  alliance  made  by  the  United  States  was 
that  with  France,  made  by  the  treaty  of  February  6,  1778.  Since  1776 
France  had  privately  aided  the  Revolution  with  arms  and  supplies.  The 
two  treaties  of  1778  provided  for  a  defensive  alliance  in  case  Great  Britain 
should  declare  war  on  France,  and  declared  that  no  peace  should  be  made 
until  the  independence  of  the  United  States  was  recognized,  and  then  only 
by  mutual  consent.  Each  party  guaranteed  the  other's  possessions  in  Amer- 
ica, and  the  United  States  granted  to  France,  when  France  was  at  war,  more 
favorable  treatment  than  should  be  accorded  to  the  other  belligerent.  These 


1 8  DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

concessions  were  subsequently  troublesome  to  the  United  States  in  1793.   (See 
art.  "France.") 

"  Alliance,"  United  States  vessel,  took  part  in  the  cruise  of  John  Paul 
Jones  and  the  "  Bonhomme  Richard,"  and  was  one  of  the  two  ships  remain- 
ing in  the  Continental  service  when  the  Revolutionary  war  ended. 

Alliance,  Holy,  the  name  given  to  an  alliance  of  the  absolute  sovereigns 
of  the  Continent,  concluded  in  1815  at  the  instance  of  Czar  Alexander  I. 
Its  object  was  the  government  of  Europe  by  mutual  concert  based  on  the 
profession  of  Christian  brotherhood.  It  ultimately  tended  toward  the  repres- 
sion of  all  liberal  and  revolutionary  opposition  to  the  existing  political 
order.  In  1823  the  King  of  Spain  invoked  the  aid  of  the  other  powers  in 
suppressing  the  revolt  of  his  South  American  colonies.  President  Monroe's 
enunciation  of  the  "  Monroe  Doctrine,"  in  his  message  of  December,  1823, 
was  a  reply  to  this  threatened  movement. 

Allison,  William  B.,  Senator,  was  born  in  Ohio  in  1829.  He  was  a 
delegate  to  the  Chicago  Convention  of  1860,  a  Congressman  from  Iowa  from 
1862  to  1871,  and  a  Senator  from  1873  to  the  present  time  (1897).  He  nas 
several  times  been  a  prominent  candidate  for  the  Republican  nomination  for 
President,  and  is  a  high  authority  on  all  matters  of  national  finance. 

Allston,  "Washington  (1779-1843),  one  of  the  chief  early  American  artists, 
studied  and  painted  in  Europe  from  1801  to  1818,  after  which  he  resided 
in  Boston  and  Cambridge.  He  chiefly  painted  Scriptural  subjects,  and  was 
eminent  as  a  colorist. 

Almanacs.  The  first  published  in  this  country  appeared  at  Cambridge, 
Mass.,  in  1639.  It  was  compiled  by  William  Pierce,  mariner,  and  printed 
by  Stephen  Daye,  and  was  called  An  Almanac  Calculated  for  New  Eng- 
land. It  was-  the  first  book  printed  in  the  colonies.  The  first  Boston 
almanac  was  published  by  John  Foster  in  1676.  In  Philadelphia  the  first 
appeared  in  1686,  edited  by  Daniel  Leeds,  and  printed  by  William  Bradford. 
In  1697,  J.  Clapp  published  an  almanac  in  New  York.  Beginning  with 
1700,  Samuel  Clough  published  the  New  England  Almanac  at  Boston  for 
eight  years.  It  bore  the  traditional  woodcut,  professing  to  show  what  parts 
of  a  man's  body  are  governed  by  the  moon,  etc.;  it  foretold  the  weather, 
eclipses  of  the  year,  etc.  Nathaniel  Ames*  Astronomical  Diary  and  Almanac 
started  at  Boston  in  1725,  and  continued  half  a  century,  with  a  circulation 
of  60,000.  Poor  Richard's  Almanac,  by  Richard  Saunders  (Benjamin  Frank- 
lin), continued  by  others  as  Poor  Richard  Improved,  was  issued  from  1733  to 
1786.  It  was  filled  with  homely  maxims  and  pithy  proverbial  counsels  and 
was  very  popular.  Other  early  almanacs  were:  Father  Abraham's  Almanac, 
Philadelphia,  1759-1799;  Isaiah  Thomas'  Massachusetts,  Connecticut,  Rhode 
Island,  New  Hampshire  and  Vermont  Almanac,  Worcester  and  Boston,  1775— 
1822;  Webster's  Calendar,  or  the  Albany  Almanac,  1784,  the  oldest  family 
almanac  published  extant  in  the  United  States;  the  Virginia  Almanac,  Wil- 
liamsburgand  Richmond,  1751-1829;  South  Carolina  and  Georgia  Almanac, 
Charleston,  1760-1800;  Gruber's  Town  and  Country  Almanac,  Hagerstown, 
Md.,  1822-1877.  Political  almanacs  began  with  the  Whig  Almanac,  issued 
by  Horace  Greeley  1838-1855,  continued  since  as  the  Tribune  Almanac. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  19 

The  World  Almanac  began  1868,  the  Herald  Almanac  1872.  The  National 
Calendar  edited  by  Peter  Force  at  Washington,  1820-1836,  was  an  exten- 
sive publication  of  general  information. 

"Alta  California,"  a  weekly  publication  established  at  San  Francisco, 
January  3,  1849,  ^Y  Samuel  Brannan.  It  was  the  first  newspaper  of  any 
importance  issued  in  California,  and  arose  from  a  consolidation  of  the  older 
journals,  the  Star,  and  the  Monterey  Californian.  The  daily  publication  of 
this  paper  was  commenced  in  1850.  It  is  published  at  the  present  time 
under  the  original  name. 

Altamont,  Tenn.  On  August  30,  1862,  when  Bragg  was  about  invading 
Kentucky,  the  outposts  of  General  McCook's  division  were  attacked  at  Alta- 
mont by  the  Confederate  General  Wheeler.  McCook  retired. 

Alton,  111.  In  1836  Elijah  P.  Lovejoy,  an  Abolitionist  clergyman,  began 
to  publish  an  anti-slavery  paper  here.  His  press  was  twice  destroyed  by  a 
pro-slavery  mob.  While  defending  his  premises  against  a  third  attack  in 
November,  1837,  he  was  shot  and  mortally  wounded. 

Amana,  a  communistic  society  owning  25,000  acres  of  land  seventy- 
four  miles  west  of  Davenport,  la.  The  society  was  founded  by  some  Ger- 
man emigrants,  who  settled  near  Buffalo  in  1842.  In  1855  they  moved  to 
their  present  home.  The  present  society,  numbering  about  1500,  is  com- 
posed almost  entirely  of  Germans,  with  a  few  Swiss  and  Pennsylvania 
Dutch.  The  base  of  its  organization  is  religion;  they  are  pietists  and  their 
religious  head  is  supposed  to  receive  inspiration  directly  from  God,  hence 
they  call  themselves  "  Inspirationists."  The  name  Amana  is  taken  from  the 
Song  of  Solomon,  iv.  8. 

Ambassador.  Though  the  term  ambassador  was  used  occasionally  in 
respect  to  the  first  diplomatic  appointments  made  by  the  Continental  Con- 
gress, from  that  time  on,  in  accordance  with  the  usual  practice  of  republics, 
the  United  States  have  appointed  no  diplomatic  representative  of  higher  rank 
than  envoys.  In  1893,  however,  the  higher  grade  was  authorized  by  act  of 
Congress,  and  Thomas  F.  Bayard  was  made  Ambassador  to  Great  Britain. 
Ambassadors  were  also  appointed  to  France,  Germany,  Italy  and  Russia. 

Ambrister,  a  native  of  New  Providence  and  an  ex-lieutenant  of  British 
marines,  who,  together  with  Arbuthnot,  a  Scotch  trader,  was  captured  by 
Andrew  Jackson,  April  17,  1818,  during  his  campaign  against  the  Seminole 
Indians  in  Florida.  These  men  were  in  league  with  the  Indians  in  their 
raids  against  the  States.  They  were  both  tried  before  an  American  court 
martial,  Ambrister  pleading  guilty  and  begging  mercy.  Ambrister  was  shot 
and  Arbuthnot  hanged,  though  Bj.it;sh  citizens. 

Amelia  Island,  Ga.,  was  colonized  by  settlers  under  General  Oglethorpe 
in  1736.     In  1739  a  party  of  vSpaniards  landed  on  the  island  and  kt  auct.4iwo 
unarmed  Highlanders.     This  was  the  first  blood  shed   itfo^  recovery    allegin< 
After  the  prohibition  of  the  slave  irade  in  1808  the  isl.'toriai  Court  of  Florida 
resort   for   pirates,   smugglers   and   slave-traders,   until  ia  court  a  nunity.    Th 
Monroe  suppressed  them.  .  Territorial  Court  an< 

also   confirmed  by  th 


ao  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Amendments.  It  was  one  of  the  chief  defects  of  the  Articles  of  Con- 
federation that  they  provided  no  means  for  their  amendment  save  by  unani- 
mous consent  of  the  thirteen  States.  Three  proposals  of  amendment  which 
would  have  usefully  strengthened  the  articles,  failed  of  obtaining  this  unani- 
mous consent.  The  Convention  of  1787,  summoned  to  amend  the  articles, 
made  a  new  constitution  instead.  This  provided  for  amendment  on  proposal 
by  two-thirds  of  both  Houses  of  Congress  or  by  a  convention,  if  ratification 
were  secured  from  three-fourths  of  the  States,  through  legislatures  or  con- 
ventions. In  fact,  all  have  come  from  Congress  and  been  ratified  by  State 
legislatures.  In  1788  several  States,  beginning  with  Massachusetts,  suggested 
amendments  when  ratifying  the  Constitution.  Hence  came,  in  the  first 
Congress,  the  proposals  which  brought  into  existence  the  first  ten  amend- 
ments. Of  many  proposed,  only  fifteen  amendments  have  been  ratified 
since  the  adoption  of  the  Constitution.  The  first  ten  were  ratified  December 
15,  1791.  They  relate  respectively  to  i,  freedom  of  religion,  speech  and  the 
press;  2,  the  right  to  establish  State  militia;  3,  the  quartering  of  troops  in 
private  houses;  4,  the  security  of  persons  against  unwarrantable  searches  and 
seizures;  5,  capital  crime;  6,  criminal  prosecutions;  7,  trial  by  jury  in  com- 
mon-law cases;  8,  bails,  fines  and  punishments;  9,  the  relation  of  constitu- 
tional and  natural  rights;  10,  powers  reserved  to  the  States.  The  series  is 
.thus  of  the  nature  of  a  bill  of  rights.  The  Eleventh  Amendment  was  ratified 
January  8,  1798.  Under  its  provisions  no  citizen  or  citizens  of  a  State 
of  the  Union,  or  of  a  foreign  State,  can  prosecute  a  suit  against  any  other 
State  of  the  Union  in  a  Federal  court.  This  relieves  the  dignity  of  the 
State,  but  weakens  the  power  of  justice  toward  a  citizen,  and  facilitates  repu- 
diation by  States.  The  Twelfth  Amendment  was  ratified  September  25,  1804, 
and  settled  a  new  method  of  electing  the  president  and  vice-president. 
Under  its  provisions,  electors,  chosen  by  the  people,  meet  in  their  respective 
States  and  vote  for  the  two  highest  officers  by  distinct  ballots.  If  no  candi- 
date obtains  a  majority  the  House  of  Representatives  elects  a  president  by 
ballot  from  among  the  candidates.  The  Thirteenth  Amendment  was  ratified 
by  December  18,  1865.  It  provided  that  slavery  should  not  exist  within  the 
United  States  and  that  Congress  should  make  legislative  appropriation  for 
the  enforcement  of  the  article.  This  amendment  was  ratified  by  nineteen 
loyal  States  and  eight  of  thpse  engaged  in  the  Rebellion.  The  Fourteenth 
Amendment  was  ratified  July  21,  1868.  It  forbade  the  States  to  abridge  the 
privileges  of  citizens  of  the  Union,  diminished  representation  in  case  the 
suffrage  was  thus  restricted,  closed  offices  to  all  persons  who  had  engaged  in 
insurrection  or  rebellion,  and  acknowledged  the  public  debt.  The  Fifteenth 
Amendment  was  ratified  March  30,  1870.  It  affirms  that  "the  right  of 
citizens  of  the  United  States  to  vote  shall  not  be  denied  or  abridged  by  the 
United  States,  or  by  any  State,  on  account  of  race,  color  or  previous  con- 
dition of  servitude." 

Aj*affac  p  so  called  after  Amerigo  Vespucci,  who  claimed  to  have  first 
-^Yiamsburg  and  "kicked  the  coast  of  the  mainland  in  1497-98.  The  name 
Charleston,  I76o-i£rom  a  little  publication,  entitled  Cosmographiae  Intro- 
Md.,  1822-1877.  Pied  by  two  scholars,  Ringmann  and  Waldseemuller,  at 
by  Horace  Greeley  >t.  Die"  in  the  Vosges  country.  Ringmann  is  said  to 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTOB.Y.  ai 

have  been  an  ardent  admirer  of  Vespucius,  and  to  have  inserted  in  his  pub- 
lication the  four  voyages  of  Vespucius.  Tross,  a  bookseller  of  Paris,  pro- 
duced in  1881  a  map  dating  as  far  back  as  1517,  on  which  the  name 
"  America  "  appears.  It  is  also  found  on  Schoner's  globe  of  1515,  and  seems 
to  have  been  generally  adopted  from  these. 

American  Antiquarian  Society,  founded  by  Isaiah  Thomas  at  Worces- 
ter, Mass.,  in  1812  for  the  purpose  of  illustrating  the  antiquities  of  the  New 
World  as  a  separate  department  of  history.  It  has  published  several  volumes 
of  collections  and  of  proceedings,  including  the  "  Archaeologia  Americana." 

American  Archives,  a  valuable  collection  of  documentary  materials 
respecting  the  events  leading  up  to  the  Revolution.  This  publication  was 
begun  by  Peter  Force  at  Washington  in  1833—34,  under  instructions  from 
the  government.  It  contains  letters,  debates,  notices  of  public  affairs,  and 
essays  on  constitutional  government,  the  whole  forming  a  complete  docu- 
mentary history  of  the  colonies.  The  publication  had  included  only  nine 
volumes  when  appropriations  ceased.  Congress  has  never  since  continued 
this  invaluable  repertory. 

American  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science,  the  most  import- 
ant among  American  scientific  societies.  Its  organization  was  effected  at 
Boston  in  1847.  Meetings  have  been  held  each  year  in  some  American  city. 

American  Board  of  Commissioners  for  Foreign  Missions,  the  oldest 
missionary  society  in  the  United  States,  organized  June  29,  1810.  It  is  an 
incorporated  body  with  250  members,  and  supports  over  500  missionaries  and 
many  schools  in  Europe,  America,  Asia,  Africa  and  the  Pacific  Islands. 

American  Historical  Association,  founded  at  Saratoga  in  1884,  was  incor- 
porated by  Congress  in  1889.  It  is  now  affiliated  with  the  Smithsonian 
Institution,  and  its  papers  are  published  by  Government.  •  Its  meetings  have 
mostly  been  held  in  Washington.  It  numbers  (1899)  about  noo  members. 

American  Historical  Society,  founded  in  Washington  in  1836.  Its 
meetings  were  held  in  the  House  of  Representatives  at  the  Capitol,  and  the 
first  president  was  John  Quincy  Adams.  It  published  one  volume  of  trans- 
actions. 

American  Institute,  a  New  York  institution  founded  in  1828  to  promote 
domestic  industry.  A  charter  was  granted  by  the  State  Legislature.  Annual 
exhibitions  showing  the  progress  of  industry,  invention  and  manufacture 
have  been  held. 

American  Insurance  Company  vs.  Canter,  an  important  case  in  the 
U.  S.  Supreme  Court,  decided  in  1828.  An  insured  cargo  of  cotton,  wrecked 
on  the  coast  of  Florida,  was,  by  a  decree  of  a  territorial  court,  sold  to  satisfy 
the  claim  for  salvage.  The  owners  abandoned 'the  cargo  to  the  underwriters. 
Canter,  having  bought  portions  of  the  cargo,  sold  the  same  at  auction  in 
Charleston.  The  insurance  company  brought  suit  for  recovery,  alleging 
unconstitutionality  and  want  of  authority  in  the  Territorial  Court  of  Florida. 
The  district  judge  pronounced  the  decree  of  the  Florida  court  a  nullity.  The 
Circuit  Court,  however,  confirmed  the  decree  of  the  Territorial  Court  and 
maintained  Canter's  claims.  This  judgment  was  also  confirmed  by  the 


22  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States  on  the  ground  that  the  act  of  the  Terri- 
torial Legislature  of  Florida,  in  erecting  the  Territorial  Court,  was  not  incon- 
sistent with  the  laws  of  the  United  States,  and  was  therefore  valid.  The 
opinion  of  the  court  is  of  importance  because  of  Judge  Marshall's  decision 
respecting  the  basis  of  the  government  of  territories. 

American  Party.  Hostility  to  the  political  influence  of  foreigners  showed 
itself  in  the  formation  of  small  and  local  nativist  parties  in  New  York  and 
Philadelphia  in  1835  and  1844.  About  1852,  when  the  old  parties,  Democratic 
and  Whig,  were  obviously  in  a  state  of  dissolution  or  re-formation,  and  when 
immigration  had  taken  on  large  proportions,  nativism  revived.  A  secret, 
oath-bound  fraternity,  with  numerous  lodges,  and  with  conventions  which 
made  nominations  secretly,  attained  sudden  importance.  From  the  pro- 
fessions of  ignorance  with  which  its  members  met  all  questioning,  they  were 
called  "  Know-nothings."  In  1854  the  Know-nothings  carried  Massachusetts 
and  Delaware;  in  1855,  most  of  New  England,  New  York,  Maryland,  Ken- 
tucky and  California,  and  polled  a  large  vote  in  the  South,  mainly  from 
former  Whigs.  Their  platform  demanded  more  severe  naturalization  laws 
and  the  selection  of  none  but  natives  for  office.  In  national  convention  at 
Philadelphia  in  February,  1856,  they  nominated  ex-President  Millard  Fill- 
more  for  the  Presidency,  and  A.  J.  Donelson,  of  Tennessee,  for  Vice-President. 
But  the  slavery  issue  thrust  all  others  aside,  and  the  ticket  received  but 
874,534  votes  in  a  total  of  over  4,000,000,  and  but  eight  electoral  votes, 
those  of  Maryland.  The  party  soon  died  out,  though  the  Constitutional 
Union  party  of  1860  was  in  a  way  its  successor.  Recently  the  American 
Protective  League  and  other  similar  organizations  have  revived  the  nativist 
programme. 

American  Philosophical  Society,  oldest  among  the  American  academies 
founded  and  conducted  for  the  furtherance  of  science.  It  was  established  at 
Philadelphia  in  1743  by  Benjamin  Franklin  and  his  associates.  Between 
the  years  1771  and  1894  this  society  has  published  a  series  of  its  Transac- 
tions, numbering  about  twenty-five  volumes,  and  about  twenty  volumes  of 
Proceedings.  These  volumes  contain  valuable  papers  upon  a  great  variety 
of  subjects. 

American  Republican  Party,  formed  in  New  York  in  1842,  as  the  suc- 
cessor of  the  Native  American  Party  of  1835.  They  demanded  that  public 
offices  should  be  filled  only  by  native  Americans,  and  that  naturalization 
should  not  be  allowed  until  after  a  sojourn  of  twenty-one  years  in  the 
country.  It  was  a  precursor  of  the  Know-Nothing  Party. 

"American  Weekly  Mercury,"  the  third  newspaper  published  in  the 
United  States.  This  journal  was  founded  by  Andrew  Bradford,  the  first 
numbers  appearing  in  Philadelphia  in  1719.  William  Bradford  was  also  an 
associate  editor  for  a  time,  but  he  afterward  removed  to  New  York  to  continue 
his  journalistic  career.  After  Andrew  Bradford's  death  in  1742,  the  publi- 
cation of  the  Mercury  was  continued  with  considerable  success  by  his  widow. 
Its  general  object  was  the  "  encouragement  of  trade,"  little  space  being  devoted 
to  local  news.  Foreign  news,  commercial  statistics  and  custom  house  entries 


DISCOVERERS  AND   EXPLORERS. 

Sir  Henry   Hudson.                                                            Hernando  Cortez.  Amerigo  Vespucci. 

Fernando  de  Soto.                                        Christopher  Columbus.  Sebastian  Cabot. 

Jacques  Cartier,                                                   Robert  Cavelier  de  la  Salle.  Ponce  de  Leon. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  23 

constituted  its  chief  matter,  although  there  were  occasional  literary  comments 
and  extracts  from  English  classics.     Publication  was  suspended  about  1746, 

American  Whigs,  the  first  political  party  of  America,  came  into  exist- 
ence in  the  struggles  preceding  the  Revolution.  They  resisted  the  arbitrary 
measures  of  King  George  III,  and  declared  their  independence  of  him.  They 
opposed  the  Tories,  the  supporters  of  the  crown  in  America,  and  after  the 
Revolution  confiscated  the  property  of  banished  Tories. 

Americus  Vespucius,  Latinized  from  Amerigo  Vespucci  (1452-1512), 
was  born  at  Florence.  He  engaged  in  trade  in  the  employ  of  the  house  of 
Medici,  and  became  known  as  an  expert  astronomer,  calculator  and  map- 
maker.  He  made  four  voyages  to  America,  two  in  the  Spanish,  and  two  in 
the  Portuguese  service,  and  acted  as  the  sailing-master.  The  first  voyage  in 
1497-98  was  until  recently  confounded  with  the  second  voyage  made  in  1499- 
1500  along  the  northern  coast  of  South  America.  In  1501-02  he  visited  the 
Brazilian  coast,  and  in  1503-04  sailed  in  the  same  direction.  He  was  pilot- 
major  of  Spain  from  1508  till  his  death  at  Seville.  To  the  region  of  his 
Brazilian  discoveries  he  gave  the  name  of  Mundus  Novus.  This  was  consid- 
ered to  be  a  Quarto,  Pars,  a  "  fourth  part,"  added  to  the  previously  known 
world  of  the  old  maps;  and  a  teacher  of  geography,  Waldeesmiiller,  in  the 
town  of  St.  Die,  in  Lorraine,  proposed  in  1507  the  name  America  for  the 
Quarta  Pars.  His  little  treatise,  Cosmographiae  Introductio,  spread  the  sug- 
gestion, and  the  name  America  came  gradually  to  be  transferred  from  Brazil 
to  the  entire  Continent. 

Ames,  Fisher  (1758—1808),  was  born  at  Dedham,  Mass.  He  was  grad- 
uated at  Harvard,  and  soon  acquired  a  brilliant  reputation  as  a  lawyer  and 
political  writer.  He  served  in  the  Massachusetts  Legislature,  and  made  his 
mark  in  the  convention  which  met  in  1788  to  ratify  the  Federal  Constitution. 
From  1789  to  1797  he  was  Congressman  from  Massachusetts,  and  achieved 
widespread  fame  as  a  Federalist  leader  and  eloquent  orator.  Failing  health 
compelled  his  retirement  from  public  life,  and  he  refused  the  presidency  of 
Harvard  College. 

Ames,  Oakes  (1804-1873),  of  Massachusetts,  manufacturer.  His  firm 
carried  on  an  enormous  business  in  the  manufacture  of  shovels,  especially 
in  the  early  days  of  the  gold-finding  in  California  and  Australia.  They  had 
a  large  interest  in  the  building  of  the  Union  Pacific  Railroad,  which  they 
transferred  to  the  Credit  Mobilier.  He  was  a  member  of  Congress  from  1862 
to  1873.  He  was  censured  by  the  House  for  his  connection  with  the  Credit 
Mobilier  scandal. 

Amherst,  Jeffrey,  Lord  (1717-1797),  soldier,  was  commissioned  major- 
general  by  Pitt  and  sent  to  co-operate  with  Prideaux  against  the  French  in 
Canada.  Took  Ticonderoga  in  1759.  In  1760  he  was  appointed  Governor- 
General  of  British  America;  in  1763  titular  Governor  of  Virginia;  and  from 
1793  to  1795,  commander-in-chief  of  the  British  army. 

Amherst  College  was  founded  by  the  Congregationalists  in  1821.  Its 
most  famous  presidents  were  Edward  Hitchcock  and  Julius  H.  Seelye. 


24  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Amidas  or  Amadas,  Philip  (1550-1618),  English  navigator,  in  1584 
commanded  one  of  the  ships  in  Raleigh's  exploring  expedition  to  the  coast 
of  North  Carolina. 

Amistad  Case,  The.  In  1839  the  cargo  of  negro  slaves  on  board  this 
Spanish  vessel  bound  for  Puerto  Principe  from  Havana,  rose  and  killed  the 
whites  and  took  possession  of  the  ship.  The  ship  was  seized  by  a  U.  S.  war 
vessel  off  Long  Island  and  carried  to  New  London.  The  U.  S.  District 
Court  of  Connecticut  decided  that  the  slaves  were  "property  rescued  from 
pirates"  and  should  be  returned  to  their  Spanish  owners,  under  the  treaty 
between  the  United  States  and  Spain.  The  Supreme  Court  of  the  United 
States  reversed  this  decision,  declaring  that  the  blacks,  having  been  kidnapped 
from  a  foreign  country,  were  free  men  and  not  bound  by  treaties  with  Spain. 

Amnesty.  In  1862  Congress  authorized  the  President  to  offer  full  pardon 
to  all  persons,  excepting  the  most  prominent  movers  in  the  Rebellion,  who 
would  swear  an  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  United  States.  President  Lincoln 
issued  the  first  proclamation  of  amnesty  December  8,  1863.  On  March  26, 
1864,  a  supplementary  proclamation  was  issued.  The  next  proclamation 
was  issued  by  President  Johnson  May  29,  1865.  A.  bill  was  passed  in  1867 
repealing  the  act  of  1862,  but  President  Johnson  ignored  it,  adhering  to  his 
constitutional  right  to  pardon.  On  September  7,  1867,  President  Johnson 
issued  another  proclamation  extending  pardon  to  all  but  a  few  classes.  July 
4,  1868,  pardon  was  offered  for  treason  to  all,  except  those  under  indictment, 
and  December  25,  1868,  full  amnesty  to  all.  The  Congressional  Act  of  May 
22,  1872,  removed  political  disability  from  all  but  the  most  prominent 
Confederates. 

Ampudia,  Pedro  de,  Mexican  soldier.  As  a  general  in  the  war  with 
the  United  States,  he  unsuccessfully,  but  with  great  spirit,  defended  Monterey 
against  General*  Taylor. 

"Amy  Warwick,"  a  vessel  belonging  to  persons  living  in  Richmond,  and 
captured  July  10,  1861,  by  the  U.  S.  cruisers  as  "enemy's  property."  The 
vessel  was  at  the  time  of  capture  on  the  high  seas  from  Rio  Janeiro  to 
Richmond,  laden  with  tobacco  and  not  attempting  to  run  the  blockade. 
This  capture  first  distinctly  raised  the  question  of  the  right  of  the  United 
States  to  exercise  war  powers  in  suppressing  the  Confederacy. 

Anarchists.  The  Anarchists  of  the  United  States  are  almost  entirely 
foreign  born.  Chief  and  best  known  among  them  is  Johann  Most,  who 
edited  the  Anarchist  paper  Freiheit.  Their  greatest  strength  is  in  Chicago, 
where  they  incited  a  serious  riot  May  4,  1886.  Several  leaders  were  executed 
and  others  were  imprisoned,  but  were  pardoned  in  1893  ky  Governor  Altgeld, 
of  Illinois.  Popular  reaction  since  1886  has  done  much  to  decrease  Anarch- 
istic tendencies. 

Anatomy  Laws.  Massachusetts  in  1784  passed  an  act  providing  that  the 
bodies  of  those  killed  in  duels  or  executed  for  killing  another  in  a  duel 
should  be  given  to  the  surgeons  to  be  dissected.  New  York  in  1789  passed 
a  law  punishing  the  disinterment  of  bodies  for  purposes  of  anatomy.  Mass- 
achusetts in  1831  passed  the  first  liberal  law  for  the  benefit  of  anatomy 


DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  25 

passed  in  any  English-speaking  country,  giving  to  the  surgeons  the  bodies 
of  criminals  and  of  State  paupers  who  died  without  leaving  relatives.  But 
the  New  York  law  of  1789  had  given  judges  the  power  to  order  the  dissec- 
tion of  executed  criminals  as  a  part  of  their  sentence.  Most  States  have 
since  1831  passed  acts  more  or  less  liberal  to  authorize  dissection. 

Anderson,  Joseph  (1757-1837),  was  a  captain  at  the  battle  of  Mon- 
mouth  and  the  siege  of  Yorktown.  Was  U.  S.  Senator  from  Tennessee  from 
1797  to  1815. 

Anderson,  Martin  B.  (1815-1890),  of  New  York,  educator,  was  for  some 
time  a  professor  in  Waterville  College,  and  from  1853  was  president  of 
Rochester  University. 

Anderson,  Mary,  born  in  1859,  actress,  first  appeared  on  the  stage  as  Juliet 
in  1875;  was  always  a  great  favorite  in  the  Un.^ed  States  and  has  been  well 
received  in  England.  She  married  Antonio  de  Navarro,  and  retired  in  1889. 

Anderson,  Rasmus  Bjbrn,  born  in  1846,  of  Wisconsin,  author,  was  pro- 
fessor of  Scandinavian  languages  from  1875  to  1884.  He  was  appointed 
minister  to  Denmark  in  1885,  and  served  until  1889. 

Anderson,  Richard  H.  (1816—1879),  soldier,  a  graduate  of  West  Point, 
served  in  the  Mexican  War.  Joined  the  Confederates  in  1861;  became  lieu- 
tenant-general, and  commanded  a  division  at  Gettysburg. 

Anderson,  Robert  (1805-1871),  of  Kentucky,  soldier,  served  in  the  Black 
Hawk,  Florida  and  Mexican  Wars.  He  was  severely  wounded  at  Molino 
del  Rey.  In  November,  1860,  he  took  command  of  the  troops  and  forts  in 
Charleston  Harbor.  In  December  he  withdrew  all  his  troops  to  Fort  Sumter, 
which,  after  a  bombardment  of  thirty-six  hours  by  the  Confederates,  he  was 
compelled  to  evacuate  April  13,  1861. 

Anderson,  Fort,  North  Carolina,  was  garrisoned  in  1865  by  6000  Confed- 
erates under  Hoke.  February  18  it  was  assaulted  by  fifteen  Federal  war 
vessels  commanded  by  Admiral  Porter  and  by  a  land  force  under  Schofield 
and  Terry.  The  attack  from  land  and  sea  was  simultaneous.  The  garrison 
fled  almost  immediately,  leaving  ten  heavy  guns  and  much  ammunition. 
The  national  flag  was  raised  the  next  day. 

Anderson  Case.  A  negro  named  Anderson  was  found  by  Seneca  Diggs 
wandering  about  his  plantation  in  Missouri  without  a  pass,  whereupon  Mr. 
Diggs  arrested  him  as  a  fugitive  slave.  Anderson  plunged  a  knife  into  his 
captor's  heart  and  escaped,  making  his  way  to  Canada,  where  he  remained 
until  1860,  when  the  American  government  demanded  that  he  be  given  up 
under  the  extradition  treaty.  Anderson  was  tried  and  discharged  on  a 
technical  point.  The  eloquent  speech  of  Mr.  Gerrit  Smith,  the  defendant's 
counsel,  attracted  widespread  attention. 

Anderson  vs.  Dunn  (1821),  an  action  of  trespass,  brought  for  assault 
and  battery  and  false  imprisonment  against  Dunn,  sergeant-at-arms  of  the 
House  of  Representatives,  by  Anderson,  a  member  of  the  House,  who  was 
arrested  by  order  of  the  House  for  a  breach  of  privilege.  The  Supreme 


26  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Court  decided  that  the  Constitution  authorizes  the  House  to  punish  its  mem- 
bers for  contempt,  and  judgment  was  affirmed  for  the' defendant. 

Anderson ville,  Sumter  County,  Georgia,  site  of  a  Confederate  military 
prison  for  Federal  soldiers  during  the  Civil  War.  The  mortality  of  this 
prison  was  very  great,  12,926  soldiers  dying  there.  Henry  Wirtz,  a  Swiss 
adventurer,  the  superintendent  of  the  prison,  was  tried,  after  the  war,  by  a 
military  commission  and  hung  for  excessive  cruelty,  November  10,  1865. 
As  to  the  culpability  of  the  Confederate  government,  opposite  views  have 
been  maintained.  Andersonville  is  now  the  site  of  a  national  cemetery  for 
Union  soldiers. 

Andre,  John  (1751-1780),  acting  adjutant-general  to  Sir  .Henry  Clinton, 
and  the  unfortunate  victim  of  Arnold's  treason.  After  varied  experiences  in 
the  Revolutionary  War  he  was  sent  by  Clinton  to  arrange  with  Benedict 
Arnold  the  details  of  the  latter's  projected  treachery.  The  two  conferred  in 
secret  near  Stony  Point,  on  the  Hudson,  and  Andre  started  back  to  New 
York.  When  near  Tarrytown  he  was  stopped  by  three  Americans,  searched 
and  delivered  to  the  military  authorities.  A  military  court  condemned  him 
to  death  as  a  spy,  and  he  was  hanged  at  Tappan,  across  the  river,  on  October 
2,  1780.  He  was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey,  and  a  monument  was  many 
years  afterward  erected  in  Tarrytown  in  memory  of  the  affair.  The  three 
patriots,  John  Paulding,  David  Williams  and  Isaac  Van  Wart,  were  rewarded 
by  Congress. 

Andrew,  John  A.  (1818-1867),  the  famous  War  Governor  of  Massa- 
chusetts, had  become  known  as  a  lawyer  and  member  of  the  Legislature, 
when  in  1860  he  was  elected  by  the  Republicans  as  Governor.  His  years  of 
office,  1 86 1  to  1866,  coincide  with  the  Civil  War  period,  and  he  was  the 
heart  and  soul  of  the  patriotic  sentiment  in  the  State.  His  services  in 
equipping  and  forwarding  the  militia,  in  co-operating  with  other  executives, 
and  his  advocacy  of  radical  measures  in  the  latter  half  of  the  war,  entitled 
him  to  a  conspicuous  place  in  the  group  of  "  War  Governors." 

Andrews,  E.  Benjamin,  born  in  1844,  became  president  of  Brown  Uni- 
versity in  1889.  He  was  a  U.  S.  Commissioner  to  the  International  Monetary 
Conference  at  Brussels  in  1892.  He  wrote  "Institutes  of  General  History," 
"Institutes  of  Constitutional  History,"  and  "  Institutes  of  Economy."  He 
was  elected  superintendent  of  schools  in  Chicago  in  1898. 

Andrews,  Stephen  Pearl  (1812—1886),  of  New  York,  author,  was  an  ardent 
Abolitionist,  the  founder  of  the  present  system  of  phonographic  reporting 
and  an  accomplished  linguist. 

Andros,  Sir  Edmund  (1637-1714),  was  born  in  London,  and  was  early  in. 
life  a  soldier  and  bailiff  of  the  Island  of  Guernsey.  He  began  his  American, 
career  as  Governor  of  New  York  in  1674—81;  to  which  in  1680  he  added  by 
seizure  New  Jersey.  When  his  patron,  the  Duke  of  York,  had  become  king 
as  James  II.,  he  appointed  Andros  in  1686  Governor  of  the  northern  colonies, 
including  New  England  and  New  York.  Andros  was  arbitrary  in  his  head- 
quarters in  Boston  and  elsewhere  in  New  England,  though  the  story  of  the 
"  charter  oak"  of  Connecticut  is  by  some  considered  apocryphal.  The  over- 
throw of  James  II.  led  the  people  of  Boston  to  depose  Andros  in  April,  1680, 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  27 

and  he  was  sent  to  England,  but  not  tried.     He  was  again  Governor,  1692— 
98,  this  time  of  Virginia. 

Angell,  James  B.,  born  in  Rhode  Island  in  1829,  educator,  was  professor 
of  modern  languages  and  literature  in  Brown  University  from  1853  t°  T86o; 
editor  of  the  "Providence  Journal"  from  1860  to  1866;  president  of  the 
University  of  Vermont  from  1866  to  1871,  since  which  time  he  has  been 
president  of  the  University  of  Michigan,  except  during  1880  and  1881,  when  he 
was  minister  of  the  United  States  in  China.  Became  Minister  to  Turkey 
1897  to  l898- 

Anian,  Straits  of,  supposed  by  geographers  and  explorers  of  the  sixteenth 
century  to  be  the  Northwest  Passage  to  India.  It  was  believed  to  have  been 
discovered  by  Cortereal,  a  Spanish  voyager,  in  1500,  and  to  have  been  named 
by  him  after  three  brothers,  who  accompanied  him.  It  has  been  identified 
with  both  Behring  Strait  and  Puget  Sound.  Many  expeditions  were  sent  in 
search  of  the  strait  during  the  sixteenth  century. 

"Ann,"  a  small  vessel,  which  arrived  at  Plymouth  in  August,  1623, 
accompanied  by  the  "Little  James,"  and  brought  reinforcements  to  the 
Pilgrims. 

Annals  of  Congress.  These  annals  were  published  by  Gales  and  Seaton 
in  1834.  They  contain,  in  forty-two  volumes,  a  complete  record  of  the 
proceedings  and  debates  from  the  first  Congress  down  to  May,  1824,  besides 
valuable  state  papers,  public  documents  and  laws. 

Annapolis,  Md.,  was  founded  in  1649  by  Puritan  refugees  from  Virginia 
and  became  the  capital  of  the  colony  in  1689.  It  was  first  called  Providence, 
but  was  incorporated  as  a  city  in  1696,  and  received  its  present  name  (after 
Oueen  Anne)  in  1708.  The  U.  S.  Naval  Academy  was  established  here  in 
1845. 

Anne  (1664-1714),  Queen  of  Great  Britain  from  1702  to  1714.  In  1704  a 
proclamation  of  Queen  Anne  regarding  the  Colonial  currency,  ordered  a 
uniform  scale  of  legalized  depreciation  in  the  Colonial  coinage  system.  A 
proclamation  of  Queen  Anne  in  1715  forced  the  slave  trade  upon  the  colonies, 
England  having  been  granted  the  monopoly  of  this  trade  under  the  provi- 
sions of  the  treaty  of  Utrecht.  (See  Queen  Anne's  War.) 

Annexations.  After  the  adoption  of  the  Federal  Constitution  the  different 
States  ceded  all  the  territories  to  the  west  of  them  and  included  in  their 
original  charters,  to  the  Union.  Many  of  these  territories  nominally  extended 
to  the  Pacific  coast,  but .  in  practice,  only  as  far  as  the  Mississippi  River. 
Louisiana  and  the  Floridas  were  then  under  Spanish  dominion  and  thus  the 
navigation  of  the  Mississippi  River  was  blocked,  causing  great  inconveni- 
ence to  settlers  west  of  the  Alleghanies.  It  had  ever  been  the  fixed  policy 
of  Spain  to  exclude  all  foreign  commerce  from  this  stream.  She  had  refused 
to  treat  with  Jay  upon  this  point  in  1780—82.  In  1786  the  United  States 
withdrew  its  demand  for  a  navigation  treaty,  but  the  clamorings  of  the 
western  settlers  caused  their  renewal,  and,  in  1795,  Thomas  Pinckney,  Envoy 
Extraordinary,  negotiated  a  treaty  of  friendship  and  boundaries,  by  which 
free  navigation  of  the  Mississippi  was  opened,  as  well  as  the  port  of  New 
Orleans.  In  1800  Spain  retroceded  Louisiana  to  France,  to  which  country 


2*  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

it  had  belonged  until  the  peace  of  1763.  The  treaty  of  1795  was  abrogated 
and  the  West  was  again  in  a  ferment.  It  was  proposed  in  the  Senate  that  the 
President  order  out  50,000  militia  and  capture  New  Orleans.  Instead  James 
Monroe  was  sent  to  co-operate  with  Robert  R.  Livingston  for  the  purchase 
of  New  Orleans  in  1803.  A  prospective  war  with  England  induced  France 
to  sell  all  Louisiana,  and  the  purchase  was  negotiated  for  $15,000,000  on 
April  30,  1803,  the  treaty  being  signed  by  Livingston  and  Monroe  for  the 
Union,  and  Barbe-Marbois  for  France.  By  this  step  Jefferson  obtained 
for  the  United  States  1,171,931  square  miles  of  territory,  comprising  Alabama 
and  Mississippi  south  of  parallel  31°,  all  Louisiana,  Arkansas,  Missouri,  Iowa, 
Nebraska,  Dakota,  Montana,  Minnesota  west  of  the  Mississippi,  most  of 
Kansas,  a  large  part  of  Colorado,  and  Wyoming.  The  Federalists  angrily 
attacked  this  move  of  Jefferson  as  being  utterly  unconstitutional,  and  the 
President  did  not  attempt  to  defend  himself,  but  sought  indemnity.  Florida 
was  next  annexed.  The  United  States  claimed  Florida,  but  Spain  denied 
having  ceded  it  to  France  with  Louisiana.  In  1810  the  people  of  west  Florida 
declared  their  independence.  Governor  Claiborne,  of  New  Orleans,  was  sent 
by  the  President  to  take  possession  of  Mobile  and  West  Florida.  In  1818 
Spain  was  much  annoyed  by  a  war  with  the  Seminoles,  and  accordingly  a  treaty 
was  concluded  February  22,  1819,  by  which  Florida  was  ceded  to  the  Union 
in  consideration  of  the  payment  of  $5,000,000  for  Spain  in  private  claims  by 
citizens  of  the  States.  Texas  had  been  claimed  by  both  France  and  Spain, 
but  after  the  revolt  of  Mexico  was  in  reality  under  Mexican  rule.  In  1836 
Texas  seceded  and  declared  herself  free,  defeating  the  Mexican  General  Santa 
Anna,  but  was  not  recognized  by  Mexico.  The  United  States,  England, 
France  and  Belgium  recognized  the  new  republic.  Many  politicians  favored 
the  annexation  of  Texas  and  in  1844  Calhoun,  Secretary  of  State  under  Tyler, 
actually  concluded  a  treaty  to  this  effect,  which  was  rejected  by  the  Senate. 
After  considerable  manoeuvring  and  political  intrigue,  a  joint  resolution  was 
passed  in  the  Senate  February  27,  1845,  and  in  the  House  February  28,  and 
Texas  was  admitted  to  the  Union.  As  a  result  of  the  Mexican  War  and 
by  the  payment  of  $15,000,000  and  $3,250,000  in  claims  of  private  citizens 
against  Mexico,  California,  New  Mexico,  Utah,  Nevada,  and  part  of  Arizona 
and  Colorado,  were  added  to  the  Union  in  1848  (545,783  square  miles).  By 
the  Gadsen  Treaty  in  1853  the  southern  part  of  Arizona,  45,535  square  miles, 
was  purchased  from  Mexico.  Alaska,  577,390  square  miles,  was  ceded  to  the 
United  States  for  $7,200,000  on  June  30,  1867,  by  Russia.  The  Spanish 
War,  1898,  added  Porto  Rico,  Cuba  and  Guam,  an  island  of  the  Ladrones, 
and,  for  the  payment  of  $20,000,000,  the  Philippine  group. 

Antarctic  Expedition.  In  1839  Captain  Wilkes,  of  the  U.  S.  Navy,  con- 
ducted an  exploring  expedition  toward  the  South  Pole.  He  discovered  in 
January,  1840,  a  portion  of  a  large  continent  in  latitude  61°  30'  S.  and 
longitude  161°  E.  He  traced  the  coast  westward  to  longitude  101°  E.,  but 
was  prevented  from  landing  by  the  ice. 

Anthony,  Henry  Bowen  (1815-1884),  was  born  at  Coventry,  R.  L,  and 
died  at  Providence.  He  was  graduated  at  Brown  University  in  1833,  and 
became  the  editor  of  the  Providence  Journal  and  the  most  influential  of 
New  England  journalists.  He  was  elected  Whig  Governor  of  Rhode  Island 
in  1849  and  1850.  From  1859  to  1884  he  was  uninterruptedly  Republican 
U.  S.  Senator  from  Rhode  Island,  and  was  several  times  chosen  president 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  29 

pro  tempore  of  the  Senate.     His  career  there  is  among  the  longest  on  record. 
His  valuable  collection,  the  Harris  Library,  was  left  to  Brown  University. 

Anthony,  Susan  B.,  born  in  1820,  of  New  York,  reformer,  especially  in 
matters  connected  with  the  civil  status  of  women.  In  1854  and  1855  sne 
held  conventions  in  every  county  of  New  York  in  favor  of  Woman  Suffrage, 
and  has  done  much  to  secure  the  passage  of  laws  giving  to  women  more 
control  over  their  property  than  is  permitted  by  the  common  law. 

Antietam  Creek,  Md.,  one  of  the  great  battles  of  the  war;  a  two  days' 
fight  between  the  Federals  and  Confederates  under  McClellan  and  Lee,  Sep- 
tember 16,  17,  1862.  McClellan  commanded  87,000  troops;  Lee  41,000. 
The  Confederates  were  stationed  along  the  Antietam  Creek,  their  flanks  resting 
on  the  Potomac  River,  having  placed  strong  guards  at  three  of  the  four  stone 
bridges  v/hich  crossed  the  creek.  Hooker's  brigade  was  dispatched  across 
the  fourth  and  unguarded  bridge  to  attack  the  Confederate  flank,  while  the 
batteries  of  both  sides  kept  up  a  continual  fire.  Scarcely  more  than  a  skirmish 
took  place  when  darkness  fell.  At  sunrise  Hooker  assaulted  Jackson  with 
some  success,  but  reinforcements  at  that  point  forced  him  to  give  way.  The 
hottest  of  the  fighting  continued  on  this  flank  throughout  the  morning,  con- 
stant reinforcements  being  sent  to  Jackson,  and  Franklin  and  Sumner  coming 
up  to  assist  Hooker.  Burnside  had  early  been  ordered  to  capture  the  bridge 
in  his  front  and  cross  to  attack  Lee's  centre,  but  this  he  delayed  doing  until 
he  found  it  almost  an  impossibility.  Finally,  however,  he  succeeded,  and 
crossing,  he  dislodged  the  Confederates,  who  were  stationed  upon  the  heights 
overlooking  Sharpsburg.  At  this  point  Hill  arrived  with  2000  fresh  Confed- 
erate troops,  who,  uniting  with  Lee,  drove  Burnside  out  and  retook  the  heights. 
Both  sides  suffered  severely  ;  there  was  mutual  desistance,  and  Lee  withdrew 
on  the  igth.  The  battle  was  treated  as  a  victory  in  the  North,  and  was 
followed  by  the  emancipation  proclamation. 

Anti-Federalists,  a  political  party  which  first  came  into  existence  in 
opposing  the  ratification  of  the  Constitution.  Its  leaders  were  George  Clin- 
ton, Patrick  Henry  and  others.  Failing  in  this  they  were  for  a  time  utterly 
demoralized.  During  the  First  Congress  this  party  showed  itself  but  little, 
but  in  the  first  session  of  the  Second  Congress  there  were  symptoms  of  an 
Anti-Federalist  revival.  They  opposed  Hamilton  and  his  followers  and 
gradually  became  champions  of  the  strict  construction  of  the  Constitution 
and  opponents  to  what  they  termed  "  monarchical  "  Federalism.  After  the 
rise  of  the  "  Republican "  party  under  Jefferson  the  Anti-Federalists  lost 
their  identity  in  the  advocacy  of  its  principles  (1793). 

Anti-Lecompton,  the  Congressional  faction  of  the  Democratic  Party 
which  opposed  in  1858  the  admission  of  Kansas  to  the  Union  under  the  pro- 
visions of  the  Lecompton  slavery  constitution.  Crittenden  and  Douglas  led 
this  faction  in  the  Senate,  Montgomery  in  the  House.  A  vote  was  taken  in 
the  House  April  i,  on  the  Crittenden-Montgomery  resolution  that  the  Lecomp- 
ton constitution  should  have  the  honest  test  of  popular  vote  in  Kansas  before 
she  should  become  a  State.  The  Anti-Lecomptons  won  by  a  vote  of  120  to 
lit. 


30  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Anti-Masonry.  The  Freemasons  had  in  1820  many  prominent  politi- 
cians among  their  members.  In  1826  William  Morgan,  of  Batavia,  N.  Y., 
threatened  to  reveal  the  secrets  of  the  society.  He  was  arrested  and  a  judg- 
ment was  obtained  against  him  for  debt.  He  was  then  carried  to  Niagara  in 
a  closed  carriage  and  never  again  heard  of.  Accordingly,  in  the  next  town 
and  county  elections  candidates  refusing  to  resign  from  the  Freemasons  found 
a  strong  Anti-Mason  vote  polled  against  them.  From  being  local,  anti- 
masonry  became  widespread  through  New  York,  and  finally  affected  national 
politics.  In  1828  the  National  Republican  Party  of  New  York  nominated 
State  candidates  who  were  not  Freemasons,  and  an  Anti-Masonic  State  Con- 
vention nominated  candidates  pledged  against  freemasonry.  This-  party  soon 
displaced  the  National  Republicans  as  opponents  of  the  Democrats  in  New 
York.  Anti-masonry  spread  to  other  States  and,  notably  in  Pennsylvania  and 
Vermont,  strongly  affected  the  elections.  In  New  York,  William  H.  Seward, 
Thurlow  Weed  and  Millard  Fillmore  were  Anti-Masonic  leaders.  John  Quincy 
Adams  had  by  this  time  lost  control  of  the  National  Republicans  and  Clay 
was  becoming  popular.  In  their  National  Convention  at  Baltimore  in  1831 
(the  first  of  national  nominating  conventions)  the  Anti-Masons,  hoping  to 
force  Clay,  who  was  a  Mason,  out  of  the  field,  nominated  Wirt  and  Ellmaker. 
But  the  National  Republicans  persisted  in  nominating  Clay.  Wirt  and  Ell- 
maker  received  the  electoral  .vote  of  Vermont  only.  After  this  the  Anti- 
Masons  died  out  as  a  distinct  national  party,  being  absorbed  by  the  Whigs. 
They  continued  to  exercise  some  influence  in  a  few  States,  however,  for  a 
time. 

Anti-Monopoly  Party  was  formed  May  14,  1884,  at  Chicago,  demanding 
economical  government,  equitable  laws,  including  an  Interstate  Commerce 
law,  laws  establishing  labor  bureaus  and  providing  industrial  arbitration, 
direct  vote  for  senators,  graduated  income  tax,  payment  of  the  national  debt 
as  it  matures,  and  "  fostering  care  "  for  agriculture,  and  denouncing  the  tariff 
and  the  granting  of  land  *to  corporations.  It  joined  later  with  the  Green- 
back Labor  Party  under  the  name  of  the  "  People's  Party." 

Anti-Nebraska  Men,  a  name  first  given  the  Northern  Whigs  to  dis- 
tinguish them  from  the  Southern  Whigs  in  respect  to  the  Kansas-Nebraska 
bill.  Their  ranks  were  reinforced  by  Anti-Slavery  Democrats,  and  though 
not  a  distinct  party  they  gained  control  of  the  House  in  the  Thirty-fourth 
Congress.  They  soon  became  the  Republican  Party. 

Antinomians,  a  sect  originally  founded  by  John  Agricola,  a  disciple  for 
a  time  of  Martin  Luther.  He  and  his  followers  taught  that  the  law  was  of 
no  use  or  obligation  under  the  dispensation  of  the  Gospel.  Antinomianism 
in  the  United  States  was  preached  by  Mrs.  Anne  Hutchinson,  an  English 
woman,  who  came  to  Boston  in  September,  1634.  She  came  for  the  sake 
of  the  spiritual  comfort  of  the  sermons  of  John  Cotton  and  John  Wheel- 
wright. These  men  she  pronounced  to  be  "  under  a  covenant  of  grace,"  all 
other  ministers  "  under  a  covenant  of  works."  Mrs.  Hutchinson  and  her 
disciples  believed  that  good  works  availed  nothing  toward  salvation.  Wheel- 
wright, Vane,  the  young  Governor  of  Massachusetts  at  the  time,  and  others, 
upheld  her.  She  was  tried  in  1637,  and  banished  with  Wheelwright  •  and 


DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  31 

Aspinwall.  A  number  of  her  followers  were  fined  or  otherwise  punished, 
and  the  rule  of  the  Puritan  hierarchy  was  firmly  established  at  the  expense 
of  freedom  of  thought  and  speech. 

Antioch  College,  Yellow  Springs,  O.,  was  founded  in  1852.  Horace  Mann 
was  president  of  it. 

Anti- Relief  Party,  a  political  party  in  Kentucky  opposing  the  relief  of 
delinquent  debtors  and  consequently  the  so-called  Relief  Party.  This  party 
was  defeated  by  the  Relief  Party  in  the  Gubernatorial  contest  of  1824,  but 
regained  control  two  years  later. 

Anti-renters,  a  name  given  about  1840  to  the  tenants  of  the  large  estates 
in  New  York  granted  to  patroons  by  the  Dutch  Company  and  James  II.  These 
tenants  held  deeds  of  the  land,  but  paid  rent  annually,  an  arrangement  which 
caused  much  dissatisfaction.  In  1839,  on  the  death  of  Stephen  Van  Rensse- 
laer,  one  of  the  principal  landholders,  his  tenants  refused  to  pay  rent  to  his 
successor.  Open  revolt  followed,  sometimes  attended  by  riot  and  bloodshed. 
Attempts  to  collect  rents  by  military  aid  led  to  the  Helderberg  War.  In  1847 
and  1848  the  Anti-renters  showed  themselves  as  a  political  power  in  the  State. 
The  Court  of  Appeals  in  1852  gave  a  decision  in  the  main  sustaining  the 
tenants,  and  practically  ended  the  anti-rent  movement. 

Apaches,  a  nation  of  roving  Indians  belonging  to  the  Athabascan  family. 
They  were  early  the  terror  of  the  Spanish,  and  since  the  annexation  of  their 
territory  to  the  United  States  the  tribe  has  given  great  trouble.  Mangos 
Colorado  for  fifty  years  led  large  hostile  bands,  until  finally  killed  in  1863. 
Later,  attempts  were  made  to  remove  the  Apaches  to  a  reservation  in  New 
Mexico.  The  plan  was  opposed  by  the  whites  on  the  frontiers,  and  led  to 
the  massacre  of  over  100  Apaches  at  Camp  Grant,  Arizona,  April  30,  1871. 

Appeals,  Court  of.     (See  Court  of  Appeals  in# Cases  of  Capture.) 
Appeals  from  Colonial  Courts.     (See  Privy  Council.) 

Appointing  Power.  In  the  Colonial  period  the  Crown  appointed  the 
governors  and  councils,  and  the  governors  appointed  most  other  officers. 
The  new  constitutions  made  at  the  time  of  the  Revolution,  because  of  fear 
of  tyranny,  usually  lessened  the  appointing  power  of  governors.  The  Con- 
tinental Congress  appointed  few  officers.  The  Constitution  of  1787  gives  the 
President  power  to  appoint  all  officers  (subject  to  confirmation  by  the  Senate), 
except  such  inferior  officers  as  Congress  may  provide  shall  be  appointed  by 
the  President  alone,  by  the  courts  of  law,  or  by  the  heads  of  departments. 
The  participation  by  the  Senate  has  led  to  much  injurious  collusion  in 
appointments  dictated  by  considerations  of  party  politics,  under  the  name  of 
"the  courtesy  of  the  Senate."  Presidents  at  first  made  appointments  for 
fitness  solely,  and  made  no  removals  for  political  causes.  But  Jefferson  first, 
and  afterward,  and  more  largely,  Jackson,  introduced  that  policy  of  partisan 
appointments  and  removals  which  is  known  as  the  "Spoils  System."  (See 
art.  See  also  Tenure  of  Office,  Removals,  and  Civil  Service  Reform.)  History 
by  Miss  Salmon. 

Appointment,  Council  of,  a  council  of  four  members,  instituted  by  the 
New  York  Constitution  of  1777,  whose  function  was  to  approve  or  disapprove 


32  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

of  nominations  to  office  made  by  the  Governor.  They  strengthened  their 
powers  in  1801,  became  an  instrument  of  great  abuse  in  the  way  of  partisan 
appointments,  and  were  abolished  in  1821. 

Appomattox,  Va.,  the  final  battle,  between  the  Confederates  35,000 
strong  under  Lee  and  the  Federals  numbering  100,000  under  Grant,  of  the 
Richmond  and  Petersburg  campaign  of  1864-65.  Lee's  army  was  retreating 
as  rapidly  as  its  forlorn  condition  would  permit,  when,  Crook  and  Sheridan 
having  captured  a  Confederate  provision  train  near  Appomattox,  Custer 
pushed  on  to  that  place  and  fought  the  wearied  Confederates  till  dark.  They 
were  severely  defeated  and  many  prisoners  wereetaken.  This  occurred  April 
8,  1865.  The  following  day,  as  Sheridan  was  preparing  for  a  charge,  the 
Confederates  waved  a  white  flag  and  Lee,  after  interchange  of  communica- 
tions, surrendered  the  army  of  Northern  Virginia  to  Grant.  The  terms 
which  Grant  conceded  were  that  both  officers  and  men  should  be  released  on 
parole  and  should  keep  their  horses,  "because  they  would  need  them  for  the 
spring  ploughing  and  farm  work." 

Apportionment,  the  distribution  of  representation  in  the  Federal  House 
of  Representatives  and  in  the  houses  of  the  different  State  legislatures.  It 
is  sometimes  used  in  a  fiscal  sense  as  applied  to  the  allotment  of  direct  taxes 
on  the  basis  of  population.  As  far  back  as  William  Penn's  plan  of  general 
government  for  the  colonies  objection  was  made  against  equal  representation 
of  colonies.  The  Albany  Plan  of  Union  provided  that  each  colony  should  be 
represented  in  the  Grand  Council  by  from  two  to  seven  delegates,  according 
to  the  amount  of  taxes  paid  by  each.  In  the  Continental  Congress  the  rule 
of  equal  representation  prevailed,  each  State  having  one  vote.  This  rule 
was  retained  in  the  Articles  of  Confederation,  for  long  contentions  over  the 
matter  showed  that  no  other  plan  could  win  acceptance.  In  the  Convention 
of  1787  there  was  long  and  bitter  dispute  over  questions  of  representation. 
Finally  it  was  settled  that  the  Federal  legislature  should  consist  of  two 
branches,  that  the  States  should  be  equally  represented  in  the  upper,  or 
Senate,  and  that  in  the  lower,  or  House  of  Representatives,  each  should 
have  a  number  of  members  proportioned  to  the  number  of  its  free  inhab- 
itants, plus  three-fifths  of  the  slaves.  A  provisional  apportionment  was 
inserted  in  the  Constitution,  and  in  1790  a  census  was  taken.  Direct  taxes 
were  to  be  apportioned  in  the  same  manner  as  representation.  The 
lower  house  should  have  no  more  than  one  representative  for  ever)'  30,000 
inhabitants.  This  constitutional  rule  governed  apportionments  during 
seventy  years,  though  the  ratio  was  changed  from  time  to  time.  Much 
debate  arose  over  the  question  of  fractional  representation.  In  the  Thirty- 
first  Congress  Vinton,  of  Ohio,  moved  to  divide  the  representative  popula- 
tion of  the  entire  country  by  233  and  that  of  each  State  by  the  quotient, 
assigning  to  each  State  representation  for  each  full  ratio  and  the  remaining 
members  necessary  to  make  up  233  to  the  States  having  the  largest  fractions. 
This  method  has  guided  subsequent  apportionments.  Federal  apportion- 
ments are  made  shortly  after  each  decennial  census,  and  the  State  apportion- 
ments are  guided  by  the  Federal.  Methods  of  apportionment  in  different 
States  vary,  however.  (See  Gerrymander.) 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  33 

Aquedneck,  a  settlement  on  Narragansett  Bay,  made  in  1637,  by  a  party 
of  Antinomians  under  the  leadership  of  William  Coddington.  It  was  made 
in  anticipation  of  banishment  from  Massachusetts  for  upholding  Mrs.  Hutch- 
inson,  the  leader  of  the  Antinomians. 

Arapahoes,  a  tribe  of  Indians  residing  at  the  headwaters  of  the  Arkansas 
and  Platte  rivers.  They  have  generally  been  friendly  to  the  whites. 

Arbor  Day,  a  day  set  apart  by  most  of  the  States  and  Territories  for 
planting  trees.  Arbor  Day  was  inaugurated  by  the  Nebraska  State  Board 
of  Agriculture  in  1874,  the  second  Wednesday  in  April  being  the  day  set. 

Arbuthnot,  Marriot  (1711-1794),  British  admiral,  was  made  vice-admiral 
and  commander-in-chief  on  the  American  station  in  1779  and  co-operated 
with  Clinton  in  the  capture  of  Charleston  in  1780. 

Archaeological  Institute  of  America.  This  society  was  founded  at  Boston 
in  1879,  and  has  devoted  the  larger  part  of  its  interest  to  classical  archaeology. 
Under  the  auspices  of  the  institution,  Mr.  A.  F.  Bandelier  was  sent  to  New 
Mexico  to  study  the  Pueblos,  and  at  the  same  time  Ayme",  American  Consul 
at  Me"rida,  was  commissioned  to  explore  Yucatan.  In  1885  the  American 
Journal  of  Archeology  was  started  at  Baltimore  as  the  society's  official  organ. 

Archbishop.  There  have  been  in  America  no  archbishops  except  those 
of  the  Catholic  church.  The  first  of  these  was  John  Carroll,  bishop  of  Balti- 
more, made  archbishop  in  1808. 

Archdale,  John,  a  Quaker,  born  in  England,  was,  from  1694  for  about 
two  years,  Governor  of  Carolina,  into  which  he  introduced  the  culture  of  rice. 

Archer,  William  S.  (1789-1855),  of  Virginia,  was  a  member  of  Congress 
from  1820  to  1835,  and  U.  S.  Senator  from  1841  to  1847. 

Archive  War.  In  1842,  after  Texas  had  declared  her  independence  of 
Mexico,  the  Texan  seat  of  government  was  at  Austin.  During  that  year 
the  Mexicans  under  Vasquez  destroyed  San  Antonio  and  threatened  Austin. 
The  President  fled  to  Houston  and  demanded  that  the  government  archives 
should  be  transferred  to  that  city.  This  the  citizens  of  Austin  refused  to 
allow.  Vigilance  and  archive  committees  were  appointed.  In  September 
the  President  sent  Captain  Smith  and  thirty-five  meii  to  take  the  archives 
by  force.  This  was  accomplished,  but  the  citizens  of  Austin  pursued  the 
captors  and  recovered  the  archives,  thus  determining  the  permanence  of  the 
capital  at  Austin. 

Arctic  Discoveries.  Dr.  Kane  conducted  the  first  American  expedition 
in  Arctic  regions,  sailing  from  New  York  in  the  "  Advance,"  May  30,  1853. 
He  penetrated  Smith  Strait  as  far  as  Cape  George  Russell,  and  then  returned 
to  Van  Rensselaer  Harbor  for  the  winter.  Frequent  excursions  were  made 
from  this  place,  125  miles  of  coast  being  traced  to  the  North  and  East. 
Morton  and  another  of  Kane's  company  penetrated  to  Washington  Land  in 
latitude  82°  27',  discovering  an  open  channel  which  they  named  Kennedy. 
Kane  returned  in  1855,  having  been  further  North  than  any  other  explorer. 
He  had  to  abandon  his  ship  and  go  overland  to  the  Danish  settlements  in  the 
South,  where  he  was  met  by  a  relief  party.  During  1860  Dr.  Isaac  Hayes, 
3 


34  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

one  of  Kane's  party,  advanced  as  far  as  81°  35'  north  latitude,  but  was 
obliged  to  return,  without  having  made  any  important  discovery.  Dr. 
Charles  F.  Hall,  of  Connecticut,  led  an  expedition  the  same  year  in  search 
of  Sir  John  Franklin.  He  lost  his  boat  and  was  obliged  to  return.  He 
made,  however,  some  important  discoveries  of  Frobisher's  expedition  300 
years  before.  Under  Hall,  the  same  year,  another  party  found  actual  relics 
of  Franklin's  party,  and  learned  from  the  natives  that  he  had  discovered  a 
northwest  passage  before  abandoning  his  ships.  Hall  spent  five  years  among 
the  Esquimaux.  He  then  returned  and  organized  a  third  party,  which 
reached  82°,  where  Hall  died.  In  1881  Lieutenant  Greely,  of  the  U.  S. 
Army,  was  sent  to  take  charge  of  the  American  Signal  Service  Bureau  at 
Lady  Franklin  Bay,  it  having  been  arranged  that  a  relief  expedition  should 
be  sent  to  him  the  following  year.  The  first  relief  party,  under  Lieutenant 
Beebe,  sailed  in  June,  1882,  but  could  get  no  further  than  latitude  71°  20'. 
The  second,  under  Lieutenant  Garlington,  1883,  was  equally  unsuccessful. 
In  1883  a  third  relief  party  was  dispatched  under  Captain  Winfield  S. 
Schley,  commanding  the  "  Thetis  "  and  the  "  Bear."  The  few  survivors  of 
the  Greely  party  were  found  October  21,  1883,  in  an  almost  dying  condition. 
Greely  had  reached  in  his  explorations  83°  24'  north  latitude,  the  highest 
ever  reached.  In  1891  Lieutenant  Peary  conducted  an  expedition  to  Green- 
land under  the  auspices  of  the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences  of  Philadelphia. 
He  reached  latitude  82°,  and  showed  the  northern  bounds  of  Greenland. 

Argall,  Sir  Samuel  (1572—1639),  came  to  Virginia  in  1609,  where  his 
first  public  exploit  was  the  abduction  of  PoCahontas  in  1612.  In  1613  he 
commanded  an  expedition  which  destroyed  Port  Royal,  Acadia.  He  was 
deputy-governor  of  Virginia  from  1617  to  1619,  so  distinguishing  himself 
by  tyranny  and  rapacity  that  he  was  recalled  to  England  in  the  latter  year. 

Argentina.  The  independence  of  Argentina  was  recognized  by  the  United 
States  in  March,  1822,  and  by  the  Act  of  May  4,  1822,  a  mission  to  this  gov- 
ernment was  established.  By  the  treaty  of  July  10,  1853,  the  navigation 
of  the  rivers  Parana  and  Uruguay  was  secured  to  the  United  States  under 
certain  conditions.  July  27,  1853,  a  favorable  commercial  treaty  was  con- 
cluded between  the  United  States  and  Argentina. 

*'  Argus,"  an  American  war  brig,  Captain  Allen.  In  cruising  about  the 
British  Channel  it  destroyed  twenty  valuable  merchantmen  with  cargoes 
valued  at  two  million  dollars.  August  14,  1813,  it  was  attacked  by  the 
"  Pelican,"  eighteen  guns.  Captain  Allen  was  mortally  wounded.  The 
American  sailors,  who  were  somewhat  under  the  influence  of  captured  wine, 
did  not  fight  as  well  as  usual,  and  after  forty-five  minutes'  fighting,  the  vessel 
was  surrendered.  The  "  Argus  "  lost  twenty-three  men,  the  "  Pelican  "  seven 
men. 

Arista,  Mariano  (1802-1855),  Mexican  general.  In  the  war  with  the 
United  States  he  commanded  at  Palo  Alto  and  Resaca  de  la  Palma.  He  was 
elected  president  in  1850,  but  resigned  in  1853. 

Arizona  was  organized  as  a  territory  in  1863,  partly  from  territory  ceded 
by  Mexico  to  the  United  States  by  the  treaty  of  Guadalupe  Hidalgo  (1848) 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  35 

and  partly  from  the  Gadsden  purchase  (1853).  It  was  first  visited  by  the 
Spaniards,  Nizan  in  1539,  and  Coronado  in  1540.  Jesuit  missions  were  early 
established  among  the  Indians.  The  population  of  Arizona  in  1890  was 
59,620.  (History  by  Bancroft.) 

"  Ark,"  a  vessel  of  250  tons  burden,  which  Lord  Baltimore  provided  in 
1633  for  his  party  of  colonists  for  Maryland.  The  "  Ark  "  sailed  from  Graves- 
end  in  October,  1633,  accompanied  by  the  "Dove,"  a  small  pinnace,  and 
reached  Point  Comfort,  Virginia,  February  27,  1634. 

Arkansas  was  first  settled  by  the  French  in  1685.  It  formed  a  part  of 
the  Louisiana  cession  and  was  included  in  the  territory  called  Louisiana  until 
1812  and  then  Missouri  Territory  until  1819,  when  it  was  organized  as  a 
separate  territory,  including  the  present  Indian  Territory.  Arkansas  became 
a  State  June  15,  1836,  with  its  present  boundaries.  The  State  was  steadily 
Democratic  until  the  close  of  the  Civil  War.  At  first  the  opposition  to  seces- 
sion in  1 86 1  was  very  strong,  but  upon  the  call  of  President  Lincoln  for 
troops  an  ordinance  of  secession  was  passed  May  6,  1861.  The  Federal 
troops  captured  Little  Rock  in  1863,  and  a  loyal  State  government  was 
organized.  The  State  was  re-admitted  June  22,  1868.  The  Republicans 
controlled  the  State  from  this  time  until  1874.  Two  rival  factions  of  that 
party  caused  an  armed  collision.  Federal  troops  restored  order  and  President 
Grant  recognized  Baxter,  the  Republican  candidate,  as  Governor.  A  new 
Constitution  was  adopted  in  1874,  since  which  time  the  Democrats  have  con- 
trolled the  State.  The  present  Constitution  dates  from  1874.  Arkansas  had 
a  population  of  52,240  in  1836  and  1,128,179  in  1890. 

"  Arkansas  Gazette,"  first  newspaper  published  in  Arkansas.  The  first 
edition,  of  less  than  one  hundred  copies,  was  issued  at  Arkansas  Post,  then 
the  territorial  capital,  by  William  E.  Woodruff,  November  20,  1819.  It  is 
still  continued. 

Arkansas  Post,  Arkansas,  occupied  during  Grant's  and  Sherman's  cam- 
paign along  the  Mississippi  River  by  Churchill  and  5000  Confederates. 
On  the  night  of  January  10,  1863,  Sherman  ordered  McClernand  to  advance 
against  this  post  with  his  Federal  column,  while  Admiral  Porter's  gunboats 
shelled  the  Confederate  rifle  pits.  January  u,  an  intensely  cold  day,  the 
assault  was  successfully  made.  The  fort  was  captured  and  5000  prisoners 
taken. 

Arlington,  Henry  Bennet,  Earl  of  (1618-1685).  In  1673  Charles  II 
granted  to  the  Earl  of  Arlington  and  Thomas,  Lord  Culpepper,  the  entire 
territory  of  Virginia,  for  thirty-one  years,  at  the  yearly  rent  of  thirty  shillings. 
The  patents  entitled  them  to  all  rents  and  escheats  and  illegally  authorized 
them  to  make  conveyances  in  fee  simple.  Arlington  was  a  member  of  the 
so-called  "  Cabal." 

Arlington,  in  Alexandria  County,  Virginia,  the  home  of  Mrs.  Washington's 
grandson,  G.  W.  P.  Custis,  and  the  birthplace  of  Mary  R.  Custis,  afterward 
the  wife  of  General  Robert  E.  Lee.  Through  the  marriage  Lee  came 
into  possession  of  this  estate.  During  the  Civil  War  Arlington  was  confiscated 


36  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

by  the  national  government,  and  has  been  since  the  close  of  that  struggle 
erected  into  a  national  cemetery  for  Union  soldiers. 

Armed  Neutrality,  an  alliance  formed  in  1780-82,  by  nearly  all  the  other 
maritime  powers  of  Europe  for  protection  against  the  continued  British 
depredation  on  neutral  commerce.  The  Armed  Neutrality  was  suggested  by 
the  declarations  of  the  Russian  Empress  in  1780,  setting  forth  certain  doc- 
trines of  international  law,  familiarly  summarized  as  "  free  ships,  free  goods." 
The  United  States  agreed  to  conform  to  these  articles  October  8,  1780. 

Armistead,  George  (1780-1818),  of  Virginia,  soldier,  distinguished  himself 
at  the  capture  of  Fort  George,  Canada,  in  1813,  and  by  his  successful  defence 
of  Baltimore  in  1814. 

Armstrong,  John  (1758-1843),  was  born  at  Carlisle,  Pa.,  and  died  at  Red 
Hook,  N.  Y.  He  served  in  the  Revolutionary  War,  and  after  its  conclusion 
wrote  the  first  "  Newburgh  letters."  Entering  civil  life  he  was  Secretary  of 
State  in  Pennsylvania  and  member  of  the  Continental  Congress,  and  was  a 
U,  S.  Senator  in  1800-2  and  1803-4.  He  was  Minister  to  France  from 
1804  to  1810.  Appointed  brigadier-general  in  1812,  in  1813  he  entered  the 
Cabinet  as  Secretary  of  War.  His  administration,  despite  some  radical 
measures,  was  unsuccessful,  and  he  was  obliged  to  resign  after  the  fall  of 
Washington  in  1814. 

Armstrong,  Robert  (1790—1854),  of  Tennessee,  soldier,  was  a  captain  of 
artillery  under  Jackson  in  the  Creek  War  of  1813  and  1814,  and  distinguished 
himself  at  the  battle  of  New  Orleans. 

Armstrong,  Samuel  C.  (1839-1893),  was  brevetted  brigadier-general  dur- 
ing the  Civil  War.  He  was  eminently  successful  in  the  education  and 
improvement  of  the  negro  and  Indian  races,  being  for  many  years  head  of 
the  Hampton  (Va.)  Institute. 

Army.  The  army  of  the  Revolution  consisted  of  two  elements,  the  Con- 
tinental army,  organized  by  Congress,  and  the  militia  organized  by  the  States. 
Though  upon  the  average  of  the  years  from  1775  to  1781  the  total  amounted 
to  about  60,000,  there  were  often  not  more  than  half  that  number  present 
with  the  colors.  In  1783  this  army  was  disbanded,  and  the  United  States 
maintained  but  a  few  hundred  soldiers.  Temporarily  increased  by  the  Indian 
wars  of  1792  and  by  the  troubles  with  France  in  1798,  it  numbered  only 
from  3000  to  5000  until  the  War  of  1812.  During  a  portion  of  that  war  the 
number  of  regular  troops  rose  above  30.000,  while  the  number  of  militia 
enlisted  was  470,000.  During  the  next  thirty  years  the  army  averaged  but 
9000  men.  The  regular  troops  enrolled  during  the  Mexican  War  were  about 
27,000,  the  volunteers  74,000.  Then  the  regular  army  dropped  again  to 
10,000  men,  later  12,000.  During  the  first  year  of  the  Civil  War  the  num- 
bers of  the  regular  army  rose  to  32,000.  But  the  number  of  militia  and 
volunteers  was  vastly  greater.  Lincoln's  first  call  of  April  15,  1861,  was  for 
75,000  men  for  three  months.  Later  enlistments  were  mostly  for  three  years. 
At  the  beginning  of  1862  the  number  of  volunteers  in  the  army  was  about 
550,000.  During  1863,  1864  an^  1865  it  was  about  900,000.  At  the  close 
of  the  war  the  entire  Federal  army  numbered  a  million  men.  The  total 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  37 

number  furnished  first  and  last  was  2,850,000.  The  commander-in-chief  of 
the  army  at  the  beginning  of  the  war  was  General  Scott;  from  November, 
1861,  to  March,  1862,  General  McClellan;  from  July,  1862,  to  March,  1864, 
General  Halleck;  during  the  remainder  of  the  war  General  Grant.  The 
leading  sub-divisions  of  the  Union  army  were,  in  the  East,  the  Army  of  the 
Potomac;  in  the  West,  those  of  the  Mississippi,  the  Tennessee  and  the  Ohio, 
all  finally  united  under  Sherman.  The  most  important  sub-divisions  of  the 
Confederate  army  were  the  Army  of  Northern  Virginia  and  the  Army  of 
Tennessee.  Conscription  was  employed  in  the  filling  up  of  both  Union  and 
Confederate  armies.  The  Confederate  forces  at  the  beginning  of  1862  num- 
bered about  320,000;  during  1863,  I^64  and  1865  they  averaged  about  450,000 
men.  Early  in  1865  General  Lee  was  appointed  commander-in-chief  of  all 
the  Confederate  forces.  In  1867  the  "peace  establishment"  of  the  regular 
army  was  fixed  at  54,641  men.  It  was  then  reduced  by  successive  enact- 
ments till,  in  1875,  it  was  brought  down  to  27,000  men,  at  which  figure, 
approximately,  it  has  ever  since  remained.  The  army  expenditures  of  the 
government  in  time  of  peace  were,  down  to  the  Mexican  War,  from  one  to 
five  or  six  millions  per  annum.  Recently  they  have  been  from  $40,000,000 
to  $50,000,000. 

Arnold,  Benedict  (1615-1678),  of  Rhode  Island,  was  elected  to  its  presi- 
dency upon  the  retirement  of  Roger  Williams  in  1657,  and  under  the  royal 
charter  of  1663  was  its  first  Governor.  (See  art.  Mill  at  Newport.) 

Arnold,  Benedict  (1741-1801),  general  and  traitor,  was  born  at  Norwich, 
Conn.  He  was  in  business  in  early  life,  as  a  druggist,  and  in  other  lines. 
When  the  Revolutionary  War  broke  out  he  was  appointed  colonel  by  the 
Massachusetts  Congress.  Served  as  a  volunteer  in  the  famous  capture  of 
Ticonderoga,  and  leaped  into  fame  by  his  masterly  conduct  of  the  right  wing 
in  the  attack  on  Canada  in  1775.  He  led  the  columns  amid  extraordinary 
hardships  and  difficulties  through  the  Maine  woods,  arrived  in  November  and 
was  wounded  in  the  assault  of  Quebec  on  December  31.  Having  been  made 
brigadier-general  he  was  defeated  by  a  British  flotilla  at  Valcour  Island  in 
Lake  Champlain  in  October,  1776,  but  effected  a  skillful  retreat.  His  services 
were  slighted  by  Congress,  but  he  contributed  to  the  repulse  of  Tryon  in 
Connecticut.  He  was  at  last  made  a  major-general  and  took  a  brilliant  part 
in  the  Burgoyne  campaign.  He  dispersed  St.  Leger's  force  at  Fort  Stanwix, 
and  commanded  the  left  wing  at  the  first  battle  of  Saratoga.  Although 
Gates'  jealousy  caused  him  to  be  superseded,  he  fought  gallantly  without 
orders  in  the  second  battle  and  ended  his  military  career  in  a  blaze  of  glory. 
He  next  commanded  in  Philadelphia,  was  court-martialed  on  trivial  charges 
and  reprimanded  by  Washington.  Obtaining  the  charge  of  West  Point  he 
intrigued  with  Clinton  for  the  betrayal  of  that  post  to  the  British,  but  the 
capture  of  the  negotiator,  Andre',  frustrated  the  scheme,  and  to  Arnold  there 
fell  only  a  brigadier-generalship  in  the  British  army,  a  sum  of  money,  pred- 
atory attacks  on  Virginia  and  New  London,  and  eternal  infamy.  The 
remainder  of  his  life  was  passed  in  England.  (Life  by  I.  N.  Arnold.) 

Arnold,  Isaac  N.  (1815-1884),  of  Illinois,  lawyer,  was  a  Republican  mem- 
ber of  Congress  from  1861  to  1865.  He  was  intimate  with  Abraham  Lincoln, 
of  whom  he  published  a  biography,  one  of  the  best. 


38  DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Arnold,  Samuel  G.  (1821-1880),  of  Rhode  Island,  was  Lieutenant-Gov- 
ernor of  that  State  in  1852  and  in  1861  and  1862,  and  U.  S.  Senator  from 
December,  1862,  to  March,  1863.  In  1860  he  published  what  is  still  the 
standard  history  of  Rhode  Island. 

Aroostook  Disturbances.  In  1838  a  band  of  lawless  men,  chiefly  from 
New  Brunswick,  trespassed  upon  that  territory  which  is  watered  by  the 
Aroostook,  and  which  was  then  claimed  by  both  Great  Britain  and  the 
United  States.  The  Governor  of  Maine  drafted  troops  and  drove  off  the 
intruders.  The  President  sent  General  Winfield  Scott  to  the  Aroostook 
country.  He  arranged  that  it  should  be  occupied  as  before,  each  government 
holding  part,  while  the  other  denied  its  legal  right.  (See  Ashburton  Treaty.) 

Arsenals.  At  the  beginning  of  the  Revolution  no  arsenals  existed  in  the 
United  States,  but  in  1776  powder  was  manufactured  in  Virginia,  and  brass 
cannon  were  cast  in  Philadelphia.  An  arsenal  was  established  at  Carlisle, 
Pa.,  the  same  year,  and  a  foundry  and  laboratory  at  Springfield,  Mass.,  on 
the  recommendation  of  General  Washington.  This  was  the  origin  of  the 
present  national  armory.  The  arsenal  at  Harper's  Ferry  was  commenced  in 
1795,  and  continued  in  use  until  the  Civil  War.  In  1838  the  Ordnance 
Department  was  placed  in  charge  of  arsenals  and  armories.  At  the  begin- 
ning of  the  Civil  War  there  were  twenty-three  arsenals  and  armories,  and 
their  number  has  since  been  greatly  increased. 

Artaguette,  of  Louisiana,  French  soldier  under  Bienville,  while  leading 
an  assault  on  the  Chickasaw  forts  on  the  Mississippi  River  in  June,  1736, 
was  taken  prisoner  and  burned  at  the  stake. 

Arthur,  Chester  Alan  (October  5,  i83O-November  18,  1886),  twenty-first 
President  of  the  United  States,  was  born  at  Fairfield,  Vt.  He  was  grad- 
uated at  Union  College  in  1848,  and  taught  school  for  some  years.  He 
then  studied  law  and  practiced  in  New  York  City,  obtaining  local  reputation 
as  a  champion  of  the  rights  of  colored  people  in  the  city.  He  had  been 
active  in  the  State  militia,  and  at  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  he  joined 
Governor  Morgan's  staff.  As  engineer-in-chief,  acting  quartermaster-general 
and  inspector-general,  he  performed  notable  services  in  the  Rebellion.  He 
was  energetic  in  local  politics,,  and  was  in  1871  appointed  Collector  of  the 
Port  of  New  York,  from  which  position  he  was  removed  by  President 
Hayes  in  1878.  After  the  bitter  contest  for  the  Republican  nomination  in 
1880  had  ended  in  the  choice  of  Garfield,  Mr.  Arthur  was  selected  for  the 
second  place  on  the  ticket  as  a  representative  of  the  Stalwart  faction.  He 
became  Vice-President  in  1881,  was  suddenly  called  to  the  first  position 
by  the  assassination  of  Garfield,  and  took  the  oath  of  office  on  September  20, 
1881.  The  unfavorable  apprehensions  caused  by  his  active  interference  in 
New  York  politics  during  his  short  term  as  Vice-President  were  happily 
allayed  by  his  administration,  which  was  on  the  whole  dignified  and  con- 
servative. Among  his  acts  was  the  emphasis  placed  by  him  on  the  strength- 
ening of  naval  defence,  his  veto  of  a  Chinese  immigration  bill,  and  a  veto 
of  a  portentously  large  river  and  harbor  bill.  He  was  in  1884  a  candidate 
for  the  Republican  nomination  for  President,  but  was  defeated  by  Mr, 
Elaine.  He  retired  from  office  in  1885,  and  died  in  New  York  City. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  39 

Artillery.  In  the  United  States  the  present  field  artillery  of  the  army 
consists  of  ten  mounted  batteries,  two  to  each  regiment  of  artillery.  The 
other  ten  batteries  of  each  regiment  are  armed  and  equipped  as  infantry  and 
serve  mostly  in  forts  and  garrisons  along  the  seaboard.  During  the  War  of 
1812  field  batteries  were  created  by  mounting  foot  batteries  from  the  artillery 
regiments.  In  1836  Captain  Ringgold  organized  a  field  battery,  for  the 
artillery  branch  had  been  neglected  since  the  War  of  1812.  The  systems  of 
field  and  siege  artillery  were  chiefly  derived  from  France.  In  1820  there 
were  four  regiments  of  artillery.  In  the  Civil  War  three  field  batteries  were 
attached  to  each  division  of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac.  The  introduction 
of  the  Parrott  gun  in  1861  greatly  strengthened  the  artillery. 

Asbury,  Francis  (1745-1816),  missionary  bishop  of  u  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal Church  in  the  United  States,"  was  consecrated  in  1784,  and  became 
one  of  the  most  indefatigable  and  successful  evangelists  ever  known. 

Ashburton,  Lord,  Alexander  Baring  (1774-1848),  English  banker  and 
diplomatist,  became  in  1810  the  head  of  the  banking  house  of  Baring 
Brothers  &  Co. ,  the  financial  agent  of  the  United  States  during  the  War  of 
1812.  In  1842  as  special  Minister  to  the  United  States  he  negotiated  with 
Daniel  Webster  the  "Ashburton  Treaty,"  which  settled  the  Northeastern 
boundary  between  the  British  provinces  and  the  United  States. 

Ashburton  Treaty,  was  a  treaty  negotiated  between  Great  Britain  and 
the  United  States  by  Lord  Ashburton  and  Daniel  Webster  at  Washington  in 
1842.  It  adjusted  the  boundary  between  the  United  States  and  the  British 
possessions  on  the  Northeast,  the  United  States  securing  about  seven-twelfths 
of  the  disputed  territory.  The  mutual  extradition  of  criminals  and  arrange- 
ments for  the  suppression  of  the  slave  trade  were  stipulated. 

Ashe,  John  (1720-1781),  of  North  Carolina,  soldier,  equipped  a  regiment 
at  his  own  expense  and  joined  Lincoln's  army  in  1778,  was  defeated  at  Brier 
Creek  and  captured  at  Wilmington  in  1781. 

Ashland,  at  Lexington,  Ky.,  noted  for  years  as  the  home  of  Henry  Clay. 

Ashmun,  George  (1804-1870),  of  Massachusetts,  was  a  member  of  the 
General  Court  in  1833,  1835,  1836  and  in  1841  was  Speaker  of  the  House, 
was  U.  S.  Senator  in  1838  and  1839  an^  a  Representative  from  1845  to  1851. 
In  1860  he  was  president  of  the  convention  which  nominated  Lincoln. 

Asiento.  Under  one  of  the  provisions  of  the  treaty  of  Utrecht,  1713,  the 
English  South  Sea  Company  had  the  contract  (asiento)  for  the  annual  trans- 
portation to  Spanish  America  of  not  less  than  4800  negro  slaves.  This 
contract  had  formerly  been  accorded  to  a  company  of  French  merchants. 
Its  possession  by  the  English  stimulated  the  English  slave  trade  to  the 
lish  colonies. 


Aspinwall,  William  H.  (1807-1875),  of  New  York,  merchant.  In  1850  he 
secured  the  contract  for  building  the  Panama  Railroad,  which  was  com- 
pleted in  1854,  its  eastern  terminus  being  named  Aspinwall. 

Assemblies,  Colonial.     (See  Legislatures.) 


40  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Assessments,  a  term  used  in  a  political  sense  to  denote  contributions 
levied  upon  office-holders  and  candidates  of  different  political  parties  by 
Congressional,  State  and  municipal  committees  to  defray  the  expenses  of 
canvasses  and  elections.  The  precise  date  of  the  introduction  of  this  prac- 
tice into  politics  is  not  known,  but  it  is  now  a  general  custom,  and  is  in  some 
States,  as  New  York,  thoroughly  systematized.  The  first  specific  instance  of 
this  sort  of  assessment  was  found  in  the  Swartwout  investigation  before  the 
House  Committee  of  the  Twenty-fifth  Congress.  A  deputy  collector  of  New 
York  testified  to  having  been  called  upon  to  contribute  under  pain  of  being 
reported  to  the  general  committee  of  Tammany  Hall.  It  is  now  the  custom 
for  political  committees  to  send  circulars  to  all  public  officers  requesting  a 
certain  percentage  of  their  salaries  for  election  expenses.  The  Republican 
campaign  of  1880  was  largely  aided  in  this  way.  The  main  motive  for 
payment  seems  to  be  fear  of  losing  office.  There  has  been  no  radical  remedy 
for  this  system  proposed  by  Congress,  though  in  1881  a  bill  was  introduced 
"  to  prevent  extortion  from  persons  in  the  public  service,  and  bribery  and 
coercion  by  such  persons." 

Assiniboins,  a  tribe  of  Dakota  Indians,  in  Montana  and  Manitoba.  They 
separated  from  the  Yankton  Sioux  after  a  bitter  quarrel,  about  the  beginning 
of  the  seventeenth  century. 

Associated  Loyalists,  a  Tory  society  formed  in  New  York  in  1780  at 
the  instance  of  the  British  government  and  independent  of  the  orders  of  the 
British  commander.  It  was  called  the  "  Honorable  Board  of  Associated 
Loyalists,"  and  was  in  reality  a  band  of  licensed  outlaws.  They  continually 
raided  the  shores  of  New  Jersey,  Connecticut  and  Long  Island  in  piratical 
expeditions,  and  were  in  league  with  the  rebel  freebooters,  often  exchanging 
prisoners  .with  them.  Dr.  Franklin's  son,  the  Tory  Governor  of  New  Jersey, 
was  the  leader  of  the  society. 

Associated  Press,  an  association  organized  in  1848—49  by  a  number  of 
New  York  newspapers,  for  the  purpose  of  conveniently  and  inexpensively 
collecting  and  transmitting  news.  Its  organization  was  suggested  subse- 
quently to  the  establishment  of  the  first  telegraph  line  between  Washington 
and  Wilmington,  Del.,  and  because  of  the  delay  in  receiving  dispatches, 
owing  to  the  limited  lines.  The  first  members  of  the  association  were 
the  New  York  Sun,  the  Herald,  the  '  Tribune,  the  Journal  of  Commerce, 
the  Courier  and  Inquirer  and  the  Express.  Contracts  for  lower  telegraph 
rates  were  arranged  with  the  companies  and  other  newspapers  were  admitted 
to  the  association.  In  1880  355  newspapers  were  served  by  this  association 
and  a  total  number  of  611,199,630  words  were  transmitted. 

Association,  American,  an  association  formed  among  the  American 
colonists  in  1774  to  enforce  their  claim  of  rights  against  the  British  govern- 
ment. Fourteen  articles  were  agreed  to,  pledging  the  associators  to  an  entire 
commercial  non-intercourse  with  Great  Britain,  Ireland  and  the  West  Indies, 
denouncing  the  slave  trade  and  appointing  committees  to  detect  and  publish 
the  names  of  violators  of  the  articles.  The  association  was  formed  against 
such  acts  as  the  Sugar,  Stamp.  Tea  and  Quartering  Acts  and  the  Boston 
Port  Bill, 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  41 

Assumption.  In  1790  Alexander  Hamilton,  then  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury,  in  his  plans  for  restoring  the  nation?!  credit,  proposed  that  the 
national  government  should  assume  the  payment  of  the  State  debts  con- 
tracted in  the  national  cause  during  the  Revolutionary  War.  Massachusetts, 
Connecticut  and  South  Carolina  enthusiastically  favored  the  plan.  The 
Middle  States  were  divided,  Pennsylvania  holding  off,  New  York  and  New 
Jersey  favoring  Hamilton.  Virginia  was  the  strongest  opponent  of  the 
scheme,  she  having  partially  liquidated  her  debt  by  funding  securities  at  a 
depreciated  rate,  and  by  selling  Kentucky  lands.  Maryland,  Georgia  and 
New  Hampshire  also  opposed  it.  The  measure  was  near  passage  by  Con- 
gress, when  the  North  Carolina  delegates  took  their  seats  and  cast  their  votes 
against  it.  Later  Hamilton  secured  its  passage  by  effecting  a  combination 
with  those  who  desired  to  have  the  Federal  capital  placed  on  the  Potomac. 
August  4,  1790,  an  act  passed  by  which  State  debts  to  the  amount  of  $21,- 
500,000  were  assumed  by  the  Federal  government. 

Astor,  John  Jacob  (1763-1848),  merchant,  came  from  Germany  to  Amer- 
ica in  1783.  Founded  the  American  fur  trade  in  which  he  manifested 
far-reaching  enterprise  and  acquired  immense  wealth. 

Astor,  William  B.  (1792-1875),  of  New  York,  capitalist,  as  a  partner 
with  his  father  (John  J.)  acquired  great  wealth,  with  which  he  richly  en- 
dowed the  Astor  Library  and  other  public  institutions. 

Astor  Library,  founded  in  New  York  City  by  John  Jacob  'Astor,  and 
opened  in  1853.  He  bequeathed  $400,000  to  the  library,  and  this  has  been 
increased  by  bequests  of  $200,000,  and  $450,000  by  his  son,  William  Black 
Astor,  and  his  grandson,  John  Jacob  Astor. 

Astoria,  Ore.,  was  founded  by  the  Pacific  Fur  Company  in  1811,  and  was 
for  a  long  time  the  chief  fur-trading  post  of  the  West.  In  1813  the  British 
government  took  possession  of  the  town  and  named  it  St.  George.  Astoria 
was  restored  to  the  United  States  after  the  conclusion  of  the  War  of  1812. 

Atchison,  David  R.  (1807-1886),  of  Missouri,  U.  S.  Senator  from  1843  to 
1855,  was  a  leader  of  the  pro-slavery  faction  in  the  Kansas  troubles  of 
1856  and  1857. 

Atherton,  Charles  G.  (1804—1853),  of  New  Hampshire,  a  member  of 
Congress  from  1837  to  1843,  ^n  which  he  introduced  the  rule  known  as  "the 
Atherton  gag"  (see  " Gag  rule ").  Senator  from  1843  to  J^49  an(*  front 
1852  till  his  death. 

Atherton  Company,  a  land  company  formed  in  1659  by  Humphrey 
Atherton,  of  Massachusetts.  The  company  purchased  lands  from  the  Indians 
along  the  west  side  of  Narragansett  Bay.  When  the  boundary  line  between 
Connecticut  and  Rhode  Island  was  decided  in  1662,  their  territory  was,  at 
their  request,  placed  under  the  government  of  Connecticut.  In  1665  the 
Royal  Commission  forced  the  company  to  return  its  lands  to  the  Indians  on 
repayment  of  their  price. 

Atkinson,  Edward,  born  in  1827,  °f  Massachusetts,  economist,  is  author 
of  many  pamphlets  on  banking,  the  currency,  foods,  the  tariff,  and  the 
labor  and  other  social  questions. 


42  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Atlanta,  capital  of  Georgia,  was  laid  out  in  1845  and  incorporated  in 
1847.  During  the  Civil  War  the  city  was  the  centre  of  important  military 
operations.  It  was  the  scene  of  a  sanguinary  engagement  July  22,  1864, 
between  Sherman's  army  of  the  Tennessee  numbering  three  corps  and 
Hood's  corps  of  Johnston's  army,  45,000  strong,  in  which  the  Confederates 
were  defeated  and  driven  back  to  their  iutrenchments  within  the  town. 
Atlanta  was  afterward  besieged  by  Sherman  and  captured  upon  Hood's 
abandoning  it,  September  2,  1864.  In  the  battle  of  July  22,  Hood  began 
the  attack  by  falling  upon  Hardee  on  Sherman's  left.  McPherson  gained  a 
position  upon  a  high  hill,  commanding  the  very  heart  of  the  town,  and  then 
the  fight  went  on  all  along  the  line.  Battery  F,  Second  United  States,  was  lost 
in  a  sharp  skirmish  on  a  country  road  and  McPherson,.  riding  to  its  assistance, 
was  killed.  The  battle  lasted  over  four  hours.  At  four  o'clock  Hood 
plunged  into  the  remnant  of  McPherson's  line  and  drove  it  back  400  yards, 
carrying  two  important  batteries  in  the  face  of  a  murderous  fire.  Schofield's 
batteries  were  hurried  up  to  maintain  this  desirable  position  and  aid  the 
Fifteenth  Corps  to  regain  its  lost  ground  at  any  cost.  This  move  was  success- 
ful. Hood  retreated  to  his  intrenchments  having  lost  all  his  guns  except 
the  two  advance  ones.  Sherman  lost  3722  men  and  Hood  many  more. 
Atlanta  became  the  capital  of  Georgia  in  1878. 

Atlantic  Cable,  was  projected  by  Cyrus  W.  Field  in  1854.  In  that  year 
he  obtained  a  charter  from  the  Legislature  of  Newfoundland  for  a  fifty 
years'  exclusive  right  to  the  laying  of  a  cable  from  Newfoundland  to  Great 
Britain  and.  from  the  Continent  of  America  to  Newfoundland.  The  New 
York,  Newfoundland  and  London  Telegraph  Company  was  occupied  two 
years  in  completing  the  connection  between  America,  at  Cape  Breton,  and 
Newfoundland.  In  1856  Field  organized  the  Atlantic  Telegraph  Com- 
pany. The  first  two  attempts  at  connecting  the  two  continents,  in  1857  and 
the  first  time  in  1858,  failed.  The  third  attempt,  late  in  1858,  was  success- 
ful but  lasted  only  a  few  months.  Then  the  Civil  War  suspended  operations. 
In  1865  the  "Great  Eastern"  laid  1200  miles,  when  the  cable  snapped.  In 
1866  two  thousand  miles  were  safely  covered  and  the  Atlantic  Cable  was 
established. 

Attainder.  During  the  Revolution  bills  of  attainder  were  frequently 
passed  by  State  Legislatures,  and  were  productive  of  much  evil.  Accord- 
ingly, the  Constitution  provided  that  neither  Congress  nor  the  State  Legis- 
latures should  thereafter  pass  any  such  acts. 

Attorney-General.  Colonies  and  States  had  their  Attorneys-General 
before  1789.  The  Judiciary  Act  of  that  year,  organizing  the  Federal  judiciary 
under  the  new  Constitution,  provided  for  an  Attorney-General  of  the  United 
States,  to  act  as  government  counsel,  with  a  salary  of  $1500.  At  first  he 
had  little  to  do,  and  could  practice  for  himself;  but  he  was  always  a  member 
of  the  Cabinet.  In  1858  he  was  provided  with  an  assistant.  In  1861  he 
was  given  charge  of  U.  S.  district  attorneys  and  marshals.  In  1870  the  office 
was  organized  as  the  Department  of  Justice.  (For  a  list  of  the  Attorneys- 
General  see  Cabinets.) 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  43 

Attucks,  Crispus,  of  Massachusetts,  a  mulatto,  the  first  killed  in  the 
"Boston  Massacre  "  of  March  5,  1770.  His  funeral  was  conducted  with 
great  public  ceremony. 

Auditors  of  the  Treasury.  The  auditor  was,  from  1782,  the  third  officer 
of  that  department.  The  first  auditor  dates  from  September  2,  1789;  the 
second  auditor  from  March  3,  1817;  the  third  auditor  from  March  3,  1817 
(appointed  in  lieu  of  the  Accountant  of  the  War  Department,  created  by  Act 
of  Congress,  May  8,  1792);  the  fourth  auditor  and  fifth  auditor,  March  3, 
1817;  the  sixth  auditor,  July  2,  1836. 

Audubon,  John  J.  (1780—1851),  an  American  naturalist,  born  in  Louis- 
iana, was  devoted  especially  to  ornithology.  His  magnificent  work,  the 
"  Birds  of  America,"  brought  him  great  fame  and  admission  to  membership 
in  many  learned  sqcieties. 

Augur,  Christopher  C.,  born  in  18^1,  soldier,  served  in  the  Mexican  War 
as  aid  to  General  Caleb  Gushing.  In  1861  he  was  appointed  major;  as 
brigadier-general  commanded  a  division  at  Cedar  Mountain,  where  he  was 
severely  wounded.  He  was  made  major-general  in  1862.  Commanded  the 
left  wing  of  the  army  at  Port  Hudson.  After  the  close  of  the  war  he  was 
commandant  of  various  military  departments.  Retired  in  1884.  Died  1898. 

Augusta,  Me.,  was  founded  as  "  Cushnoc "  shortly  after  1629.  I*  was 
devastated  in  the  second  Indian  War  and  was  not  again  permanently  settled 
until  1754.  It  was  incorporated  in  1787,  and  became  the  capital  in  1832. 

Augusta,  Fort.  In  1720  a  certain  Dr.  Noyes  erected  at  his  own  expense 
a  strong  fort  on  the  Kennebec  River,  in  Maine,  which  he  called  Augusta.  In 
1756-57  Colonel  William  Clapham  built  a  fort  at  Shamokin,  now  Sunbury, 
Pa.,  and  called  it  Augusta.  It  was  for  the  protection  of  the  colonists  against 
the  Indians,  and  was  garrisoned  by  the  king's  troops.  It  was  attacked  by 
the  Indians  in  1764,  but  without  success. 

"Augusta  Chronicle,"  the  second  newspaper  established  in  Georgia.  It 
was  first  issued  by  J.  E.  Smith,  in  1785,  at  Augusta.  It  was  afterward 
consolidated  with  the  Constitutionalist  and  called  the  Chronicle  and  Consti- 
tutionalist, under  which  title  it  is  still  published  daily,  tri-weekly  and  weekly. 

Aurora,  a  Dutch  communistic  settlement  on  the  Oregon  and  California 
rivers,  twenty-nine  miles  south  of  Portland,  Ore.  It  is  also  called  Dutch- 
town,  and  was  founded  in  1855  by  Dr.  Keil,  a  Prussian,  who  had  also  estab- 
lished the  Bethel  community  in  Missouri  in  1844. 

Austerfield,  a  small  hamlet  in  the  north  of  Yorkshire,  England,  whence 
came  a  number  of  the  Pilgrims,  the  most  notable  among  them  from  this 
town  being  William  Bradford,  who  was  born  at  Austerfield  in  1590. 

Austin,  Benjamin  (1752-1820),  of  Massachusetts,  merchant,  a  political 
pamphleteer  during  the  Revolution  and  writer  of  many  fierce  newspaper 
articles  against  the  Federalist  Party  during  the  administration  of  John  Adams. 

Austin,  Stephen  F.  (about  1790-1836),  of  Texas,  pioneer.  Obtaining  from 
the  Mexican  government  the  confirmation  of  a  grant  to  his  father  of  land 


44  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

in  Texas,  he  induced  a  large  number  of  Americans  to  emigrate  thither. 
In  1835  he  became  commander  of  the  Texan  Revolutionists  and  went  to 
Washington  to  secure  recognition  from  the  Government  of  the  United  States. 
He  died  soon  after  his  return. 

Austin,  Tex.,  was  chosen  as  the  capital  of  the  Republic  of  Texas  in 
1839.  For  a  brief  period  in  1842  this  position  was  disputed  with  Houston, 
but  Austin  retained  it,  and  since  the  annexation  of  Texas  in  1845  nas  Deen 
capital  of  the  State. 

Austria- Hungary.  A  commercial  treaty  was  concluded  between  the 
United  States  and  Austria-Hungary  in  1829.  A  convention  relative  to 
disposal  of  property  was  concluded  in  1848,  another  relative  to  extradition 
in  1856,  and  a  third  concerning  the  rights,  privileges  and  immunities  of 
consuls,  July  11,  1870.  By  a  convention  concluded  September  20,  1870,  the 
rights  of  naturalization  were  recognized  of  citizens  of  both  countries  after  a 
residence  of  five  years  and  legal  naturalization.  A  convention  relative  to 
trade-marks  was  concluded  November  25,  1871. 

Avalon,  the  name  of  a  colony  established  in  Newfoundland  in  1623  by 
George  Calvert,  first  Lord  Baltimore.  He  visited  the  colony  himself  in  1627, 
remaining  there  a  few  weeks.  The  colony  was  established  under  the  royal 
charter  and  was  so  called  after  Avalon,  in  Somersetshire,  England.  Subse- 
quently Calvert,  becoming  dissatisfied  with  this  colony,  obtained  the  grant 
which  resulted  in  the  founding  of  Maryland. 

Averell,  William  W.,  born  in  1832,  of  New  York,  cavalry  officer,  was 
ordered  to  frontier  duty  in  1857,  where  he  saw  much  Indian  fighting.  In 
1 86 1  as  colonel  he  commanded  the  cavalry  in  the  defence  of  Washington. 
In  March,  1863,  he  began  the  series  of  cavalry  raids  in  Virginia  and  West 
Virginia  that  have  made  him  famous.  He  attained  the  rank  of  brevet 
major-general. 

Averysboro,  N.  C.  Near  this  place  on  March  15,  1865,  Slocum's  divi- 
sion of  Sherman's  Federal  army  encountered  9000  Confederates  under 
Hardee,  who  was  marching  to  join  Johnston.  Hardee  was  posted  in  a 
swampy  neck,  and  the  Federals,  after  a  severe  conflict,  succeeded  in  dislodg- 
ing him.  They,  however,  suffered  most  in  killed  and  wounded.  Hardee 
retreated  in  the  night  toward  Smithfield. 

Ayllon,  Lucas  Vasquez  de  (d.  1526),  Spanish  adventurer,  was  a  member 
of  the  Superior  Court  of  Santo  Domingo.  He  sent  an  expedition  to 
Florida  in  1520  under  Gordillo,  who  landed  in  latitude  33°  30'.  In  1526 
he  sailed  himself,  landed  at  Santee,  proceeded  northward  and  founded  a  set- 
tlement on  the  later  site  of  Jamestown,  which  was  soon  abandoned.  He 
died  there. 

Ayres,  Romeyn  B.  (1825-1888),  of  New  York,  soldier.  In  the'civil  War 
he  took  part  in  the  battles  of  Antietam,  Fredericksburg,  Chancellorsville, 
Gettysburg,  and  in  the  final  movement  against  Richmond. 

Azilia,  Margraviate  of,  a  grant  secured  by  Sir  Robert  Montgomery  in 
1717  from  the  Lords  Proprietors  of  Carolina.  It  included  the  districts 
between  the  Altamaha  and  Savannah  rivers. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  45 


B. 

Babcock,  James  F.  (1809-1874),  of  Connecticut,  journalist,  was  a  prom- 
inent Whig  till  1854,  when  he  joined  the  Republicans,  whose  war  policy 
he  ably  supported  in  the  Palladium,  but  afterward  joined  the  Democrats. 

Babcock,  Orville  E.  (1835-1884),  officer  of  engineers,  was  at  the  siege 
of  Vicksburg  in  1863,  and  was  an  aide  to  General  Grant  from  1864  till  1869. 
He  superintended  the  construction  of  many  public  works  in  Washington. 

Bache,  Alexander  Dallas  (1806—1867),  of  Philadelphia,  scientist,  is  best 
known  by  his  valuable  work  as  superintendent  of  the  Coast  Survey,  which 
office  he  held  from  1843  ^H  n^s  death. 

Bache,  Sarah  (1744-1808),  of  Philadelphia,  only  daughter  of  Benjamin 
Franklin,  was  active  in  aid  of  the  suffering  soldiers  in  1780,  having  more 
than  2000  women  sewing  for  the  army  under  her  direction. 

Backus,  Isaac  (1724-1806),  of  Massachusetts,  was  pastor  of  a  Baptist 
church  in  Middleborough  from  1756,  and  for  thirty-four  years  a  trustee  of 
Rhode  Island  College,  now  Brown  University,  and  an  influential  delegate  to 
the  Massachusetts  Convention  of  1788.  He  wrote  a  history  of  the  New 
England  Baptists. 

Bacon,  Leonard  (1802-1881),  of  Connecticut,  was  pastor  of  the  First 
Congregational  Church  in  New  Haven  fifty-seven  years,  and  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  New  Englander  and  The  Independent. 

Bacon,  Nathaniel  (about  1630-1677),  was  born  in  England,  and  became 
a  planter  in  Virginia  and  member  of  the  Governor's  council.  The  disaffection 
with  Governor  Berkeley's  measures  found  a  natural  leader  in  Bacon,  who  had 
conducted  in  an  efficient  manner  a  threatening  Indian  war.  Bacon,  pro- 
claimed a  rebel  in  May,  1676,  was  tried  and  acquitted,  and  was  soon  in 
command  of  an  expedition  against  the  Governor,  in  the  course  of  which 
Jamestown  was  burned.  The  revolutionary  party  seemed  to  be  in  the 
ascendant,  but  the  sudden  death  of  Bacon  was  soon  followed  by  its  collapse. 

Bacon's  Rebellion.  In  July,  1676,  Governor  Berkeley,  of  Virginia,  had 
become  exceedingly  unpopular  because  of  his  inefficiency  in  protecting  the 
settlers  from  Indian  ravages,  his  tendency  to  restrict  the  franchise  and 
institute  high  tax  rates.  The  people  therefore,  led  by  Nathaniel  Bacon,  a 
popular  lawyer,  took  up  arms,  ostensibly  against  the  Indians,  but  in  reality 
in  order  to  resist  the  Governor  and  bring  him  to  terms.  Berkeley  was 
compelled  to  make  concessions,  dismantle  the  forts,  dissolve  the  old  assembly 
and  issue  writs  for  a  new  election.  But  he  did  not  keep  faith  with  the 
insurgents.  Consequently  a  desultory  war  broke  out  in  the  course  of  which 
Jamestown,  then  the  capital  of  the  colony,  was  burned.  Berkeley  was 
forced  to  take  refuge  on  some  English  vessels.  Bacon  died  in  1677  and  the 
Rebellion  ended  for  want  of  a  leader. 

Badeau,  Adam,  born  in  1831,  soldier,  was  severely  wounded  at  Port 
Hudson  in  1863.  He  was  military  secretary  to  General  Grant  from  1864  to 


46  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

1869,  and  consul-general  at  London  from  1870  to  1881.     He  published  a 
book  on  Grant's  military  career.     Died  1895. 

Baden.  A  convention  for  the  extradition  of  criminals  was  concluded 
between  the  United  States  and  Baden,  January  30,  1857.  By  treaty  in  1868 
a  naturalization  agreement  was  reached  between  the  two  countries. 

Badger,  George  E.  (1795-1866),  of  North  Carolina,  was  four  years  in  the 
State  Legislature  and  five  years  a  Judge  of  one  of  its  Superior  Courts, — 
was  Secretary  of  the  Navy  under  President  Harrison,  1841,  and  U.  S.  Senator 
from  1846  to  1855.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Secession  Convention  of  1861, 
in  which  he  spoke  ably  in  defence  of  the  Union. 

Bailey,  Gamaliel  (1807-1859),  of  New  Jersey,  journalist,  an  active  anti- 
slavery  agitator.  From  1836  to  1844  he,  with  James  G.  Birney,  published 
the  Cincinnati  Philanthropist,  whose  publication  office  was  three  times  sacked 
by  a  mob,  and,  from  1847  till  his  death,  the  National  Era  at  Washington,  in 
which  "  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin  "  originally  appeared. 

Bailey,  Joseph  (1827-1867),  of  Wisconsin,  military  engineer,  as  lieutenant- 
colonel  accompanied  the  army  under  General  Banks  in  the  Red  River 
Expedition,  in  which  he  distinguished  himself  by  conceiving  and  executing 
in  twelve  days  the  celebrated  dam  by  which  he  saved  Admiral  Porter's  fleet 
and  for  which  he  received  the  thanks  of  Congress  and  the  brevet  rank  of 
brigadier-general. 

Bailey,  Theodorus  (1805-1877),  naval  officer,  was  active  in  the  Mexican 
War  on  the  Pacific  Coast,  and  was  second  in  command  in  Farragut's  fleet 
which  captured  New  Orleans  in  1862. 

Bainbridge,  William  (1774-1833),  commodore,  began  life  as  a  sailor  at 
the  age  of  fifteen,  and  had  several  impromptu  encounters  with  British  vessels 
before  he  was  appointed  to  the  navy  in  the  war  with  France,  1798.  In  the 
Tripolitan  War  in  1803  he  commanded  the  "  Philadelphia,"  which  in  1804 
was  wrecked.  Bainbridge  was  held  in  captivity  for  over  a  year  by  the 
Tripolitans.  His  great  exploit  was  in  the  War  of  1812,  when  as  com- 
mander of  the  famous  "  Constitution  "  he  defeated  and  captured  the  British 
"Java,"  December  26,  1812.  His  later  service*  was  in  the  navy  yards,  in 
Mediterranean  ports  and  as  naval  commissioner. 

Baird,  Henry  M.,  born  in  1832,  of  New  Jersey,  was  graduated  at  the 
University  of  the  City  of  New  York  in  1850.  Afterward  studied  in  Greece. 
In  1859  became  professor  of  Greek  in  Princeton  College;  subsequently  a 
professor  in  the  University  of  the  City  of  New  York.  He  has  written 
valued  histories  of  the  Huguenots. 

Baird,  Spencer  F.  (1823-1887),  of  Washington,  D.  C.,  naturalist,  in  1878 
he  succeeded  Professor  Joseph  Henry  as  secretary  of  the  Smithsonian 
Institution,  and  from  1871  was  U.  S.  Commissioner  of  Fish  and  Fisheries, 
for  his  work  in  connection  with  which  he  received  several  medals  and  deco- 
rations from  foreign  powers,  and  membership  in  many  learned  societies. 

Baker,  Edward  Dickenson  (1811-1861),  attained  distinction  in  Illinois 
as  an  eloquent  orator,  a  lawyer,  and  Whig  Congressman  in  1843-49.  He 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  47 

commanded  a  brigade  in  the  Mexican  War,  and  afterward  settled  in  Cali- 
fornia. Removing  to  Oregon  lie  was  a  Republican  U.  S.  Senator  in  1861. 
He  was  a  colonel  in  the  Civil  War,  and  while  commanding  the  Federal 
troops  in  the  unfortunate  battle  of  Ball's  Bluff,  October  21,  1861,  he  was 
killed  in  front  of  his  men. 

Baker,  Lafayette  C.  (1826-1868),  as  Chief  of  the  U.  S.  Secret  Service 
during  the  Civil  War,  displayed  great  daring  and  energy,  and  frustrated  many 
conspiracies  against  the  government 

Balboa,  Vasco  Nunez  (1475-1517),  a  Spanish  soldier.  He  discovered 
the  Pacific  Ocean  on  September  25,  1513.  Four  years  later  he  was  charged 
with  contemplated  revolt  and  was  beheaded. 

Baldwin,  Abraham  (1754-1807),  of  Georgia,  was  chaplain  in  General 
Greene's  army  from  1777  till  the  close  of  the  war.  As  a  member  of  the 
Legislature  of  Georgia  he  was  the  originator  of  the  University  of  Georgia 
and  was  its  first  president.  Was  in  Congress  from  1785  to  1799,  a  member 
of  the  Federal  Constitutional  Convention  of  1787,  and  U.  S.  Senator  from 
1799  till  his  death. 

Baldwin,  Henry  (1780-1844),  represented  Pennsylvania  in  the  U.  S. 
Congress  as  a  Federalist  from  1817  to  1822.  He  was  a  Justice  of  the  U.  S. 
Supreme  Court  from  1830  to  1844. 

Baldwin,  Roger  S.  (1793-1863),  of  Connecticut,  jurist,  in  1839,  jointly 
with  John  Ouincy  Adams,  argued  the  "  Amistad  "  case  before  the  U.  S. 
Supreme  Court.  He  was  Governor  of  Connecticut  in  1844  and  1845. 

Ball,  Thomas,  born  in  1819,  of  Massachusetts,  sculptor,  has  executed 
statues  of  almost  all  the  public  men  of  the  United  States,  the  noblest  being 
that  of  Webster  in  Central  Park,  New  York  City. 

Ballot.  The  first  instance  of  the  use  of  the  ballot  in  American  elections 
was  in  the  choice  of  a  pastor  by  the  Salem  Church  on  July  20,  1629.  In  ^34 
it  began  to  be  used  in  elections  of  the  Governor  of  Massachusetts.  In  1639  a 
ballot  with  some  restrictions  was  instituted  in  the  fundamental  orders  of 
Connecticut.  In  1629  tne  ballot  was  used  in  some  municipal  and  ecclesias- 
tical elections  in  the  Netherlands,  and  seems  not  to  have  been  used  in 
England.  It  may,  therefore,  have  been  introduced  by  imitation  of  the 
Dutch,  but  this  is  not  yet  proved.  Voting  by  ballot  was  made  obligatory  by 
the  constitutions  of  Pennsylvania,  New  Jersey  and  North  Carolina,  adopted 
in  1776.  Open  voting  long  prevailed  in  some  of  the  Southern  States, 
but  the  ballot  system  has  long  been  generally  in  vogue  except  in  Kentucky, 
where  the  viva  voce  method  prevailed  till  1890  for  local  and  State  elections. 
Representatives  in  Congress  are  elected  by  ballot  under  the  provisions 
of  an  Act  of  Congress  of  1875.  In  Alabama,  Florida,  Indiana,  Kansas,  Ken- 
tucky, Louisiana,  Nevada,  North  Carolina,  Pennsylvania,  Tennessee  and 
Texas,  there  is  a  constitutional  provision  requiring  the  Legislature  to  vote 
viva  voce.  In  1888  the  Australian  ballot  system  was  adopted  at  Louisville, 
Ky.,  and  in  Massachusetts.  With  more  or  less  variation  in  the  form  a  large 
majority  (37)  of  the  States  have  now  (1894)  followed  this  plan  of  voting,  the 
exceptions  being  the  Carolinas,  Georgia,  Florida,  Louisiana,  Texas  and  Idaho. 


48  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Ballou,  Hosea  (1771-1852),  of  Massachusetts,  clergyman,  prominent  in 
the  Universalist  denomination,  and  pastor  of  one  of  its  churches  in  Boston 
for  more  than  thirty-five  years. 

Ball's  Bluff,  Va.  Here,  October  22,  1861,  Colonels  Baker  and  Devens, 
with  1900  Federal  soldiers  of  McClellan's  army,  fell  in  with  a  Confederate 
ambush  and  were  utterly  routed.  Devens  had  been  sent  to  reconnoitre  and 
capture,  if  possible,  a  supposed  Confederate  camp  near  L,eesburg.  The 
camp  could  not  be  found  and  Devens  sent  to  Stone,  his  superior,  for  further 
orders.  Baker  was  sent  to  join  him,  arriving  in  time  to  share  the  defeat. 
The  Confederates  fought  from  the  shelter  of  the  woods.  The  Federal  troops 
were  driven  over  the  Bluff  and  many  killed  in  a  hand-to-hand  fight,  among 
them  Colonel  Baker,  ex-Senator  from  Oregon. 

Balmaceda,  Jose  M.  (1840-1891),  was  President  of  Chili  from  1886  to 
1891.  During  the  Chilian  Revolution  U.  S.  Minister  Egan  favored  the  gov- 
ernment of  Balmaceda,  and  incurred  the  displeasure  of  the  provisional 
government,  or  congressional  opposition. 

Baltimore.     (See  Calvert.) 

Baltimore,  Md.,  was  founded  in  1729-30.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  Revo- 
lution it  had  6000  inhabitants.  In  1777  a  mob  assailed  a  Tory  editor  (God- 
dard).  In  1812  there  was  a  more  serious  outbreak  against  a  Federal  paper, 
Hanson's  Federal  Republican.  In  1814  the  British  were  repulsed  from  the 
city  in  the  battle  of  North  Point  and  the  bombardment  of  Fort  McHenry. 
On  April  19, 1861,  a  body  of  Federal  troops  on  their  way  to  Washington  were 
attacked  in  Baltimore  by  a  mob  and  a  number  of  citizens  and  soldiers  were 
killed.  On  May  13  General  Butler  took  military  possession  of  the  city.  He 
was  succeeded  by  General  Banks  and  later  by  General  Dix.  Population  in 
1860,  212,418;  in  1890,  434,151. 

Bancroft,  Edward  (1744-1820),  an  American  of  literary  and  scientific 
tastes  residing  in  England,  during  the  Revolutionary  War,  through  friend- 
ship with  Deane  and  Franklin  obtained  information  which  he  sold  to  the 
British  government. 

Bancroft,  George  (1800-1891),  the  most  famous  American  historian, 
was  born  in  Worcester,  Mass.,  the  son  of  a  clergyman.  He  was  gradu- 
ated from  Harvard  College  and  studied  extensively  in  Germany.  Return- 
ing, he  taught,  and  became  active  as  a  Democratic  politician.  In  1834  he 
published  the  first  volume  of  a  history  of  the  United  States,  which  speedily 
attained  enormous  popularity.  The  volumes  appeared  successively  from  this 
time  to  1882.  Under  Polk  Bancroft  was  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  1845-46, 
established  the  Naval  Academy  at  Annapolis,  and  caused  the  seizure  of 
California.  From  1846  to  1849  he  was  Minister  to  Great  Britain;  from 
1867  to  1874  to  Germany.  His  history  is  still  the  most  important  history 
of  the  United  States  by  a  single  author.  The  last  portion  was  separately 
published  as  a  History  of  the  Formation  and  Adoption  of  the  Constitution. 
His  narrative  is  learned,  picturesque  and  ardently  patriotic. 

Bancroft,  Hubert  H.,  born  in  1832,  from  youth  a  resident  of  California, 
has  gathered  an  enormous  library  of  material  relating  to  the  history  of  the 


COLONIAL    GOVERNORS. 

James    Oglethorpe.  Peter    Stuyvesant. 

Sir    Henry    Vane.  Josiah    Winsiow. 

William    Penn. 

Lord    Baltimore.  John    Winthrop. 

Marquis  de   Montcaim.  Sir    Walter    Raleigh.  Capt.  John    Smith. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  49 

Pacific  Coast,  and  published  in  thirty-nine  volumes  a  comprehensive  and 
valuable  history  of  the  same. 

Bandelier,  Adolph  F.  A.,  born  in  Switzerland  in  1840,  has  distinguished 
himself  as  a  student  of  American  archaeology,  as  an  explorer  for  the 
Archaeological  Institute  of  America  in  New  Mexico,  Arizona,  Mexico  and 
Central  America,  and  as  a  writer  upon  these  subjects. 

Bank  of  North  America,  chartered  by  Congress  at  Philadelphia,  Decem- 
ber 31,  1781,  upon  the  suggestion  of  Robert  Morris.  It  also  received  a 
charter  from  Pennsylvania  in  1783.  Morris  believed  this  national  bank  would 
relieve  the  financial  situation. 

Bank  of  the  United  jftates  vs.  Halstead.  This  case  came  before  the 
Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States  on  a  certificate  of  division  from  the  Cir- 
cuit Court  of  Kentucky  in  1825.  Certain  property,  including  real  estate,, 
was  exposed  to  sale  for  debt,  but,  less  than  three-fourths  of  its  appraised  value 
being  bid,  it  was  not  sold.  The  Supreme  Court  decided  that  it  had  jurisdic- 
tion in  a  case  to  which  the  Bank  of  the  United  States  was  a  party,  and  that 
a  law  which  forbade  sales  of  land  under  execution  for  less  than  three-fourths 
of  its  appraised  value  did  not  apply  to  writs  of  execution  issued  by  Federal 
courts. 

Bank  of  the  United  States  vs.  Planters'  Bank  of  Georgia,  an  impor- 
tant Supreme  Court  case.  This  was  a  suit  brought  by  the  Bank  of  the 
United  States  for  payment  of  a  promissory  note  of  which  it  was  the  endorsee 
for  the  Planters'  Bank  of  Georgia.  The  State  held  stock  in  the  latter  bank. 
The  case  was  tried  in  the  Circuit  Court  where  there  was  a  division  of  opinion 
as  to  jurisdiction.  The  Supreme  Court  decided  in  1824  that  if  a  State 
became  a  party  to  a  banking  or  commercial  enterprise,  the  State  could  be 
sued  in  the  course  of  the  business;  also  that  the  Circuit  Court  had  jurisdic- 
tion in  such  matters. 

Bankruptcy.  The  Constitution  of  the  United  States  gives  Congress  power 
to  establish  uniform  laws  on  the  subject  of  bankruptcy  throughout  the  United 
States.  This  power  has  been  exercised  but  three  times.  On  April  4,  1800,  a 
bankrupt  act  was  passed  by  Congress,  which  remained  in  force  until  repealed 
in  December,  1803.  Another  was  passed  on  August  19,  1841,  and  repealed 
in  1843.  The  third,  called  the  Lowell  Act,  was  passed  on  March  2,  1867, 
and  repealed  in  1878.  During  the  remainder  of  our  history  all  matters 
relating  to  bankruptcy  have  been  under  the  control  of  State  laws. 

Banks.  Nearly  all  the  colonies  emitted  paper  money  (bills  of  credit),  and 
frequently  these  bills  were  issued  under  the  forms  of  banking.  The  English 
government  opposed  these  schemes.  In  1781  the  Continental  Congress 
chartered  the  Bank  of  North  America,  but  its  power  to  do  so  was  doubted, 
and  the  bank  was  chartered  by  Pennsylvania  in  1783.  Up  to  1791  the  only 
banks  in  the  United  States  were  this  and  two  others,  one  in  Boston  and  one 
in  New  York.  In  1791,  at  the  instance  of  Alexander  Hamilton,  Secretary 
of  the  Treasury,  Congress,  against  considerable  opposition,  incorporated  the 
Bank  of  the  United  States,  with  a  capital  of  $10,000,000.  The  United 
States  was  to  subscribe  $2,000,000  of  this.  The  charter  was  to  run  twenty 
4 


50  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

years.  The  bills  of  the  bank  were  to  be  receivable  in  payment  of  dues  to 
the  government,  and  it  had  the  power  to  establish  branch  banks.  The 
power  of  Congress  to  incorporate  such  a  bank  was  denied  by  Jefferson  and 
others.  But  Hamilton  argued  that  such  powers  were  implied  in  the  very 
nature  of  a  sovereign  government,  and  were  conferred  by  the  clause  in  the 
Constitution  giving  Congress  power  to  pass  "  all  laws  necessary  and  proper 
for  carrying  into  execution"  the  enumerated  powers.  This  view  was  upheld 
by  the  Supreme  Court  in  the  case  of  McCulloch  vs.  Maryland,  which  estab- 
lished the  constitutionality  of  the  Bank  Act.  The  first  bank  of  the  United 
States  led  a  prosperous  and  useful  existence  till  1811,  when  its  charter 
expired,  Congress  refusing  to  recharter  it.  During  the  crisis  of  the  War  of 
1812  only  State  banks,  mostly  ill-regulated,  existed.  In  1816  the  second 
Bank  of  the  United  States  was  chartered,  with  a  charter  running  twenty 
years  and  a  capital  of  $35,000,000,  four-fifths  of  it  in  government  stocks. 
The  government  was  to  have  the  appointment  of  five  of  the  twenty-five 
directors,  and  the  bank  was  to  have  the  custody  of  the  public  funds.  In 
1829  President  Jackson,  angered  by  the  bank's  refusing  a  political  favor, 
began  a  series  of  attacks  upon  it.  In  1832  Congress  passed  an  act  renewing 
its  charter.  Jackson  vetoed  it.  In  the  election  of  1832  Jackson  was  victor- 
ious over  the  Whigs  and  the  bank,  which  he  considered,  and  had  indeed 
forced  to  be,  dangerously  implicated  in  politics.  In  September,  1833,  by 
his  orders,  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  caused  the  government  deposits  to 
be  diverted  from  the  bank,  and  lodged  in  State  banks  (called  "  pet  banks  "). 
(See  art.  Deposits.)  The  Senate's  protests  were  unavailing.  In  1836  the 
bank's  charter  expired.  Tyler,  in  1841,  vetoed  two  bills  to  revive  it,  and  in 
1846  the  Independent  Treasury  system,  already  tried  in"  1840-41,' was  per- 
manently established.  From  1836  to  1863  State  banks  alone  existed.  In 
the  earlier  part  of  this  period  they  were  often  uncontrolled  by  the  State 
governments  and  quite  unsound,  banks  being  established  and  bills  issued  by 
adventurers  possessing  no  capital  to  sustain  them.  New  York  provided  a 
system  of  State  supervision,  which  was  in  part  the  germ  of  the  national 
bank  system  of  1863.  ID  tnat  Year»  February  25,  the  National  Bank  Act 
was  passed.  It  permits  any  five  persons  to  establish  a  national  bank  and, 
on  depositing  United  States  bonds  with  the  Comptroller  of  the  Currency,  to 
issue  bank  notes  to  an  amount  not  exceeding  ninety  per  cent,  of  the  par 
value  of  those  bonds.  The  notes  so  issued  are  guaranteed  by  the  govern- 
ment, which  inspects  the  banks  from  time  to  time,  and  are  receivable  in 
payment  of  taxes.  On  March  3,  1865,  an  act  was  passed  imposing  a  tax  of 
ten  per  cent,  on  the  circulation  of  State  banks.  On  September  30,  1892, 
there  were  3773  national  banks  in  the  United  States,  and  3191  State  banks. 

Banks,  Nathaniel  P.,  born  in  1816,  originally  a  machinist,  was  Repre- 
sentative from  Massachusetts  from  1853  to  1857.  In  1855  he  was  chosen 
Speaker,  after  a  contest  lasting  more  than  two  months,  on  the  I33d  ballot. 
He  was  Governor  of  Massachusetts  in  1858,  1859  and  1860.  As  major-gen- 
eral in  the  Civil  War  he  fought  the  indecisive  battle  of  Cedar  Mountain  and 
took  Port  Hudson,  but  was  unsuccessful  in  the  Red  River  Expedition  of  1864. 
Again  a  member  of  Congress  from  1865  to  1873;  from  1877  to  1879;  and 
from  1889  to  1891.  Died  September  i,  1894. 


DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  51 

• 

Banks,  Savings.  The  first  incorporated  in  the  United  States  was  the  Bos- 
ton Provident  Savings  Institution,  incorporated  December  13,  1816.  The 
Philadelphia  Savings  Fund  Society  went  into  operation  the  same  year,  and 
was  incorporated  in  1819.  In  1818  savings  banks  were  incorporated  in 
Baltimore  and  Salem,  Mass.,  and  in  1819  in  New  York,  Hartford,  Conn.,  and 
Newport  and  Providence,  R.  I.  There  are  now  more  than  a  thousand,  with 
deposits  amounting  to  more  than  $450,000,000. 

Baptists.  In  most  of  the  colonies  the  Baptists  were  persecuted.  In  Rhode 
Island  they  were  especially  numerous.  They  had  much  to  do  with  that 
agitation  for  religious  liberty  which  culminated  in  the  passage  of  the  first 
amendment  to  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States.  In  1762  there  were 
fifty-six  Baptist  churches  in  the  region  now  occupied  by  the  United  States; 
in  1792,  1000;  in  1812,  2433;  in  1832,  5322;  in  1852,  9500;  in  1872,  18,397. 
According  to  the  census  of  1890,  there  were  in  that  year,  of  all  varieties  of 
Baptists,  41,629  church  organizations,  with  3,594,093  communicants.  In 
1845  tne  Baptists  split  into  a  northern  and  a  southern  body,  because  of  differ- 
ences arising  out  of  the  question  of  slavery. 

Baranoff,  Alexander  Andre vitch  (1746-1819),  a  Russian  trader,  founded 
a  trading-post  at  Behring  Strait  in  1796,  and  was  Governor  of  Russian 
America  till  his  death. 

Barataria,  pirates  of,  a  band  of  Louisiana  outlaws,  who,  under  their 
chief  Lafitte,  rendered  General  Jackson  material  assistance  in  his  Louisiana 
and  New  Orleans  campaign  in  1815.  They  had  refused  offers  from  the 
British. 

Barbary  Powers.     (See  Algerine  War,  Tripoli,  Tunis.) 

Barbour,  James  (1775-1842),  Governor  of  Virginia  from  1812  to  1815; 
Senator  from  that  State  from  1815  to  1825;  Secretary  of  War  from  1825  t° 
1828;  then  for  a  year  Minister  to  England. 

Barbour,  Philip  P.  (1783-1841),  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  a  Repre- 
sentative from  Virginia  from  1814  to  1825,  an^  fr°m  ^27  to  1830.  He  was 
Speaker  of  the  House  of  Representatives  from  1821  to  1823,  an^  a  Justice 
of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States  from  1836  to  1841. 

Barlow,  Arthur  (1550-1620),  was  sent  out  by  Raleigh  in  1584,  in  com- 
mand of  an  expedition  of  discovery  preparatory  to  colonization.  He  explored 
Pamlico  and  Albemarle  Sounds,  in  company  with  Philip  Amidas,  and  brought 
home  favorable  reports. 

Barlow,  Francis  C.,  general,  born  1834,  as  colonel  distinguished  himself 
at  Fair  Oaks,  as  brigadier-general  at  Antietam,  Chancellorsville  and  Gettys- 
burg, and  commanded  a  division  with  great  success  at  Spottsylvania 
Court  House.  Since  the  war  has  been  Secretary  and  Attorney-General  of 
New  York. 

Barlow,  Joel  (1754-1812),  born  in  Connecticut,  was  graduated  at  Yale 
College  and,  as  one  of  the  "Hartford  Wits,"  distinguished  himself  in 
literature,  especially  by  the  publication  of  his  epic  poem,  "  The  Vision  of 
Columbus,"  in  1787.  Going  abroad  as  a  land-agent  in  1788,  he  engaged  in 


52  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

• 

Republican  politics  in  England  and  France,  negotiated  the  treaty  with 
Algiers  in  1795,  and  devoted  himself  for  several  years  to  literary  and  mercan- 
tile pursuits,  residing  at  Paris.  Other  poems  of  his  were  "  Hasty  Pudding  " 
and  "The  Columbiad."  In  1805  he  returned  to  America.  Appointed  in 
1811  minister  to  Napoleon,  he  died  in  Poland  in  1812.  Life  by  Todd. 

Barnard,  Frederick  A.  P.  (1809-1889),  an  eminent  educator,  president 
of  the  University  of  Mississippi  from  1856  to  1861  and  of  Columbia  College 
from  1864  to  1889,  held  also  many  governmental  appointments  of  an  educa- 
tional nature. 

Barnard,  Henry,  born  1811,  an  eminent  reformer  of  educational  methods, 
was  from  1867  to  1870  U.  S.  commissioner  of  education,  having  previously 
been  school  commissioner  of  Rhode  Island  and  Connecticut.  A  prolific  and 
influential  writer  on  educational  matters. 

Barnburners,  a  faction  of  the  Democratic  Party  in  New  York  State, 
so  called  from  an  alleged  eagerness  for  radical  measures,  in  allusion  to  the 
story  of  the  Dutchman  who  burned  down  his  barn  to  clear  it  from  rats. 
The  election  of  Polk  in  1844  resulted  in  a  split  of  the  party  in  New  York 
into  two  factions,  the  "  Barnburners,"  representing  the  Van  Buren  wing  and 
opposing  the  extension  of  slavery  in  the  territories,  and  the •"  Hunkers," 
representing  the  administration  and  its  views.  In  1848,  in  the  Democratic 
National  Convention  there  were  contesting  delegations  from  New  York 
representing  the  two  factions.  Unable  to  secure  complete  recognition  the 
Barnburners  joined  in  the  Free-Soil  Convention,  voted  for  Van  Buren,  and 
so  helped  to  elect  Taylor.  The  breach  between  Barnburners  and  Hunkers 
was  healed  in  1852,  more  or  less  perfectly. 

Barnes,  Joseph  K.  (1817-1883),  surgeon-general  U.  S.  A.  from  1863  to 
1882,  founded  the  Army  Medical  Museum  and  the  invaluable  library  of  the 
surgeon-general's  office. 

Barney,  Joshua  (1759-1818),  a  naval  officer  in  the  Revolutionary  War, 
distinguished  himself  by  gallantry  and  by  various  adventures,  and  in  1782 
commanded  the  "  Hyder  Ali  "  in  its  capture  of  the  "  General  Monk."  From 
1794  to  1800  he  was  in  the  naval  service  of  the  French  Republic.  In  1814 
he  was  appointed  to  the  command  of  the  flotilla  which  was  to  defend  Chesa- 
peake Bay,  and  was  severely  wounded  at  the  battle  of  Bladensburg. 

Barre,  Isaac  (1726-1802),  a  British  colonel,  member  of  Parliament  from 
1761  to  1790,  obtained  great  popularity  in  America  by  his  opposition  to 
the  Stamp  Act  and  to  the  American  policy  of  Lord  North's  administration. 

Barren  Hill,  Pa.,  twelve  miles  from  Philadelphia.  In  the  Revolutionary 
War,  the  Americans,  commanded  by  Lafayette,  eluded  an  attempt  of  Howe 
to  capture  them  at  this  point,  May  20,  1778. 

Barren,  James  (1769-1851),  commodore  in  the  U.  S.  Navy,  commanded 
the  "  Chesapeake  "  when  the  "  Leopard  "  attacked  and  captured  her,  in  1807. 
Barren  was  tried  by  court-martial,  found  guilty  of  negligence  in  preparation, 
and  suspended  for  five  years.  In  1820  he  killed  Commodore  Decatur  in  a 
duel  arising  out  of  this  trial. 


DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  53 

Barrowists,  the  followers  of  Henry  Barrow,  or  Barrowe,  a  church  reformer 
of  the  latter  part  of  the  sixteenth  century.  They  advocated  church 
government  by  elders,  and  freedom  of  religious  thought  within  certain  limits. 
Their  creed  resembled  somewhat  that  of  the  modern  Congregationalists,  and 
the  Pilgrim  Fathers  and  the  Congregational  Church  of  New  England  sprang 
from  them.  (See  Brownists.) 

Barrundia,  Jose  M.,  Guatemalan  revolutionist,  sailed  from  Acapulco, 
Mexico,  to  San  Jose",  Guatemala,  in  an  American  merchant  vessel  (1890).  At 
San  Jos£,  the  Guatemalan  authorities,  in  an  attempt  to  arrest  him  on  board 
the  steamer,  killed  him.  U.  S.  Minister  Mizner  and  Commander  Reiter, 
U.  S.  Navy,  refused  to  interfere,  since  international  law  conceded  jurisdic- 
tion in  such  cases  to  the  authorities  of  the  country.  The  Navy  Department 
censured  Reiter. 

Barry,  John  (1745—1803),  born  in  Ireland,  an  active  commander  in  the 
Revolutionary  navy.  In  the  "  Lexington  "  he  captured  the  "  Edward,"  the 
first  British  war-vessel  captured  by  a  commissioned  officer  of  the  U.  S.  Navy. 
In  1781,  in  the  "  Alliance,"  he  captured  the  "  Atalanta  "  and  the  " Trepassy." 
On  the  revival  of  the  navy  in  1794  he  was  named  senior  officer,  with  the 
rank  of  commodore.  . 

Barry,  William  T.  (1785—1835),  born  in  Virginia,  attained  distinction  in 
Kentucky  politics,  and  was  Postmaster-General  to  Jackson  from  1829  to 
1835.  He  was  the  first  Postmaster-General  who  was  admitted  as  a  member 
into  the  Cabinet. 

Bartholdi,  Frederic,  born  1834,  French  sculptor,  executed,  at  the  instance 
of  the  French-American  Union,  the  colossal  statue  of  "  Liberty  Enlightening 
the  World,"  which  has  been  placed  on  Bedloe's  Island  to  adorn  New  York 
harbor. 

Bartlett,  Josiah  (1729-1795),  a  physician  of  New  Hampshire,  was  a 
member  of  the  Continental  Congress,  and  signed  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence. Afterward  he  was  Chief  Justice  of  his  State,  and  from  1790  to 
1794  was  its  President  or  Governor. 

Bartlett,  William  Francis  (1840-1876),  a  Massachusetts  officer  in  the 
Civil  War,  especially  conspicuous  for  gallantry  in  action,  left  his  class  at 
Harvard  to  enter  the  army  as  a  private  in  1861,  and  rose  before  the  end  of 
the  war  to  be  a  brevet  major-general.  He  was  wounded  at  Yorktown  and 
Port  Hudson,  and  taken  prisoner  at  Petersburg. 

Barton,  Clara,  born  in  Massachusetts  in  1830,  bore  an  important  part 
in  caring  for  the  wounded  on  the  battle-fields  of  the  Civil  War;  also  in  the 
Franco-German  and  Spanish-American  Wars.  In  1881  she  became  president 
of  the  American  Red  Cross  Society,  and  in  1884  represented  the  government 
at  the  Red  Cross  Conference  at  Geneva. 

Basques.  An  ancient  race  dwelling  in  the  Pyrenees.  Basques  are  said  to 
have  visited  the  American  coasts  before  Columbus,  in  the  pursuit  of  whales 
or  of  the  fish  of  the  banks  of  Newfoundland.  It  is  not  improbable,  but> 
cannot  be  said  to  have  been  proved  to  general  satisfaction. 


54  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Bassett,  Richard  (d.  1815),  was  a  member  of  the  Constitutional  Conven- 
tion of  1787,  and  a  signer  of  the  Constitution.  From  1789  to  1793  he  was 
a  Senator  from  Delaware,  and  from  1798  to  1801  governor  of  that  State. 

Bates,  Edward  (1793-1869),  born  in  Virginia,  became  a  prominent 
lawyer  in  Missouri.  Having  warmly  opposed  the  repeal  of  the  Missouri 
Compromise,  he  was  a  somewhat  prominent  candidate  for  the  Republican 
nomination  to  the  presidency  in  the  Chicago  Convention  of  1860.  He  was 
attorney-general  under  Lincoln  from  1861  to  1863. 

Bates,  Joshua  (1788-1864),  born  in  Massachusetts,  engaged  in  business 
in  London  and  became  senior  member  of  the  firm  of  Baring  Brothers  &  Co. 
When  the  Boston  Public  Library  was  started  he  gave  it  about  $100,000. 

"  Battle  of  the  Kegs,"  a  celebrated  humorous  poem  of  the  Revolutionary 
War,  written  by  Francis  Hopkinson.  Its  theme  was  an  unsuccessful  attempt 
of  the  Americans,  in  January,  1778,  to  destroy  the  British  shipping  at  Phila- 
delphia by  floating  down  combustibles  from  above. 

Baton  Rouge,  La.,  capital  of  the  State  since  1849,  was  taken  by  a  part 
of  Farragut's  fleet,  in  May,  1862,  immediately  after  his  capture  of  New 
Orleans.  On  August  5  General  Williams  was  attacked  there  by  the  Confed- 
erate General  Breckenridge,  but  the  attack  was  repulsed,  the  ram  "  Arkansas  " 
failing  to  support  it.  General  Williams  was  killed. 

Batture  Cases.  Some  fifteen  years  before  the  cession  of  Louisiana  to  the 
United  States,  one  Gravier  had  purchased  a  plantation  along  the  Mississippi 
adjoining  New  Orleans.  Portions  of  it  had  been  cut  up  into  lots  and  formed 
the  village  of  St.  Mary.  Meantime  an  alluvial  deposit  or  river  beach  had 
begun  to  form  along  the  levee  of  the  Gravier  plantation  and  was  used  as  a 
boat  landing  by  the  citizens  of  St.  Mary,  though  the  batture,  under  the  law, 
still  formed  a  part  of  the  Gravier  estate.  This  estate  was  purchased  in  1808 
by  Edward  Livingston,  of  New  York,  who  immediately  began  improvements 
on  the  batture  for  his  own  private  ends.  The  people  raised  a  great  outcry, 
but  Livingston  obtained  a  favorable  verdict  and  proceeded  with  his  improve- 
ments. Finally,  however,  the  territorial  court,  in  1809,  decided  to  appeal  to 
President  Jefferson,  on  the  ground  that  the  batture  was  public  property  under 
a  French  law  which  gave  alluvions  to  the  government.  By  Jefferson's  orders, 
he  having  a  private  grudge  against  Livingston,  the  latter  was  dispossessed 
of  the  batture.  Livingston  immediately  brought  suit  against  Jefferson  and 
the  United  States  Marshal.  The  suit  against  the  President  was  not  allowed, 
but  the  Supreme  Court  decided  that  the  batture  be  restored  to  Livingston. 

Baum,  Friedrich,  lieutenant-colonel  of  the  Brunswick  dragoons,  German 
mercenaries  in  Burgoyne's  expedition,  was  attacked  by  Colonel  Stark  at 
Bennington,  Vt,  August  16, 1777,  completely  defeated  and  mortally  wounded. 

Bavaria.  A  convention  for  the  abolition  of  the  droit  d^aubaine  was  con- 
cluded with  Bavaria  in  1845;  a  convention  for  the  extradition  of  criminals 
in  1853,  anc*  a  naturalization  treaty  in  1868. 

Bay  Psalm  Book,  the  first  book  (except  an  almanac)  printed  in  the 
English-speaking  parts  of  America,  was  printed  at  Cambridge  in  1640. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  55 

Bay  State,  a  name  given  to  Massachusetts,  the  early  title  of  which  was 
"  The  Province  of  Massachusetts  Bay." 

Bayard,  James  A.  (1767-1815),  born  in  Philadelphia,  settled  in  Dela- 
ware as  a  lawyer.  He  represented  Delaware  in  the  House  of  Representatives 
from  1797  to  1803,  and  in  the  Senate  from  1805  to  1813.  He  was  one  of  the 
chief  leaders  of  the  Federalists  in  Congress,  and  in  1801  had  a  principal  part 
in  persuading  the  other  Federalist  Congressmen  to  vote  for  Jefferson  rather 
than  Burr  when  the  election  of  a  President  fell  to  them.  He  was  one  of  the 
five  American  negotiators  who  concluded  in  1814  the  treaty  of  Ghent.  His 
sons  and  grandson  represented  Delaware  in  the  Senate  from  1836  to  1845, 
and  from  1851  to  1885. 

Bayard,  Nicholas  (1644-1707),  born  in  Holland,  but  brought  to  New 
Amsterdam  in  infancy,  became  secretary  of  the  province  in  1672;  Mayor 
of  New  York  and  a  member  of  the  Council  in  1685.  He  was  imprisoned 
by  L/eisler  and  later  sentenced  to  death  on  accusation,  but  was  finally  released. 

Bayard,  Thomas  F.  (grandson  of  James  A.),  born  in  Delaware  in  1828, 
practiced  law  in  Philadelphia  and  Wilmington  from  1851  to  1869.  From 
1869  to  I^^5  ne  was  Senator  from  Delaware,  and  was  one  of  the  most  able 
and  prominent  of  the  Democratic  Senators.  In  1877  he  was  a  member  of 
the  Electoral  Commission  which  decided  the  disputed  Hayes-Tilden  election. 
In  1 88 1  he  was  president  pro  tempore  of  the  Senate.  In  1880  and  again  in 

1884  he  had  many  votes  in  convention  as  a  candidate  for  the  Presidency.    In 

1885  President  Cleveland  appointed  him  Secretary  of  State,  in  which  office 
he  served  with  credit  till  1889,  pursuing  constantly  a  pacific  policy  toward 
foreign  nations.     In  1893,  when  the  grade  of  ambassador  was  for  the  first 
time  established  in  the  American  diplomatic  service,  he  was  appointed  our  rep- 
resentative in  England  with  that  title,  and  was  the  first  to  bear  it.    Died  1898. 

Bayard  vs.  Singleton,  North  Carolina.  This  was  a  suit  for  the  recovery 
of  certain  property,  tried  before  the  Court  of  Appeals  of  North  Carolina  in 
1787.  The  property  in  question  had  been  confiscated  and  sold  to  the 
defendant  under  an  act  of  the  legislature  passed  during  the  Revolution, 
authorizing  the  confiscation  of  property  belonging  to  an  alien.  Counsel  for 
the  defendant  moved  the  suit  be  dismissed  in  accordance  with  an  act  of  the 
legislature  of  1785  which  "required  the  courts,  in  all  cases  where  the 
defendant  makes  affidavit  that  he  holds  the  disputed  property  under  a  sale 
from  a  commissioner  of  forfeited  estates,  to  dismiss  the  case  on  motion." 
This  the  court  refused  emphatically  and  Judge  Ashe  boldly  pronounced  that 
act  of  legislature  "  unconstitutional  and  void."  Judgment  was,  however, 
found  for  the  defendant  on  the  ground  that  aliens  cannot  hold  land,  and  if 
they  purchase,  the  land  is  forfeited  to  the  sovereign.  This  is  one  of  the 
earliest  instances  of  a  court's  pronouncing  upon  the  constitutionality  of  an 
act  of  the  legislature.  Ashe's  decision  is  therefore  important. 

Bayonne  Decree,  a  decree  issued  on  April  17,  1808,  by  the  Emperor 
Napoleon,  in  the  course  of  his  attempts  to  reduce  England  to  terms  by 
destroying  the  commerce  of  neutral  powers  like  the  United  States.  On 
pretext  of  falling  in  with  the  embargo  policy  of  the  American  government, 
he  ordered  that  all  American  vessels  which  should  enter  the  ports  of  France, 


56  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Italy  and  the  Hanse  Towns  should  be  seized,  "  because  no  vessels  of  the 
United  States  can  now  navigate  the  seas  without  violating  the  law  of  the 
said  States." 

Bayou  Teche  Expedition,  an  expedition  sent  up  the  Bayou  Teche  by 
General  Banks  in  April,  1863.  It  completed  the  conquest  of  all  Louisiana 
west  of  New  Orleans  and  south  of  the  Red  River. 

Bean's  Station,  Tenn.  On  December  14,  1863,  after  Longstreet  had 
raised  the  siege  of  Knoxville,  4000  Union  cavalry  under  Shackelford  here 
fought  Longstreet's  cavalry  under  Gracie. 

Bear  Flag  War,  an  insurrection  against  the  Mexican  government  in 
California,  raised  in  June,  1846,  by  a  small  body  of  settlers  from  the  United 
States.  The  insurrection  is  supposed  to  have  been  fomented  by  Captain  John 
C.  Fremont,  then  in  California  with  a  small  force  of  United  States  troops. 
A  dozen  Americans  seized  some  government  horses,  and  then,  reinforced  by 
others,  seized  Sonoma,  and  raised  a  flag  bearing  a  figure  of  a  bear.  A 
republic  was  proclaimed.  A  force  of  the  Californian  government  was 
defeated.  Captain  Fremont  joined  the  revolutionary  forces  with  his  troops. 
In  July,  the  Mexican  War  having  begun,  Sloat  raised  the  American  flag  at 
Monterey,  and  the  Bear  Flag  War  became  merged  in  the  American 
operations  for  the  conquest  of  California. 

Beaufort,  N.  C.,  was  captured  by  Burnside's  troops  on  April  26,  1862. 

Beaufort,  S.  C.,  was  occupied  by  the  Federal  forces  on  December  6,  1861, 
having  been  abandoned  by  the  Confederates  after  the  naval  fight  at  Hilton 
Head. 

Beaumarchais,  Pierre  A.  C.  de  (1732-1799),  the  brilliant  author  of  the 
"  Barbier  de  Seville "  and  the  "  Mariage  de  Figaro,"  rendered  highly  val- 
uable services  to  the  American  cause  in  the  Revolutionary  War,  persuading 
the  French  government  to  send  the  Americans  large  amounts  of  money, 
arms  and  ammunition,  and  extensively  using  his  own  credit  in  their  behalf. 
The  debt  of  the  American  government  to  him  was  never  discharged. 

Beauregard,  P.  Gustave  T.  (1818-1893),  born  in  Louisiana,  was  grad- 
uated at  West  Point  in  1838.  He  was  employed  in  the  engineer  service  of 
the  United  States  until  1861,  when  he  resigned,  and  entered  that  of  the 
seceded  States.  Placed  in  command  of  the  defences  of  Charleston,  he  opened 
fire  on  Fort  Sumter  on  April  12,  1861.  With  General  J.  E.Johnston  he  won 
the  victory  of  Bull  Run  on  July  21.  In  the  spring  of  1862  he  was  ordered  to 
Tennessee.  When  General  A.  S.  Johnston  was  killed  at  Shiloh  Beauregard 
succeeded  him  in  -the  command,  but  was  forced  to  retire,  and  subsequently 
to  evacuate  Corinth.  From  September,  1862,  to  April,  1864,  he  defended 
Charleston  against  General  Gillmore  and  Admirals  Dupont  and  Dahlgren.  In 
May,  1864,  he  aided  Lee  at  Petersburg;  in  the  autumn  he  aided  in  the  vain 
attempt  of  the  Confederates  to  stop  Sherman's  march  through  Georgia.  He 
surrendered  with  Johnston  in  April,  1865.  He  was  afterward  manager  of  the 
Louisiana  State  lottery. 

Beaver  Creek,  Md.,  scene  of  a  skirmish  on  July  10, 1863,  when,  on  General 
Lee's  retreat  from  Gettysburg,  Sedgwick's  corps  came  upon  his  rear-guard. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  57 

Beaver  Dam,  Upper  Canada.  At  the  end  of  Dearborn's  campaign,  Colonel 
Boerstler,  with  a  force  of  540,  sent  out  from  Niagara  to  Beaver  Dam,  was 
defeated  and  forced  to  surrender  by  a  British  and  Indian  force  of  260,  June 
24,  1813. 

Beaver  Dam  Creek,  Va.  In  the  "  seven  days'  "  fighting  after  Fair  Oaks, 
General  A.  P.  Hill's  corps,  while  waiting  for  the  arrival  of  Jackson,  attacked 
McCall's  division  of  McClellan's  army  in  a  strong  position  at  Beaver  Dam 
Creek,  June  26,  1862,  and  were  repulsed  with  heavy  loss. 

Bedford,  Gunning,  Jr.  (1747-1812),  a  Delaware  lawyer,  represented  Del- 
aware in  the  Continental  Congress  from  1783  to  1786.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  Constitutional  Convention  of  1787,  and  signed  the  Constitution. 

Beecher,  Henry  Ward  (1813-1887),  son  of  the  eminent  Rev.  Dr.  Lyman 
Beecher,  and  from  1847  to  his  death  pastor  of  a  great  congregation  in  Brook- 
lyn, had  always  an  active  part  in  public  affairs.  In  1863  ne  made  many 
speeches  in  England,  endeavoring  to  influence  English  public  opinion  in 
favor  of  the  Northern  cause  in  the  Civil  War, 

Behaim,  Martin  (1459—1506),  a  Nuremberg  cosmographer,  resided  in 
Lisbon  and  Fayal  from  1480  to  1490,  was  a  friend  of  Columbus,  and  shared 
his  views  as  to  the  possibility  of  reaching  land  by  sailing  westward.  A  globe 
which  he  constructed  after  returning  to  Nuremberg  is  a  famous  and  valuable 
record  of  geographical  knowledge. 

Behring.     (See  Bering.) 

Behring  Sea  Question.  Soon  after  the  acquisition  of  Alaska  by  the 
United  States  the  Pribylov  Islands,  which  are  the  breeding-grounds  of  the 
fur  seal,  were  leased  to  the  Alaska  Commercial  Company,  who  were  to  have 
a  monopoly  of  seal-killing,  under  stringent  regulations  designed  to  prevent 
the  extermination  of  the  seals.  In  spite  of  the  vigilance  of  the  government 
in  guarding  the  islands,  depredations  increased,  American  and  Canadian 
vessels  pursuing  the  seals  upon  the  open  sea.  In  1886  the  American  gov- 
ernment set  up  the  claim  that  Behring  Sea  was  mare  clausum  and  asserted 
its  jurisdiction  over  the  eastern  half  of  it.  Russia  had  purported  to  grant 
such  rights  of  jurisdiction  when  ceding  Alaska  in  1867,  yet  in  1822  the 
United  States  had  protested  against  Russia's  claim  to  have  rights  of  sover- 
eignty over  the  sea,  outside  the  usual  three-mile  limit  of  territorial  jurisdic- 
tion. In  consequence  of  the  new  doctrine,  many  seizures  of  Canadian  and 
American  sealers  were  made  by  a  government  vessel.  Great  Britain  claimed 
damages.  After  much  negotiation,  mainly  between  Secretary  Elaine  and 
Sir  Julian  Pauncefote,  it  was  agreed  to  submit  to  arbitration  the  questions 
of  the  rights  of  the  United  States  in  Behring  Sea  and  of  the  regulations 
necessary  for  the  protection  of  the  seals  if  it  were  decided  that  the  United 
States  had  not  exclusive  jurisdiction  over  the  matter.  Two  arbitrators  were 
to  be  appointed  by  the  United  States,  two  by  Great  Britain,  and  one  each  by 
the  President  of  the  French  Republic,  the  King  of  Italy  and  the  King  of 
Sweden  and  Norway.  The  arbitrators  appointed  by  these  respectively  were: 
Justice  John  M.  Harlan  of  the  Supreme  Court,  Senator  John  T.  Morgan, 
Hannen,  Sir  John  §.  D.  Thompson,  Baron  de  Courcel,  the  Marquis 


58  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Emilio  Visconti-Venosta,  and  Gregers  W.  W.  Gram.  The  tribunal  began  its 
sessions  at  Paris  on  March  23,  1893,  and  rendered  its  decision  on  August  15. 
It  decided  against  the  American  claim  to  exclusive  jurisdiction  of  any  sort 
over  the  waters  of  Behring  Sea  outside  the  three-mile  territorial  limit,  estab- 
lished a  close  season  for  seals  in  those  waters  from  May  i  to  July  31,  and 
forbade  pelagic  sealing  within  sixty  miles  of  the  Pribylov  Islands,  sealing  in 
steam  vessels  or  with  fire-arms.  These  regulations  were  to  be  carried  out  by 
the  British  and  American  governments  concurrently. 

Belcher,  Jonathan  (1681-1757),  of  Massachusetts,  was  Governor  of  Massa- 
chusetts from  1730  to  1741,  when  he  was  removed.  In  1747  he  was 
appointed  Governor  of  New  Jersey,  which  he  ruled  judiciously  until  his 
death. 

Belgium.  Commercial  regulations  were  effected  by  the  United  States  with 
Belgium  by  the  treaty  of  1845,  the  convention  of  1858  and  that  of  1863, 
the  treaty  of  July  20,  1863,  the  treaty  of  1875,  and  the  convention  of  1884. 
Naturalization  rights  were  recognized  by  the  convention  of  November  16, 
1868,  and  consular  rights  by  the  conventions  of  December  5,  1868,  and  of 
March  9,  1880.  The  extradition  of  criminals  was  regulated  by  the  conven- 
tions of  1874  and  1882. 

Belknap,  Jeremy  (1744-1798),  of  Massachusetts,  clergyman  and  historian, 
was  for  twenty  years  pastor  of  a  church  in  Dover,  N.  H.,  and,  from  1787  till 
his  death,  of  the  Federal  Street  Church,  Boston.  He  wrote  an  excellent 
history  of  New  Hampshire  in  three  volumes,  and  in  1791  founded  the  Massa- 
chusetts Historical  Society. 

Belknap,  William  W.  (1829-1890),  of  Iowa,  became  major-general  in 
the  Civil  War.  From  1869  to  1876  he  was  Secretary  of  War  in  President 
Grant's  Cabinet.  He  was  impeached  in  1876  for  receiving  bribes,  but 
resigned  a  few  hours  before  the  resolution  for  impeachment  passed  the  House. 
He  then  claimed  not  to  be  impeachable,  and  enough  Senators  took  this  view 
to  prevent  his  conviction. 

Bell,  Alexander  Graham,  born  in  Scotland  in  1847,  physicist,  came  to  the 
United  States  in  1872.  Inventor  of  the  telephone,  which  he  first  exhibited 
publicly  at  Philadelphia  in  1876. 

Bell,  John  (1797-1869),  was  born  at  Nashville,  and  graduated  at  the 
university  of  that  city.  He  had  been  a  lawyer  and  State  Senator  before  he 
entered  the  House  of  Representatives  as  member  from  Tennessee  in  1827. 
He  served  there  until  1841,  being  Speaker  in  1835-37.  He  was  one  of  tne 
founders  of  the  Whig  party.  In  1841  he  was  Secretary  of  War,  and  in  1847- 

59  he  was  U.  S.  Senator  from  Tennessee.     When  the  conservatives,  under 
the  name  of  the  Constitutional  Union  party,  decided  to  make  a  campaign 
for  the  Presidency  in  1860,  Bell  was  their  candidate,  and  the  Bell  and  Everett 
ticket  received  the  electoral  votes  of  three  States. 

Bellamy,  Edward  (1850-1898),  of  Massachusetts,  for  several  years  was 
assistant  editor  of  the  Springfield  Union.  Was  a  contributor  to  various 
magazines,  and  the  author  of  "  Looking  Backward  "  and  "  Equality,"  which 
made  him  famous. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  59 

Bellamy,  Joseph  (1719-1790),  of  Connecticut,  theologian,  was  pastor  of  the 
Congregational  Church  in  Bethlehem,  Conn.,  from  1740  till  his  death, 
where  he  established  a  divinity  school,  in  which  he  trained  many  of  the  most 
eminent  ministers  of  New  England. 

"  Belle  view  Palladium,"  the  first  newspaper  issued  in  Nebraska.  It  was 
published  at  Belleview  in  1854,  and  continues  at  the  present  time  under 
that  title. 

Belligerent  Rights  were  accorded  to  the  Confederacy  by  a  proclamation 
issued  by  the  Queen  of  Great  Britain  recognizing  the  existence  of  war  between 
the  United  States  and  the  so-called  Confederate  States,  and  the  right  of  each  to 
the  exercise  of  belligerent  powers  on  the  ocean,  but  not  recognizing  the 
national  independence  of  the  latter,  and  enjoining  neutrality  on  her  own 
subjects.  Similar  recognitions  of  belligerent  rights  were  made  by  France 
and  the  other  chief  commercial  powers  of  Europe,  and  by  Brazil. 

Bellingham,  Richard  (1592-1672),  colonial  Governor  of  Massachusetts, 
came  to  America  in  1634.  In  1635  was  made  deputy-governor,  and  Gov- 
ernor in  1641  by  a  majority  of  only  six  votes  over  Winthrop.  In  all  he 
served  thirteen  years  as  deputy-governor  and  ten  as  Governor;  was  opposed 
to  innovations  in  religion,  and  especially  severe  toward  the  Quakers. 

Bellomont,  Earl  of  (Richard  Coote)  (1636-1701),  was  an  English  poli- 
tician, appointed  by  William  III.  Governor  of  New  York  and  Massachusetts 
in  1695.  He  arrived  in  1698,  and  addressed  himself  to  the  suppression  of 
piracy  and  illegal  trade,  both  rife  in  the  colonies.  The  capture  of  the  noto- 
rious pirate  Captain  Kidd  fell  during  his  administration. 

Bellows,  Henry  W.  (1814-1882),  of  New  York,  clergyman,  became  pastor 
of  the  First  Congregational  (Unitarian)  Church  of  New  York  City  in  1839. 
In  the  Civil  War  he  was  president  of  the  JJ.  S.  Sanitary  Commission. 

Belmont,  August  (1816-1890),  of  New  York,  financier,  came  to  the  United 
States  in  1837.  Was  appointed  Minister  to  Holland  in  1854.  Was  a  liberal 
patron  of  the  fine  arts. 

Belmont,  Mo.,  a  small  town  occupied  by  a  detachment  of  Confederates 
from  General  Folk's  army.  It  was  destroyed,  and  the  Confederates  driven  to 
the  Mississippi  River  by  General  Grant,  November  7,  1861. 

Beltrami,  Giacomo  C.  (1779-1855),  explorer,  was  exiled  from  Italy,  and 
came  to  the  United  States  in  1821.  He  ascended  the  Mississippi  River  and 
discovered  one  of  its  principal  sources. 

Bemis  Heights.     (See  Saratoga.) 

Benjamin,  Judah  P.  (1811-1884),  was  born  at  St.  Croix,  in  the  West 
Indies,  of  English  Hebrew  descent.  He  was  educated  at  Yale,  and  as  a  law- 
yer became  the  head  of  the  Louisiana  bar.  He  was  Whig  U.  S.  Senator 
from  that  State,  1853-61.  He  sided  with  the  Confederates,  and  entered 
President  Davis'  Cabinet,  serving  in  turn  as  Attorney-General,  Secretary  of 
War,  and  Secretary  of  State.  On  the  collapse  of  the  Confederacy  he  made 
his  escape  in  England,  and  was  soon  equally  famous  for  his  grasp  of  English 
law.  He  became  a  Queen's  Counsel,  and  died  in  Paris. 


60  DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Benjamin,  P'ark  (1809-1864),  of  New  York,  was  editor  or  co-editor  of  the 
New  England  Magazine,  the  American  Monthly  Magazine,  Horace  Greel*y's 
New  Yorker,  and  other  journals,  and  a  contributor  to  many  others- 
Benjamin,  Samuel  G.  W.,  born  in  Greece  in  1837,  author,  was  U.  S. 
Minister  to  Persia  from  1883  to  1885.  His  contributions  to  periodicals  have 
been  very  numerous. 

Bennet,  or  Bennett,  Richard,  was  sent  by  the  Commonwealth  in  1651 
as  Commissioner  to  Virginia,  of  which  he  was  soon  after  elected  Governor, 
retiring  in  1655. 

Bennett,  James  Gordon  (1795-1872),  of  New  York,  journalist,  came  to 
America  in  1819;  established  the  Herald  in  1835.  He  first  introduced  the 
4 '  Money  Article, "  the  employment  of  regular  European  correspondents,  and 
the  systematic  sale  by  newsboys.  During  the  Civil  War  he  employed  sixty- 
three  war  correspondents.  The  Herald  sometimes  yielded  him  an  income  of 
$100,000  a  year. 

Bennington,  Battle  of,  August  16,  1777.  As  he  marched  southward  from 
Canada,  General  Burgoyne  sent  500  Germans  under  Colonel  Baum  to  seize 
the  American  stores  at  Bennington.  Not  daring  to  take  the  offensive,  Baum 
awaited  attack  on  the  bank  of  a  stream.  The  Americans  under  Stark  out- 
numbered the  British  two  to  one,  but  were  inferior  in  drill  and  equipment. 
Half  their  force,  whom  Baum  took  to  be  Tories,  got  to  a  position  in  his  rear. 
Being  attacked  both  in  front  and  in  rear,  the  Germans  were  routed  com- 
pletely. Just  at  that  moment  500  German  reinforcements  came,  but  this 
was  offset  by  the  appearance  of  500  fresh  men  under  Colonel  Warner.  Only 
sixty  or  seventy  Germans  reached  camp.  Out  of  their  thousand  207  were 
killed  and  700  captured.  The  American  loss  was  fourteen  killed  and  forty- 
two  wounded. 

i 

Benton,  Thomas  Hart  (1782-1858),  was  born  in  North  Carolina,  and 
settled  early  in  Tennessee.  He  became  a  lawyer  and  a  member  of  the  Legis- 
lature and  acquired  the  title  of  colonel  in  the  War  of  1812.  Though  an 
ardent  supporter  of  Jackson  in  later  times,  he  had  a  personal  encounter  with 
him  in  Nashville  in  1813.  He  now  became  a  journalist  in  Missouri,  and 
served  that  State  uninterruptedly  as  U.  S.  Senator  from  1821  to  1851.  Dur- 
ing this  long  pen6d  he  was  second  in  prominence  only  to  the  famous  trio, 
Clay,  Calhoun  and  Webster.  He  played  a  distinguished  part  in  securing 
favorable  land  laws,  in  opening  the  West  and  in  furthering  post-roads.  His 
conservatism  in  finance  earned  for  him  the  title  of  "  Old  Bullion."  He 
championed  Jackson  during  the  latter's  Presidency,  and  was  active  in  procur- 
ing the  passage  of  the  Expunging  Resolutions  (which  see).  Later  he  was  a 
vigorous  opponent  of  Calhoun.  He  was  in  1853-55  a  member  of  the  House 
of  Representatives,  but  was  defeated  as  candidate  for  Governor  of  Missouri  in 
1856.  He  published  in  1854-56  his  "  Thirty  Years'  View,"  or  historical 
memoirs;  his  "  Abridgment  of  the  Debates  of  Congress  "  was  published  in 
fifteen  volumes.  (Life  by  Roosevelt.) 

Bentonville,  N.  C.  Here,  during  his  march  from  Savannah  through  the 
Carolinas,  Sherman,  at  the  head  of  65,000  National  troops,  encountered 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  61 

24,000  Confederates  under  Johnston.  A  battle  took  place  March  18,  1865, 
Johnston  having  come  up  in  great  haste  from  Smithfield,  intending  to  sur- 
prise Sherman.  The  latter,  however,  was  ready  for  him  and  Johnston  was 
thrown  on  the  defensive  near  Mill  Creek.  Johnston  was  partially  defeated 
and  retreated  in  alarm  to  Smithfield. 

Bering,  or  Behring,  Vitus  (1680-1741),  Danish  navigator  in  the  Russian 
service.  In  1728  Peter  the  Great  sent  him  on  an  expedition  in  the  course 
of  which  he  discovered  the  strait  which  bears  his  name. 

Berkeley,  George  (1684-1753),  the  celebrated  philosopher,  was  dean  of 
Derry  in  Ireland.  In  his  advocacy  of  education  in  the  Bermudas,  he  sailed 
thither,  and  reached  Newport  en  route  in  1729.  His  plans  miscarried, 
but  he  remained  in  Newport  until  1731,  returning  then  to  Great  Britain, 
where  he  became  bishop  of  Cloyne.  His  interest  in  American  matters  was 
evinced  by  his  famous  lines,  "Westward  the  course  of  empire,"  etc.,  and 
more  practically  by  the  gift  to  Yale  of  his  farm  near  Newport,  as  well  as  by 
gifts  of  books  to  Yale  and  Harvard. 

Berkeley,  Sir  William  (about  1610-1677),  was  an  English  courtier,  who 
in  1642  was  appointed  Governor  of  Virginia.  He  continued  in  this  office, 
with  the  exception  of  an  intermission  during  the  Cromwellian  regime,  until 
1677.  His  gloating  remark  over  the  colony's  backward  condition  in  educa- 
tion and  a  free  press  is  well  known,  and  his  oppression  evoked  a  caustic 
comment  even  from  Charles  II.  His  inefficiency  in  conducting  the  relations 
with  the  Indians  led  to  an  armed  uprising  in  1676  under  Nathaniel  Bacon. 
This  was  suppressed  after  Bacon's  death,  but  Berkeley  was  soon  recalled. 

Berlin  Arbitration.     (See  San  Juan  question.) 

Berlin  Decree,  The,  was  issued  by  Napoleon  November  21,  1806,  and 
declared  the  British  Islands  in  a  state  of  blockade.  It  -forbade  commerce 
with  them  and  trade  in  their  merchandise  and  declared  all  merchandise 
belonging  to  Englishmen  or  transported  from  England  lawful  prize.  Its 
effect  was  to  inflict  great  injury  on  the  American  carrying  trade. 

Bermuda  Hundred,  Va.,  a  position  selected  by  Butler,  who,  in  1864, 
commanded  the  army  of  the  James,  numbering  about  25,000  Federals,  where 
he  might  intrench  himself  and  await  Grant's  arrival.  In  the  vicinity  of  this 
position  there  was  constant  fighting  between  Butler's  troops  and  those  of  the 
Confederate  Beauregard,  whose  forces  were  20,000  strong.  The  fighting 
continued  from  May  16  to  30.  On  the  sixteenth  Heckman's  brigade  was 
destroyed  by  the  Confederates,  who  were  then  pushing  on  to  Bermuda 
Hundred,  when  Ames  and  Gillmore  came  up  and  Beauregard's  plans  mis- 
carried. On  the  nineteenth  the  Confederates  assaulted  the  Federal  rifle  pits 
under  Ames  and  Terry,  but  without  success.  Skirmishing  continued  until 
the  thirtieth^  when  the  Confederates  desisted.  Bermuda  Hundred  was  a 
valuable  position,  since  it  was  very  near  both  Richmond  and  Petersburg. 

Bernard,  Sir  Francis  (1714-1779),  royal  Governor  of  Massachusetts,  was 
appointed  in  1760  and  removed  in  1769  because  of  his  incessant  conflicts 
with  the  assembly.  In  1768  he  caused  British  troops  to  be  quartered  in  Boston. 


62  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Bernard,  Simon  (1779-1836),  French  soldier  and  chief  engineer  in  the  U.  S. 
Army,  came  to  the  United  States  with  Lafayette  in  1824.  His  principal 
work  was  the  planning  and  construction  of  Fortress  Monroe. 

Berrien,  John  McPherson  (1781-1856),  of  Georgia,  statesman,  was  Judge 
of  the  Eastern  District  of  Georgia  from  1810  to  1821,  U.  S.  Senator  from 
1825  to  J829  and  from  1840  to  1852.  Was  Attorney-General  under  Jackson 
from  1829  to  1831,  when  he  resigned. 

Berry,  Nathaniel  S.,  (1796-1894),  was  elected  Governor  of  New  Hamp- 
shire as  a  Republican  in  1861  and  held  office  till  1863.  Was  earnest  in 
support  of  the  war. 

Bethel,  a  communistic  settlement,  composed  chiefly  of  Germans,  in 
Missouri.  It  was  founded  in  1844  by  Dr.  Keil,  a  Prussian,  and  a  number 
of  the  settlers  were  seceders  from  Rapp's  colony  of  Harmonists  at  Economy. 
These  colonists  purchased  4000  acres  of  land  and  immediately  established 
communistic  industries,  manufactories,  tanneries,  distilleries,  etc.  Keil  after- 
ward went  to  Oregon,  where  he  founded,  in  1855,  the  Dutch  communistic 
colony  of  Aurora,  carrying  with  him  about  400  of  the  600  settlers  at  Bethel. 
The  colony  is  governed  by  trustees  who  also  plan  the  work  of  the  com- 
munity. 

Bethlehem,  Pa.,  was  founded  in  1741  by  the  Moravians.  Lehigh  Uni- 
versity was  founded  in  South  Bethlehem  in  1865. 

Beverly,  Robert  (1675-1716),  of  Virginia,  historian,  was  clerk  of  the 
council  under  Governor  Sir  Edmund  Andros.  Several  editions  of  his  "  His- 
tory of  Virginia  "  have  been  published. 

Beverly's  Ford,  Va.,  scene  of  a  sharp  cavalry  fight  during  the  Civil 
War,  between  Buford,  Pleasonton  and  Gregg,  commanding  9000  Federals,  and 
Stuart  leading  12,000  Confederates.  Hooker  had  sent  Pleasonton  to  find 
Stuart,  who  was  said  to  be  near  Beverly's  Ford.  Pleasonton  planned  to  sur- 
prise the  Confederates,  but  his  plans  miscarried.  Stuart  was  fully  prepared 
for  him.  Pleasonton  was  badly  beaten,  though  Stuart  suffered  severe  losses 
also. 

Bibb,  George  M.  (1772-1859),  of  Kentucky,  was  three  times  chosen  Chief 
Justice  of  the  State.  Was  a  member  of  the  U.  S.  Senate  from  1811  to  1814 
and  from  1829  to  I^35-  He  was  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  under  Presi- 
dent Tyler. 

Bible  Revision.  On  the  invitation  of  the  British  committee  for  the  revision 
of  the  Bible,  a  committee  of  United  States  scholars  and  divines  was  organized 
in  1871  and  began  active  work  in  October,  1872.  This  committee  was  com- 
posed of  twenty-seven  members,  who  met  each  month  in  the  Bible  House,  New 
York.  Their  intention  was  to  adapt  King  James'  version  to  the  present  state 
of  the  language.  The  revised  New  Testament  was  published  in  1887.  The 
revised  Old  Testament  appeared  in  1885. 

Bible  Societies.  The  first  Bible  Society  of  this  country  was  founded  at 
Philadelphia  in  1808.  It  was  quickly  followed  by  others  at  Hartford, 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  63 

Boston,  New  York  and  Princeton .  May  1 1,  1816,  the  American  Bible  Society 
was  organized  at  New  York  by  a  convention  of  representatives  from  thirty- 
five  smaller  societies,  which  felt  the  need  of  united  and  centralized  effort. 
Nearly  every  denomination,  except  the  Roman  Catholic,  was  represented. 
Sectarian  jealousy  and  party  prejudice  were  laid  aside  in  order  to  insure  com- 
bined endeavors  in  promoting  "  a  wider  circulation  of  the  Holy  Scriptures 
without  note  or  comment."  The  American  Foreign  Bible  Society  was  estab- 
lished in  1836  by  the  Baptist  denomination,  which  withdrew  from  the 
American  Society  because  of  some  disagreement.  The  total  issues  of  the 
American  Bible  Society  from  1816  to  1892  have  been  55,531,908. 

Biddle,  Clement  (1740-1814),  of  Pennsylvania,  "Quaker  Soldier,"  was  an 
officer  in  the  Continental  army  from  1776  to  1780  and  U.  S.  Marshal  during 
the  Whisky  Rebellion. 

Biddle,  James  (1783—1848),  naval  officer,  in  the  War  of  1812,  in  command 
of  the  "  Hornet,"  captured  the  "  Penguin."  In  1817  he  took  possession  of 
Oregon  for  the  United  States. 

Biddle,  Nicholas  (1750-1778),  of  Philadelphia,  naval  officer,  one  of  the 
first  captains  appointed  by  Congress  in  1775.  In  1778,  while  engaging  the 
"  Yarmouth,"  British,  64,  his  ship,  the  "Randolph,"  32,  blew  up. 

Biddle,  Nicholas  (1786-1844),  after  leaving  Princeton  entered  the  diplo- 
matic service,  and  afterward  edited  the  magazine,  the  Portfolio.  He  was 
a  member  of  the  Pennsylvania  Legislature,  and  became  a  government  director 
of  the  United  States  Bank  and  its  president.  In  this  latter  position  he  was 
a  central  figure  in  the  fierce  struggle  which  Jackson  waged  with  the  bank. 
He  resigned  the  presidency  in  1839. 

Bienville,  Sieur  de  (Jean  Baptiste  le  Moyne)  (1680-1765),  was  a  mem- 
ber of  a  noted  French  family  of  colonizers.  He  accompanied  his  brother 
Iberville  to  the  Mississippi  region,  and  in  1701  assumed  the  direction  of  the 
colony  of  Louisiana.  In  1713  he  was  appointed  Lieutenant-Governor  of  the 
colony,  and  in  1718  Governor,  and  in  the  same  year  he  founded  New  Orleans. 
He  was  removed  in  1720,  but  was  re-appointed  in  1733,  returning  to  France 
in  1743. 

Bierstadt,  Albert,  born  in  Germany  in  1830,  painter,  was  brought  to  the 
United  States  in  1831.  Made  extended  tours  in  Colorado  and  California, 
obtaining  there  materials  for  his  most  celebrated  pictures. 

Big  Bethel,  Va.  Here  an  unsuccessful  attempt,  directed  by  General  Butler, 
was  made  by  General  Pierce,  with  four  regiments,  to  dislodge  outposts  of 
Magruder's  Confederate  encampment  at  Yorktown,  June  10,  1861.  The 
Federal  regiments,  under  Townsend  and  Bendix,  en  route  for  the  Big  Bethel 
camp,  mistook  each  other  for  the  enemy,  and  fired.  This  created  great  con- 
fusion. Pierce  arrived  and  pushed  on  to  the  Confederate  earthwork  on  Back 
River,  destroying  the  camp  at  Little  Bethel.  The  Federal  troops  crossed 
Back  River  and  charged  the  earthwork,  but  were  repulsed  with  considerable 
loss,  Major  Theodore  Winthrop  losing  his  life. 

Big  Black  River,  Miss.  In  this  battle,  which  took  place  May  17,  1863, 
during  Grant's  pursuit  of  Pemberton  toward  Vicksburg,  the  Confederates 


64  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

were  defeated,  and  lost  heavily  both  in  killed  and  captured.  McClernand, 
swiftly  following  the  retreating  Confederates,  came  upon  them  drawn  up  on 
both  sides  of  the  Big  Black  River.  McClernand  led  10,000  Federals,  Pem- 
berton  8000  Confederates,  his  main  command  having  gone  on  toward  Vicks- 
burg.  McClernand  began  the  fight.  He  was  for  a  time  unsuccessful,  but 
Lawler,  discovering  a  weak  spot  in  the  Confederate  line,  immediately  took 
advantage  of  k  and  charged  impetuously.  The  Confederates  were  routed. 

Bigelow,  John,  born  in  1817,  of  New  York,  in  1849  became,  with 
William  Cullen  Bryant,  joint  owner  of  the  Evening  Post,  and  was  managing 
editor  till  1861,  when  he  went  to  Paris  as  U.  S.  Consul,  and  was  Minister  to 
France  from  1865  to  1867,  when  he  became  Secretary  of  State  of  New  York. 
He  is  trustee  under  the  will  of  Samuel  J.  Tilden  and  his  literary  executor. 
His  chief  literary  work  was  the  editing  of  the  full  text  of  Franklin's  Auto- 
biography. 

"  Biglow  Papers,"  two  series  of  extraordinarily  brilliant  political  satires 
written  by  James  Russell  Lowell.  The  first,  satirizing  the  Mexican  War 
and  contemporary  politics,  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  New  England 
Abolitionists,  appeared  (1846-1848)  in  the  Boston  Courier  and  the  National 
Anti-Slavery  Standard.  The  second,  satirizing  the  South  and  contemporary 
politics  during  the  period  of  Civil  War  and  reconstruction,  appeared  (1861- 
1866)  in  the  Atlantic  Monthly.  The  papers  are  attributed  to  Hosea  Biglow, 
a  typical  young  Yankee  fanner,  Rev.  Homer  Wilbur,  a  typical  old-school 
New  England  clergyman,  and  Birdofredum  Sawin,  a  character  intended  to 
represent  the  non-Puritan  element  in  the  New  England  democracy. 

Billeting  Act,  an  act  passed  by  Parliament  in  1765  directing  Colonial 
legislatures  to  make  specific  contributions  toward  the  support  of  an  army. 
Bernard,  Governor  of  Massachusetts,  caused  it  to  be  printed  in  the  colony 
laws.  It  was  resisted  in  New  York  and  in  South  Carolina. 

Bills  of  Credit.  This  was  the  term  employed  in  the  eighteenth  century 
to  indicate  paper  money  issued  by  any  government,  and  made  a  legal  tender 
for  debts.  The  Constitution  of  1787  forbids  any  State  to  issue  bills  of  credit, 
or  to  make  anything  but  gold  and  silver  a  legal  tender.  This  was  done 
because  of  the  discreditable  and  disastrous  over-issues  by  the  States  during 
the  twelve  years  preceding.  A  similar  prohibition  upon  the  Federal  govern- 
ment was  discussed  but  not  incorporated  in  the  Constitution.  Hence,  in 
1862,  the  Federal  government  issued  "  greenbacks  "  which  were  to  be  a  legal 
tender.  (See  "  Legal  Tender  Cases.") 

Bills  of  Rights.  The  first  in  America  was  the  Declaration  of  Rights 
which  accompanied  the  Virginia  Constitution  of  1776.  It  was  the  work  of 
Colonel  George  Mason,  and  was  largely  based  on  the  English  Bill  of  Rights  of 
1688.  Its  phraseology  was  extensively  followed  in  the  constitutions  of  other 
States,  most  of  which  contained  bills  of  rights,  defining  the  rights  of  the 
individual  citizen  as  over  against  his  government.  The  Constitution  of  1787 
was  strongly  criticised  for  not  including  such  a  set  of  statements,  and  their 
absence  made  its  ratification  difficult.  Accordingly  the  Federalists,  in  the 
First  Congress,  as  they  had  promised,  carried  through  amendments  of  this 
nature,  and  these  now  stand  as  the  first  ten  amendments  to  the  Constitution. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  65 

Biloxi,  Miss,  first  settlement  made  in  what  is  now  Mississippi  by  white 
men,  was  founded  in  1699  by  Pierre  Lemoyne  d'Iberville. 

Bingham,  John  A.,  born  in  1815,  of  Ohio,  lawyer,  was  a  Republican 
member  of  Congress  from  1855  to  1863  and  from  1865  to  1873,  and  sat  as 
judge-advocate  at  the  trial  of  President  Lincoln's  assassins. 

Binney,  Horace  (1780-1875),  of  Philadelphia,  and  an  acknowledged  leader 
of  its  bar.  Such  of  his  arguments  as  are  in  print  are  the  admiration  of  the 
legal  profession  not  only  in  this  country,  but  in  Great  Britain,  notably  that  in 
the  case  of  Bidal  vs.  Girard's  executors.  He  powerfully  supported  President 
Lincoln  by  his  pamphlets  on  the  right  to  suspend  the  writ  of  habeas  corpus. 

Birney,  David  B.  (1825-1864),  of  Pennsylvania,  soldier  in  the  Civil  War, 
became  major-general  and  commanded  the  Third  Corps  at  Gettysburg  after 
General  Sickles  was  wounded. 

Birney,  James  Gillespie  (1792-1857),  was  a  graduate  of  Princeton,  and 
a  lawyer  and  politician  in  Kentucky.  He  became  enthusiastically  devoted 
to  the  Abolitionist  cause,  and  was  editor  of  the  Philanthropist.  He  became 
secretary  of  the  National  Anti-Slavery  Society,  and  when  in  1840  and  1844 
the  Abolitionists,  as  the  Liberty  party,  put  a  ticket  in  the  field,  he  was  their 
candidate  for  President. 

Bishop  Hill,  in  Henry  County,  111.,  a  Swedish  communistic  settlement 
of  seekers  after  religious  freedom.  The  colonists  left  Sweden  under  the 
leadership  of  Eric  Janson  in  1846.  Janson  was  murdered  in  1850.  The 
settlement  did  not  prove  a  success  and  slowly  decayed  through  financial  mis- 
management. It  ceased  to  be  a  "  community  "  in  1862. 

Bishops.  Few  things  more  exasperated  the  colonists  than  the  scheme  of 
appointing  and  sending  out  a  bishop  from  England.  It  is  said  that  there 
was  a  project  of  making  Dean  Swift  bishop  of  the  American  colonies.  In 
1771,  at  the  instance  of  the  clergy  of  New  York  and  New  Jersey,  the  plan 
was  again  urged.  The  clergy  of  Virginia  generally  assented.  But  throughout 
America  the  dissenters  and  the  Episcopal  laity  opposed.  After  the  Revolution 
the  case  was  altered.  The  first  Episcopal  bishop,  Samuel  Seabury,  of  Con- 
necticut, was  consecrated  by  Scotch  non-juring  bishops  in  1784.  The 
Methodists  began  to  use  the  term  bishop  in  1787.  The  first  Catholic  bishop, 
John  Carroll,  of  Baltimore,  was  consecrated  in  1790. 

Bismarck,  capital  of  North  Dakota,  dates  its  beginning  from  1872. 

Bissell,  Wilson  S.,  born  in  1847,  of  New  York,  lawyer,  in  1873  became 
a  member  of  the  law  firm  of  Bass,  Cleveland  &  Bissell  in  Buffalo,  and  was 
appointed  Postmaster-General  by  President  Cleveland  in  1893. 

Black,  James  (1823-1893),  of  Pennsylvania,  reformer,  was  a  leader  in  the 
organization  of  the  Templars,  was  the  first  to  propose  a  distinct  Temper- 
ance party  and  in  1872  was  its  candidate  for  the  Presidency. 

Black,  Jeremiah  S.  (1810-1883),  °f  Pennsylvania,  jurist,  was  one  of  the 
Judges  of  its  Supreme  Court  from  1851  to  1857,  became  Attorney-General 
5 


a*  DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

under  Buchanan,  serving  as  such  till  December,  1860,  when  he  became 
his  Secretary  of  State  and  exerted  himself  to  save  the  government  from 
falling  into  the  hands  of  the  secessionists.  In  1861  and  1862  he  was 
reporter  of  the  U.  S.  Supreme  Court. 

Black  Cockade,  a  badge  worn  first  by  the  American  soldiers  during  the 
Revolution,  and  later,  during  the  hostility  toward  France  occasioned  by  the 
X.  Y.  Z.  dispatches,  adopted  by  the  Federalists  as  a  patriotic  emblem  and  as 
a  rejoinder  to  the  tri-colored  cockade  worn  by  the  Republicans  as  a  mark  of 
affection  toward  France. 

"  Black  Friday,"  Friday,  September  19,  1873,  on  which,  with  a  great 
financial  crash  in  Wall  street,  including  the  failure  of  Jay  Cooke  &  Co.,  the 
leading  American  bankers,  the  panic  of  1873  began.  Also,  Sept.  24,  1869. 

Black  Hawk  (1767-1838),  a  noted  Chief  of  the  Sac  and  Fox  Indians. 
He  joined  the  British  in  the  War  of  1812.  By  the  treaty  of  1830  the  tribes 
ceded  all  their  lands  east  of  the  Mississippi,  but  their  removal  west  was 
opposed  by  him  and  the  so-called  Black  Hawk  War  ensued.  On  being 
completely  defeated  August,  1832,  Black  Hawk  surrendered. 

Black  Hawk  War.  Under  the  provisions  of  the  treaty  with  the  chiefs  of 
the  Sac  and  Fox  Indians  at  Prairie  du  Chien,  July  15,  1830,  their  land  east 
of  the  Mississippi  was  ceded  to  the  whites.  Black  Hawk,  a  prominent 
chief,  refused  to  submit  to  the  treaty.  In  1831  he  made  an  attack  upon 
some  Illinois  villages,  but  was  driven  off  by  a  force  of  militia  under  General 
Gaines  in  June  of  that  year.  The  next  spring  he  returned  with  a  strong 
force  and  began  to  massacre  the  whites.  General  Scott  marched  some 
United  States  troops  against  him.  Black  Hawk  was  defeated  at  the  Wis- 
consin River  July  21,  1832,  by  General  Dodge  and  again,  August  2,  by 
General  Atkinson  at  Bad  Axe  River.  This  ended  the  war. 

Black  Rock  (near  Niagara),  was,  in  the  War  of  1812,  bombarded  by  the 
British  November  17,  1812.  The  barracks  were  fired,  valuable  property 
destroyed  and  a  magazine  exploded.  No  lives,  however,  were  lost.  Next  year 
Lieutenant  Colonel  Bisshopp,  with  400  men,  crossed  the  Niagara  July  u, 
1813,  to  capture  the  stores  and  shipyard  at  this  place.  The  attack  at  first 
was  successful,  but  the  Americans  rallied  and  with  the  aid  of  friendly  Indians 
drove  the  British  back  to  their  boats  in  confusion,  with  the  loss  of  their  com- 
mander. The  total  British  loss  was  seventy;  the  Americans  lost  eight  men 
and  a  large  quantity  of  military  stores.  Later,  General  Riall,  with  1000 
British  regulars  and  Indians,  crossed  the  Niagara,  December  30,  1813,  and 
attacked  the  Americans,  2000  strong,  at  Black  Rock  and  Buffalo.  The 
American  militia  behaved  in  a  cowardly  manner  and  were  forced  back  to 
Buffalo,  which,  however,  was  at  once  abandoned.  The  village  was  then 
plundered  and  burned,  together  with  four  war  vessels.  This  ended  the 
measures  of  retaliation  for  the  burning  of  Newark. 

"  Black  Warrior,"  an  American  merchant  vessel,  seized  and  confiscated 
by  Cuban  customs  officers  in  May,  1854.  This  seizure  was  used  as  an  excuse 
for  proposed  filibustering  expeditions  against  Cuba.  Spain,  however,  made 
compensation  for  the  seizure. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  6f 

Blackburn,  Joseph  C.  S.,  born  in  1838,  of  Kentucky,  served  in  the  Con- 
federate army  through  the  war,  and  was  a  member  of  Congress  from  1875  to 
1885,  smce  which  he  has  been  in  the  U.  S.  Senate. 

Blackfeet  Indians  received  their  name  after  their  separation  from  the 
Kena  Indians  and  migration  to  the  Missouri.  Those  in  the  United  States  are  in 
Montana,  and  have  been  constantly  at  war. 

Black's  Reports,  law  reports  of  cases  from  the  Supreme  Court  of  the 
United  States  from  1861  to  1862,  by  Jeremiah  S.  Black.  There  are  two 
volumes  of  these  reports. 

Blackstock  Hill,  Battle  of,  November  20,  1780.  In  the  fall  of  1780  the 
patriots  of  South  Carolina  became  more  active.  At  Blackstock  Hill,  General 
Sumter  defeated  Tarleton's  cavalry,  after  a  sharp  encounter.  The  disgrace  of 
Fishing  Creek  was  thus  wiped  out. 

Blackstone,  William,  died  in  1675,  a.clergyman  of  the  Church  of  England, 
and  pioneer,  was  the  first  settler  in  Boston  (1625).  His  land  became  the 
famous  "  Common;"  he  was  afterward  the  first  white  settler  of  Rhode  Island. 

Bladensburg,  Md.,  near  Washington,  laid  out  in  1742,  is  celebrated  as 
the  site,  not  only  of  the  battle,  but  of  the  duelling-ground  where  many 
famous  duels  growing  out  of  quarrels  in  Washington  were  fought,  e.  g.,  that 
in  which  Barron  killed  Decaturin  1820.  Toward  the  latter  part  of  the  War 
of  1812  General  Ross  and  Admiral  Cockburn  with  about  5000  men  appeared 
in  Chesapeake  Bay  to  attack  Washington.  The  American  forces  fell  back 
to  Bladensburg  (four  miles  from  Washington)  and  awaited  the  British.  The 
Americans  numbered  about  7000  men,  but  were  scattered  and  untrained. 
August  24,  1814,  the  British  advanced  to  the  attack.  The  American  artillery 
held  them  in  check  for  a  time,  but  the  troops  rallied  and  pushed  forward. 
The  Americans  fled  in  wild  disorder;  the  confusion  spread  and  soon  General 
Winder,  the  American  commander,  gave  orders  for  a  general  retreat.  By 
this  battle  Washington  was  exposed  to  capture.  The  American  loss  was 
seventy-six  men;  the  British  more  than  500  killed  and  wounded. 

Elaine,  James  Gillespie  (January  31,  i83O-January  27,  1893),  was  born 
at  West  Brownsville,  Pa.  He  was  graduated  at  Washington  College  in 
Pennsylvania  in  1847,  and  became  a  teacher.  In  1854  he  settled  in  Augusta, 
Me.,  and  assumed  the  editorship  of  the  Kennebec  Journal.  He  was  soon  a 
power  in  State  journalism  and  politics,  was  elected  to  the  Legislature  in 
1858,  and  was  chairman  of  the  Republican  State  Committee.  He  entered 
Congress  as  a  Representative  from  Maine  in  1863,  and  acquired  a  brilliant 
reputation  as  an  able  and  versatile  debater  and  an  aggressive  party  leader. 
These  qualities  with  his  knowledge  of  parliamentary  law  made  him  Speaker 
of  the  House  for  three  terms,  1869-1875.  In  1876-1881  he  was  United  States 
Senator.  This  prominence  and  his  "  magnetic"  character  brought  him  to 
men's  minds  as  a  candidate  for  the  Presidency.  In  1876  he  was  one  of  the 
two  leaders  for  the  Republican  prize;  in  1880,  while  beaten  himself  by  the 
persistency  of  the  Grant  advocates,  he  dictated  the  nomination  of  Garfield, 
and  entered  the  latter's  Cabinet  in  March,  1881,  as  Secretary  of  State.  His 
interference  in  the  Chilian-Peruvian  imbroglio  is  a  matter  of  history.  He 


68  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

resigned  office  in  December,  1881,  soon  after  President  Arthur's  accession. 
In  1884  he  was  on  the  fourth  ballot  nominated  to  the  Presidency,  and  between 
his  advocates  and  those  of  Mr.  Cleveland  there  ensued  one  of  the  most 
extraordinary  and  exciting  personal  campaigns  on  record.  His  reputation 
had  been  assailed  before,  particularly  from  his  alleged  connection  with  the 
Little  Rock  Railroad  matter,  and  a  formidable  section  of  the  Republican 
party  bolted  his  candidacy.  So  much  the  more,  vigorous  was  the  support 
of  the  many  friends  of  the  "  Plumed  Knight."  The  defection  of  the  Mug- 
wumps and  the  singular  alliterative  utterance  of  Mr.  Burchard  (see  Burchard} 
are  variously  assigned  as  the  cause  of  his  loss  of  New  York  State  by  a  small 
majority,  and  consequent  loss  of  the  election  in  the  country  at  large.  In 
1889  he  became  Secretary  of  State  in  President  Harrison's  Cabinet.  He 
will  probably  be  best  remembered  in  this  office  for  his  furtherance  of  the 
Pan-American  conference  and  advocacy  of  reciprocity.  He  suddenly  re- 
signed in  June,  1892,  and  was  an  unsuccessful  candidate  for  the  Republican 
nomination.  He  died  at  Washington.  His  political  reminiscences  and 
comments  are  given  in  his  "  Twenty  Years  in  Congress  "  (published  1884- 
1886). 

Blair,  Francis  Preston  (1791—1876),  was  a  prominent  politician  for  half 
a  century.  As  the  editor  of  the  Washington  Globe  he  wielded  a  great  influ- 
ence in  the  Jacksonian  wing  of  the  Democratic  party.  After  the  political 
disintegration  caused  by  slavery,  he  became  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
Republican  party  but  avoided  advocating  a  radical  policy.  Toward  the 
close  of  his  life  he  acted  again  with  the  Democrats. 

Blair,  Francis  Preston  (1821-1875),  was  the  son  of  Francis  P.  Blair. 
He  served  in  the  Mexican  War,  after  which  he  practised  law  and  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Missouri  Legislature.  He  was  a  Republican  Congressman  from 
Missouri  in  1857—59  and  1861—63.  He  took  an  important  part  in  saving 
Missouri  for  the  Union  at  the  opening  of  the  war,  and  was  afterward  dis- 
tinguished as  a  division  and  corps  commander  in  the  Vicksburg  campaign 
and  in  Sherman's  march  through  Georgia  to  the  sea.  Joining  the  Democratic 
party  he  was  on  its  ticket  with  Seymour  as  unsuccessful  candidate  for 
Vice-President  in  1868.  His  last  important  office  was  that  of  United  States 
Senator  from  Missouri  in  1871-73. 

Blair,  Henry  W.,  born  in  1834,  of  New  Hampshire,  Senator.  In  the 
Civil  War  he  became  lieutenant-colonel,  and  was  twice  severely  wounded  at 
Port  Hudson.  He  was  a  Representative  in  Congress  from  1875  to  1879  and 
U.  S.  Senator  from  1879  to  1891.  He  introduced  the  so-called  "  Blair  School 
Bill "  which  twice  passed  the  Senate  but  failed  in  the  House. 

Blair,  John  (1732—1800),  of  Virginia,  jurist,  became  a  Judge  of  the  Court 
of  Appeals  in  1777  and  afterward  Chief  Justice  ;  in  1780  Judge  of  the  High 
Court  of  Chancery.  He  was  a  delegate  to  the  Federal  Constitutional  Con- 
vention and  a  Justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States  from  1789 
to  1796. 

Blair,  Montgomery  (1813-1883),  of  Maryland,  statesman,  served  in  the 
Seminole  War.  Was  Mayor  of  St.  Louis  in  1842  and  Judge  of  the  Court  of 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  69 

Common  Pleas  of  Missouri  from  1843  to  1849,  but  removed  to  Maryland  in 
1853.  In  1861  he  was  appointed  Postmaster-General  by  President  Lincoln. 
His  resignation  was  accepted  in  1864,  after  which  he  acted  with  the  Demo- 
cratic party. 

Blair  Bill,  a  bill  which  passed  the  Senate -in  1884  and  1886,  for  giving 
Federal  money  to  States  for  purposes  of  education,  in  sums  proportioned  to 
their  number  of  illiterates.  It  was  introduced  by  Senator  H.  W.  Blair,  of 
New  Hampshire.  It  failed  in  the  House. 

Blakeley,  Johnston  (1781-1814),  of  North  Carolina,  naval  officer,  was 
made  master-commander  in  1813  and  appointed  to  the  new  sloop  "Wasp," 
with  which,  in  1814,  he  captured  the  "Reindeer,"  after  a  severe  action  of 
nineteen  minutes,  for  which  Congress  voted  him  a  gold  medal.  After  cap- 
turing several  more  vessels,  the  "  Wasp  "  foundered  at  sea  with  all  on  board. 

Bland,  Richard  (1710-1776),  of  Virginia,  called  the  "Antiquary,"  was  a 
member  of  the  House  of  Burgesses  from  1745  till  the  Revolution,  and  a  very 
active  patriot,  and  in  1774  a  delegate  to  Congress. 

Bland,  Richard  P.,  born  in  1835,  was  a  lawyer  and  business  man  and 
came  into  prominence  as  a  Democratic  Congressman  from  Missouri.  Since 
1873  he  has  been  steadily  a  member  of  the  Lower  House,  generally  a  leading 
member,  and  several  times  chairman  of  the  important  committee  on  coinage. 
He  is  one  of  the  best-known  advocates  of  the  free  and  unlimited  coinage  of 
silver.  He  was  a  chief  promoter  of  the  Bland  Act  in  1875,  and  has  cham- 
pioned the  white  metal  persistently  with  or  against  the  trend  of  his  party  or 
of  the  country.  Died  1899. 

"  Bland  Dollar,"  so  called  after  Congressman  Bland,  of  Missouri,  author 
of  the  Bland  Act  of  1875,  under  the  provisions  of  which  the  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury  was  to  purchase  each  month  sufficient  bullion  to  coin  2,000,000 
of  silver  dollars  of  412  ^  grains  each,  to  be  considered  a  legal  tender.  Coin- 
age began  in  1878. 

Blatchford,  Samuel  (1820-1893),  of  New  York,  jurist,  was  appointed 
Judge  of  the  U.  S.  District  Court  for  the  Southern  district  of  New  York  in 
1867,  and  in  1882  an  Associate  Justice  of  the  U.  S.  Supreme  Court. 

Blennerhassett,  Harman  (1764  or  1765-1831),  was  born  in  England.  Be- 
coming imbued  with  republican  ideas,  he  disposed  of  his  estates  and  came 
to  the  United  States  in  1797  and  purchased  an  island  in  the  Ohio  River,  upon 
which  he  erected  a  fine  mansion.  He  became  interested  in  the  schemes  of 
Aaron  Burr,  to  which  he  contributed  large  sums  and  for  complicity  in  which 
he  was  arrested  on  a  charge  of  treason,  but  discharged.  The  proceedings 
ruined  him. 

"  Blessing  of  the  Bay,"  the  first  seaworthy  vessel  built  in  the  United 
States.  She  was  built  at  Mistick,  Mass.,  for  John  Winthrop,  and  was 
launched  July  4,  1631.  She  was  used  for  a  number  of  years  in  trade  with 
the  Connecticut  colonies  and  the  Dutch  settlers  of  New  York. 

Bliss,  Cornelius  N.,  born  in  1833,  cotton  manufacturer.  Secretary  of  the 
Interior  under  McKinley  from  1897  to  1899. 

Block,  or  Blok,  Adriaen,  Dutch  navigator,  visited  Manhattan  (now  New 
York)  about  1613  and  again  in  1614  in  the  "  Tiger,"  which  being  accidentally 


7©  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

burned  he  built  the  "  Unrest,"  a  sixteen-ton  yacht,  in  which  he  coasted  as 
far  north  as  Nahant,  discovering  the  Housatonic  and  the  Connecticut  and 
the  island  which  bears  his  name. 

Blockade.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  the  Federal  government,  in 
lieu  of  a  competent  navy,  only  twelve  serviceable  vessels  being  at  home, 
fitted  out, a  miscellaneous  fleet  of  merchant  craft  for  blockading  the  Con- 
federate ports.  The  Confederate  government  had  passed  a  law  requiring 
every  English  vessel  .that  entered  its  ports  to  bring  arms  and  supplies  as  part 
of  its  cargo,  and  tl/us  munitions  were  never  lacking,  as  long  as  admission 
could  be  gained.\^lockade  runners  commonly  went  first  to  the  British  port 
of  Nassau,  in  the  Bahamas,  and  thence  to  Confederate  ports.  They  often  got 
through,  but  the  blockade  was  wonderfully  successful,  considering  the  ex- 
tent of  coast,  and  the  condition  of  the  navy,  especially  after  the  capture, 
early  in  the  war,  of  New  Bern,  Plymouth,  New  Orleans,  etc.  It  finally  ac- 
complished its  object  of  "  starving  the  Confederacy."  United  States  cruisers 
exercised  the  right  of  stopping  and  searching  neutral  vessels  in  the  manner 
usual  in  international  war.  Vessels  captured  because  of  attempts  to  break 
the  blockade  or  to  carry  contraband  goods,  or  as  property  of  the  enemy, 
were  taken  into  port  and  submitted  to  the  adjudication  of  the  prize  courts, 
as  prizes  of  war.  Congress  passed  no  new  laws  establishing  any  new 
principles  respecting  condemnation;  and  the  prize  courts  proceeded  entirely 
upon  the  rules  of  international  law.  The  capture  of  the  brig  '  'Amy  Warwick  " 
on  the  high  seas,  bound  from  Rio  Janeiro  to  Richmond  with  a  cargo  of  tobacco, 
first  distinctly  raised  the  question  of  the  right  of  the  United  States  to 
exercise  war  powers  in  suppressing  the  insurrection.  The  brig  was  captured 
as  "  enemy's  property,"  since  she  belonged  to  persons  at  Richmond. 

Blommaert,  Samuel  (about  i59O-about  1670),  Colonial  patroon.  In  1629 
he,  with  Samuel  Godyn,  purchased  of  the  natives  most  of  what  is  now 
Delaware  and  planted  a  colony  called  Swaanendael  which  was  soon  utterly 
destroyed  by  the  Indians. 

Bloody  Bill,  sometimes  called  the  Force  Bill,  passed  by  Congress  March 
2,  1833.  Its  aim  was  to  enforce  the  tariff  of  1832,  which  the  Legislature  of 
South  Carolina  had  declared  null  and  void. 

Bloody  Brook,  Mass.     (See  Deerfield.) 

Bloody  Shirt.  To  wave  the  bloody  shirt  meant,  in  Congress  or  other 
places,  to  revive  the  memories  of  the  Civil  War  by  impassioned  allusions,, 
The  term  was  mostly  used  in  the  times  about  1880. 

Blount,  James  H.,  born  in  1837,  of  Georgia,  was  elected  a  Democratic 
Representative  in  Congress  from  1873  to  1893.  In  March,  1893,  he  was 
appointed  Special  Commissioner  to  investigate  affairs  in  Hawaii  and  the 
conduct  of  American  officials  there  in  connection  with  the  then  recent 
revolution  in  that  government.  In  May  he  was  appointed  minister  to  the 
Hawaiian  Islands,  but  returned  in  the  autumn. 

"  Blue  Laws."  At  the  second  stated  meeting  of  the  newly-for/ned 
General  Court  of  New  Haven,  held  in  that  town  in  April,  1644,  it  was 
ordered  that  "  the  judicial  laws  of  God,  as  they  were  delivered  by  Moses," 


DICTIONARY  o*  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  71 

should  be  considered  binding  on  all  offenders  and  should  be  a  rule  to  all  the 
courts  of  the  jurisdiction,  "  till  they  be  branched  out  into  particulars  here- 
after." These  provisions  have  developed  the  current  notions  of  New  Haven's 
Criminal  Code,  and  these  notions  have  been  greatly  aided  by  the  absurd  code 
of  "  Blue  Laws,"  published  in  a  history  of  Connecticut  by  the  Rev.  Samuel 
Peters,  an  ingenious  and  highly  unreliable  writer.  Here  are  specimens  of  the 
Blue  Laws  sometimes  quoted: 

"  No  one  shall  run  on  the  Sabbath  day,  or  walk  in  his  garden,  or  else- 
where, except  reverently  to  and  from  meeting." 

"  No  woman  shall  kiss  her  child  on  the  Sabbath  or  fasting  day." 
"  No  one  shall  read  Common-prsyer,  keep  Christmas  or  saints'  days,  make 
minced  pies,  dance,  play  cards,  or  play  on  any  instrument  of  music  except 
the  drum,  trumpet  and  jews-harp." 

Blue  Lights.  During  the  second  war  with  England,  Decatur  made  several 
attempts  on  dark  nights  to  escape  from  the  blockaded  port  of  New  London 
(1813).  He  declared  that  his  failure  was  due  to  signals  of  blue  lights  flashed 
from  the  shore  to  warn  the  British.  This  led  to  the  opponents  of  the  war 
being  stigmatized  as  "  Blue-light  Federalists." 

Blue  Lodges,  a  secret  pro-slavery  order  in  Western  Missouri,  formed 
about  1854  to  aid  the  Southern  mission  work  of  establishing  slavery  in 
Kansas.  In  March,  1855,  they  crossed  the  Missouri  and  forcibly  deposited 
their  ballots  for  the  pro-slavery  candidates. 

Blunt,  James  G.  (1826-1881),  of  Kansas,  soldier,  major-general  in  the 
Civil  War,  served  in  Arkansas  and  Missouri,  which,  after  several  engage- 
ments, he  relieved  of  the  Confederate  invasion  under  Price. 

Board  of  Admiralty,  organized  by  the  Continental  Congress,  October 
28,  1779,  from  the  earlier  and  more  numerous  Marine  Committee.  It  con- 
sisted of  two  members  of  Congress  and  five  others  and  had  charge  of  all 
naval  and  marine  affairs.  It  was  abolished  February  7,  1781,  upon  the  crea- 
tion of  the  Secretary  of  Marine. 

Board  of  Trade  and  Plantations.  Oliver  Cromwell  made  some  attempts 
to  establish  a  board  which  should  supervise  and  regulate  the  commerce  of 
the  colonies  in  America.  No  definite  results  were  reached,  however,  until 
1660,  when  Charles  II.  established  two  separate  councils,  one  for  trade  and 
the  other  for  foreign  plantations.  These  were  from  1672  to  1675  united.  The 
"  Board  of  Trade  and  Plantations  "  was  established  in  1695,  and  was  the 
governing  body  having  charge  of  the  English  colonies  in  America  from  that 
time  to  1768,  when  the  "Secretary  of  State  for  America"  was  called  into 
existence.  In  1782  the  board  was  abolished. 

Board  of  "War.  On  June  12,  1776,  the  Continental  Congress,  urged  by 
an  appeal  from  Washington,  established  a  Board  of  War  and  Ordnance,  based 
upon  the  contemporary  English  Ordnance  Department.  It  consisted  of  five 
members  of  the  Congress,  and  John  Adams  was  made  chairman.  October 
17,  1777,  it  was  resolved  to  create  a  Board  of  War,  to  consist  of  three  mem- 
bers (later  five),  not  delegates.  The  board  had  charge  of  all  matters  per- 
taining to  war,  including  records,  supplies,  the  raising  of  troops  and  money. 


72  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

The  original  Board  of  War  and  Ordnance,  however,  continued  to  exist.  In 
1781  a  Secretary  of  War  was  instituted,  who  in  1782  took  the  place  of  the 
board. 

Body  of  Liberties,  a  code  of  100  fundamental  laws  established  by  the 
General  Court  of  Massachusetts  in  December,  1641.  Hitherto  there  had  been 
no  written  law  in  the  colony,  justice  having  been  administered  wholly  upon 
principles  of  equity.  The  Body  of  Liberties  was  drafted  by  Nathaniel  Ward, 
pastor  of  the  church  at  Ipswich.  It  laid  down  the  fundamental  principles 
of  the  sacredness  of  life,  liberty,  property  and  reputation,  and  prescribed 
general  rules  for  judicial  proceedings. 

Bohemia  Manor,  a  grant  of  5000  acres  of  land  along  the  Elk  River  made 
by  Lord  Baltimore,  in  1666,  to  Augustine  Herman,  a  Bohemian  surveyor, 
who  promised  therefor  to  make  a  map  of  Maryland.  Herman  obtained 
papers  of  denization  and  was  naturalized  with  his  family  under  the  first  act 
of  that  kind  passed  in  the  province. 

Boise  City,  Idaho,  was  first  settled  as  a  trading  post  of  the  Hudson  Bay 
Company.  The  town  was  laid  out  in  1863  an<^  became  the  capital  of  the 
State  (then  territory)  in  1864. 

Boker,  George  H.  (1823-1890),  of  Philadelphia,  author,  wrote  several 
successful  plays  and  many  patriotic  lyrics.  He  was  U.  S.  Minister  to  Turkey 
from  1871  to  1875  and  to  Russia  from  1875  to  1879. 

Bolivar,  Simon  (1783-1830),  liberator,  was  the  most  prominent  figure  in 
the  struggle  of  the  Spanish  South  American  provinces  for  independence, 
being  at  times  absolute  dictator.  He  had  the  warm  sympathy  of  American 
public  men. 

Bolivia.  A  treaty  of  peace,  friendship,  commerce  and  navigation  was 
concluded  between  the  United  States  and  Bolivia  May  13,  1858.  The  rights 
of  neutrals  in  this  treaty  were  carefully  explained. 

Bollman's  Case.  Bollman  was  brought  before  the  Supreme  Court  of  the 
United  States  in  1807  on  a  writ  of  habeas  corpus  ad  subjiciendum,  charged 
with  being  implicated  in  a  treasonable  attempt  to  levy  war  upon  the  United 
States.  (See  Burr,  Aaron.)  The  argument  of  the  counsel  for  the  defendant 
turned  upon  the  authority  of  the  Supreme  Court  to  issue  writs  of  habeas 
corptis  ad  subjiciendum,  also  upon  the  nature  of  a  treasonable  act.  It  was 
decided  that  the  court  could  issue  writs  of  habeas  corpus  ad  subjiciendum, 
but  judgment  was  found  for  the  plaintiff  for  lack  of  precision  in  evidence,  to 
prove  the  place  of  commission  of  the  treasonable  act.  Also  it  was  decided 
that  a  mere  conspiracy  to  subvert  the  government  by  force  is  not  treason; 
an  actual  levying  of  war  is  necessary. 

Bonaparte,  Charles  J.,  born  in  Baltimore  in  1851,  lawyer,  the  only  sur- 
viving grandson  of  Madame  (Patterson)  Bonaparte,  has  been  prominent  in 
the  movement  for  civil  service  reform.  . 

Bonaparte,  Charles  Lucien  Jules  Laurent  (1803-1857),  ornithologist, 
eldest  son  of  Lucien  Bonaparte,  Napoleon's  brother,  came  to  Philadelphia 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  .          73 

and  published  several  valuable  works  on  his  favorite  science.     In  1848  was 
a  republican  leader  in  Rome  and  vice-president  of  the  constituent  assembly. 

Bonaparte,  Elizabeth  (Patterson)  (1785-1879),  wife  of  Jerome  Bonaparte 
(youngest  brother  of  Napoleon),  to  whom  she  was  married  in  1803  by  Arch- 
bishop Carroll  with  all  requisite  legal  formalities.  She  sailed  for  Europe  in 
1805,  but  the  opposition  of  Napoleon  prevented  her  landing  and  she  was 
obliged  to  take  refuge  in  Bngland.  The  marriage  was  annulled  by  a  decree 
of  the  Council  of  State,  and  she  returned  to  America.  Jerome  married  the 
Princess  Caroline  of  Wiirteniberg. 

Bonaparte,  Jerome  (1784-1860),  King  of  Westphalia,  youngest  brother 
of  Napoleon.  His  marriage  with  Miss  Patterson,  of  Baltimore,  in  1803  was 
declared  null  by  Napoleon,  who  made  him,  in  1807,  King  of  Westphalia. 
He  commanded  a  division  at  Waterloo.  From  his  exile  at  Trieste  he  returned 
to  France  and  was  made  Field  Marshal  in  1850. 

Bonaparte,  Joseph  (1768—1844),  King  of  Spain,  elder  brother  of  Napoleon, 
was  made  King  of  Spain  by  Napoleon  in  1808,  but  left  it  after  his  defeat  by 
Wellington  at  Vittoria.  He  came  to  the  United  States  after  Waterloo  and, 
except  for  a  brief  period,  lived  till  1841  in  Bordentown.  N.  J.,  where  he  was 
very  popular. 

Bonaparte,  Louis  Napoleon.     (See  Napoleon  III.) 
Bonaparte,  Napoleon.     (See  Napoleon  I.) 

11  Bonhomme  Richard,"  an  old  East  Indiaman  fitted  up  as  a  man-of-war 
by  the  French  at  L'Orient  in  1779,  and  commanded  by  Paul  Jones.  She 
sailed  from  L'Orient  under  American  colors,  but  with  French  instructions 
and  accompanied  by  two  French  vessels,  the  "  Alliance  "  and  the  "  Pallas." 
Jones  attempted  to  enter  the  harbor  of  Leith,  Scotland,  but  was  prevented 
by  storms.  On  September  23  the  vessels  encountered  a  British  merchant 
fleet,  guarded  by  two  British  warships,  the  "  Serapis  "  and  the  "  Countess  of 
Scarborough."  The  "  Pallas  "  quickly  captured  the  "  Scarborough,"  a  small 
twenty-gun  vessel.  Jones  unhesitatingly  attacked  the  "  Serapis,"  though  his 
vessel  was  far  inferior  at  every  point.  He  lashed  the  "  Serapis' "  bowsprit 
to  the  "  Richard's  "  mizzenmast  and  raked  the  former's  deck  with  musketry. 
The  "  Serapis  "  poured  broadside  after  broadside  into  the  "  Richard."  Finally 
a  bucket  of  hand  grenades,  thrown  down  the  "  Serapis' "  hatchways,  com- 
pelled her  commander  to  surrender.  Jones  transferred  his  crew  to  the 
"  Serapis,"  and  the  "  Richard  "  sank  in  a  few  hours. 

Bonus  Bill,  a  bill  submitted  by  Calhoun,  December  23, 1816,  appropriating 
$1,500,000  "  for  constructing  roads  and  canals  and  improving  the  navigation 
of  watercourses."  The  bill  was  passed,  being  strongly  supported  by  New 
York  and  the  South.  It  was  supposed  the  money  would  immediately  be 
applied  to  the  construction  of  a  canal  between  Albany  and  the  lakes.  Presi- 
dent Madison  vetoed  the  bill  during  the  last  days  of  his  administration,  insist- 
ing that  internal  improvement  measures  needed  a  constitutional  amendment. 
Accordingly  New  York  State  undertook  the  construction  of  the  Erie  Canal. 


74  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Bonvouloir,  M.  de,  French  diplomatist.  His  reports  to  Vergennes  of  his 
conferences  with  Franklin  at  Philadelphia  in  1775  did  much  to  bring  about 
the  French  alliance. 

Boone,  Daniel  (1735-1820),  was  born  in  Pennsylvania  and  died  in  Mis- 
souri. He  was  a  daring  and  skillful  hunter  in  North  Carolina  and  in  1769 
started  for  the  region  which  is  now  Kentucky,  thus  becoming  the  pioneer 
in  the  settlement  of  that  State.  He  founded  Boonesborough  on  the  Ken- 
tucky River  and  was  for  many  years  the  chief  hero  among  the  many  rude 
and  picturesque  figures  of  the  frontier.  He  excelled  especially  in  Indian 
warfare,  the  most  striking  episode  of  which  was  perhaps  the  battle  of  the 
Blue  Licks  in  1782.  Countless  stories  are  related  of  his  adventures  and 
hair-breadth  escapes.  His  last  years  were  passed  in  poverty,  though  a  grant 
of  lands  was  finally  bestowed  upon  him  by  Congress. 

Boonville,  or  Booneville,  Mo.  Here,  June  17,  1861,  Captain  Nathaniel 
Lyon,  commanding  about  2000  Federal  troops,  defeated  Price,  the  Confed- 
erate general,  whose  army  numbered  several  thousand  poorly  armed  and 
unorganized  volunteers.  This  battle  was  the  outcome  of  numerous  seces- 
sionist plots  fomented  by  Governor  Jackson,  of  Missouri,  and  General  Price. 
Lyon  captured  twenty  prisoners,  two  six-pounder  guns  and  the  supplies  of 
the  Confederate  camp. 

Booth,  Edwin  (1833-1893),  actor,  first  appeared  as  such  at  the  Boston 
Museum  in  1849.  He  was  brilliantly  successful,  not  only  in  the  United 
States,  but  in  England  and  Germany,  in  Macbeth,  King  Lear,  Othello,  lago, 
Richard  III.,  Shylock  and  other  parts,  and  especially  in  Hamlet,  with  which 
his  name  is  inseparably  connected. 

Booth,  John  Wilkes  (1839-1865),  actor,  during  the  Civil  War  was  a  violent 
secessionist.  On  the  night  of  April  14,  1865,  he  shot  President  Lincoln  at 
Ford's  Theatre,  Washington.  He  was  concealed  for  a  time  by  friends  in 
Maryland,  but  fled  to  Virginia,  where  he  was  shot  in  a  barn  by  his  pursuers, 
April  26. 

Booth,  Junius  Brutus  (1796—1852),  actor,  after  establishing  his  reputation 
in  England  came  to  the  United  States  in  1821,  where,  and  in  occasional 
visits  to  England,  he  greatly  extended  his  fame. 

Border  Ruffians,  a  name  applied  to  the  pro-slavery  men  of  Missouri  who, 
in  1855  and  after,  during  the  struggle  in  Kansas,  were  accustomed  to  cross 
over  into  that  State  to  carry  elections  and  harass  the  anti-slavery  settlers. 
The  name  was  sometimes  used  'by  these  men  themselves  and  not  always 
regarded  as  a  term  of  reproach. 

Border  States,  a  name  applied  to  the  Slave  States  of  Delaware,  Maryland, 
Virginia,  Kentucky  and  Missouri,  as  lying  next  to  the  Free  States,  and  some- 
times including  North  Carolina,  Tennessee  and  Arkansas.  These  States 
were  particularly  anxious  both  before  and  during  the  Civil  War  for  an 
amicable  settlement  of  all  difficulties.  They  originated  the  Peace  Conference 
of  1861.  Of  the  Border  States  only  Virginia,  North  Carolina,  Tennessee  and 
Arkansas  seceded. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  75 

Boric,  Adolph  E.  (1809-1890),  of  Philadelphia,  merchaut,  acquired  a  large 
fortune  and  gave  large  sums  to  aid  soldiers  in  the  Civil  War.  From  March 
to  June,  1869,  he  was  Secretary  of  the  Navy. 

Borneo.  A  commercial  treaty  was  concluded  between  the  United  States 
and  Borneo  in  1850. 

Boroughs.  William  Penn's  charter  of  the  territory  west  of  the  Delaware 
River  authorized  him,  in  1681,  to  erect  the  country,  among  other  divisions, 
into  boroughs  similar  to  those  of  England.  This  system  of  boroughs  con- 
tinues in  Pennsylvania  to  the  present  time,  and  exists  also  in  New  Jersey, 
Minnesota  and  Connecticut.  In  New  Jersey  boroughs  were  established  in  the 
early  part  of  the  last  century;  in  Connecticut  in  the  early  part  of  the  present 
century.  Their  growth  was  gradual.  Beginning  with  1619  Virginia  had 
eleven  boroughs.  These  were  later  reduced  to  two.  Lord  Baltimore's 
charter  entitled  him  to  create  boroughs  in  Maryland.  Gorges  also  established 
boroughs  in  Maine  under  his  charter  of  1639. 

Boscawen,  Edward  (1711-1761),  British  admiral,  distinguished  himself 
at  Porto  Bello  and  Carthagena  and  in  1758  in  conjunction  with  Lord  Amherst 
reduced  Louisbourg  and  Cape  Breton. 

Boston,  capital  of  Massachusetts,  was  founded  by  John  Winthrop  and  his 
company  in  1630.  The  settlement  grew  in  prosperity  until  the  French  and 
Indian  War,  when  it  suffered  heavy  exactions.  Opposition  to  the  measures 
of  the  British  ministry  began  here.  The  Stamp  Act  and  Tea  Act  aroused 
indignation.  Troops  were  quartered  in  the  town.  On  December  16,  1773, 
a  party  disguised  as  Mohawk  Indians  emptied  three  cargoes  of  tea  into  the 
harbor.  The  port  was  closed  by  the  British  Parliament  June  i,  1774.  The 
British  army,  besieged  in  Boston  by  the  Americans  from  June,  1775,  evacu- 
ated the  town  in  March,  1776.  The  Constitution  of  the  State  was  here 
adopted  in  1780.  In  1822  Boston  became  a  city.  From  1830  to  1860  it 
was  regarded  as  the  headquarters  of  the  anti-slavery  and  other  reform  move- 
ments. The  city  was  visited  by  a  disastrous  fire  in  1872,  which  burned  on 
two  days,  November  9  and  10,  involving  a  loss  of  over  $80,000,000.  The 
population  *of  Boston  in  1708  was  12,000;  1719,  18,000;  1780,  23,000;  1800, 
25,000;  1850,  139,000;  1875,  360,000;  1890,  448,477. 

Boston  Athenaeum,  a  library  supported  by  subscription  and  founded,  with 
a  governing  board  of  trustees,  April  7,  1807.  When  John  Quincy  Adams 
went  as  Minister  to  Russia  he  deposited  his  library  in  the  Athenseum,  nearly 
doubling  its  collection.  A  valuable  collection  of  coins,  antiques  and  curiosities 
is  also  contained  in  the  Athenseum.  It  now  possesses  over  105,000  volumes. 

"  Boston  "  Case  (1837).  A  Georgia  fugitive  slave  escaped  on  the  ship 
"  Boston  "  bound  for  Maine  and  reached  Canada.  The  Governor  of  Georgia 
charged  the  captain  with  slave-stealing  and  demanded  his  return  as  a  fugitive 
from  justice.  The  Governor  of  Maine  refused,  whereupon  the  Legislature  of 
Georgia  called  upon  Congress  to  so  amend  the  laws  as  to  compel  the  Maine 
Governor  to  comply.  No  action  was  taken. 

"  Boston  Gazette,"  the  second  newspaper  issued  in  the  American  colonies. 
It  was  begun  December  14,  1719,  by  William  Brooker,  who  succeeded  John 


76  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Campbell  as  the  postmaster  of  Boston.  Campbell  had  founded  the  Boston 
News  Letter,  which  now  encountered  its  first  opposition  in  the  rival  Boston 
Gazette.  The  latter  journal  was  owned  and  conducted  by  five  successive 
postmasters  until  1739,  when  it  was  merged  with  the  New  England  Weekly 
Journal,  a  paper  started  in  1727.  This  paper  proved  a  sore  trial  to  Camp- 
bell, the  owner  of  the  Boston  News  Letter,  which  had  had  a  clear  field  for 
fifteen  years. 

Boston  Massacre.  During  1769  and  the  early  months  of  1770  continual 
quarrels  and  misunderstandings  occurred  between  the  Boston  populace  and 
the  British  soldiers  stationed  in  the  town,  over  the  persistent  non-observance 
of  the  navigation  acts.  In  February,  1770,  a  press  gang  from  the  British 
frigate  "  Rose  "  boarded  a  ship  belonging  to  Hooper,  of  Marblehead,  and  a 
riot  followed.  On  the  night  of  March  5,  the  ringing  of  fire  bells  brought 
together  a  large  crowd  and  the  usual  collision  with  the  soldiers  took  place. 
The  soldiers  fired.  Three  persons  were  killed  and  several  others  severely 
wounded.  The  news  of  the  Boston  Massacre  spread  rapidly,  strengthening 
the  revolutionary  spirit.  The  soldiers  were  acquitted. 

"Boston  News  Letter,"  the  first  genuine  newspaper  published  in  the 
United  States.  The  first  issue  appeared  at  Boston  April  24,  1704.  The 
paper  was  a  weekly,  was  edited  and  published  by  John  Campbell,  then  post- 
master at  Boston,  and  was  printed  by  Bartholomew  Green.  It  was  issued 
every  Monday  and  appears  to  have  been  the  outgrowth  of  a  series  of  news 
letters  from  London,  which  Campbell,  as  controlling  the  news  centre,  in  his 
capacity  of  postmaster,  received  from  time  to  time  and  sent  to  the  Governors 
of  the  several  New  England  colonies.  These  letters  were  a  digest  of  the 
happenings,  political  and  social,  in  England  and  on  the  Continent,  with  here 
and  there  a  suggestion  as  to  the  politics  and  government  of  the  American 
colonies.  The  Boston  News  Letter  consisted  at  first  of  two  pages,  eight  by 
twelve  inches.  Its  publication  was  suspended  in  1776. 

Boston  Port  Act,  an  act  proposed  in  Parliament  by  Lord  North  and  passed 
March  31,  1774,  in  retaliation  for  the  destruction  of  cargoes  of  tea  in  Boston 
harbor.  The  act  provided  for  the  discontinuation  of  "  landing  and  Discharging, 
lading  or  shipping  of  goods,  wares  and  merchandise  at  the  town  and  within 
the  harbor  of  Boston."  Commerce  was  transferred  to  Salem  and  Marblehead. 
General  Gage  arrived  to  enforce  this  measure  on  June  i.  Much  indignation 
and  sympathy  were  felt  for  the  Bostonians  throughout  the  colonies,  and 
material  aid  in  gifts  was  rendered  them.  Broadsides  were  forthwith  issued 
in  Boston  and  Worcester  against  the  use  of  British  goods. 

Boston  Public  Library,  authorized  by  an  act  of  the  Massachusetts  State 
Legislature  April  3,  1848,  and  formally  opened  in  Mason  street  near  its 
present  site  March  20,  1854.  The  second  building  was  begun  September  17, 
1855,  and  was  completed  in  1858.  Gifts  of  books  and  money  have  been 
made  by  a  number  of  prominent  New  Englanders.  The  Library  with  eleven 
branches  contains  nearly  600,000  volumes.  The  new  building  is  now  com- 
pleted. 

Boston,  Siege  of.  Immediately  after  Lexington  and  Concord,  Boston  was 
invested  by  16,000  Americans  under  General  Ward.  The  first  attempt  to 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  77 

narrow  the  lines  resulted  in  the  defeat  of  the  Americans  at  Bunker  Hill  (q. 
v.).  On  July  3  Washington  succeeded  Ward.  Through  the  fall  and  winter 
he  drilled  his  men  and  drew  his  siege  lines  closer.  He  waited  only  for  am- 
munition and  siege  guns  to  begin  more  active  operations.  Having  secured 
these  in  the  early  spring  of  1776  from  Ticonderoga  (q.  v.),  he  seized  Dor- 
chester Heights  on  the  night  of  March  4,  1776.  Here  he  commanded  the 
city  and  the  fleet,  and  on  March  17  Howe,  who  had  succeeded  Gage,  was 
obliged  to  evacuate  Boston. 

Boston  University  was  chartered  by  the  Methodists  in  1869.  ^ts  school 
of  Theology  was  founded  in  1847,  its  Law  School  in  1872,  its  Medical  School 
in  1873. 

"  Boston  Weekly  Post,"  an  older  paper  under  a  new  name.  In  1735 
Thomas  Fleet  became  possessed  of  the  Boston  Weekly  Rehearsal,  which  he 
continued  under  the  name  of  the  Boston  Weekly  Post,  He  declared  himself 
of  no  party  and  invited  contribution  from  all  parties  and  upon  all  subjects. 
This  paper  was  issued  with  considerable  success  until  1775,  when  it  was 
suspended. 

"  Boston  Weekly  Post-boy,"  a  newspaper  founded  at  Boston  in  1734  by 
Ellis  Hushe,  appointed  postmaster  that  year.  It  was  published  in  opposition 
to  the  Boston  Gazette  and  continued  until  1755,  when  it  was  suspended. 

Botetourt,  Norborne  Berkeley,  Baron  (1717-1770),  became  colonial  Gov* 
ernor  of  Virginia  in  1768,  and  as  such  exerted  himself  to  effect  reconciliation 
between  the  colonists  and  the  mother  country.  He  was  highly  popular. 

Botts,  John  Minor  (1802-1869),  of  Virginia,  statesman,  was  first  elected 
to  Congress  in  1 839.  When  President  Tyler  seceded  from  the  Whig  party 
Mr.  Botts  violently  denounced  him  and  thereafter  supported  Mr.  Clay. 
During  the  Civil  War  he  was  a  strong  Unionist. 

Boudinot,  Elias  (1740—1821),  of  New  Jersey,  was  Delegate  to  Congress 
most  of  the  time  from  1777  to  1784,  was  its  president  in  1782  and  as  such 
signed  the  Treaty  of  Peace  with  England.  He  was  a  member  of  Congress 
from  1789  to  1795,  Director  of  the  Mint  from  1795  to  1805,  and  was  much 
interested  in  the  education  of  the  Indians  and  in  missionary  enterprises. 

Boundaries.  Colonial  boundaries  were  often  disputed,  grants  having  been 
made  by  kings  ignorant  or  careless  of  American  geography.  For  these  the 
tribunal  was  most  commonly  the  Privy  Council  of  the  King  of  Great  Britain. 
After  the  Revolution  Congress  took  jurisdiction  over  them.  The  Articles 
of  Confederation  in  1781  provided  an  elaborate  mode,  modelled  on  English 
procedure  under  the  Grenville  Act  of  1770,  for  selecting  a  court  which 
should  try  such  disputes  between  States.  Since  1789  such  cases  have  been 
within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Supreme  Court,  like  other  cases  between 
States.  (For  the  boundaries  of  the  United  States  and  their  history,  see 
Versailles,  Treaty  of,  Annexations,  Northeast  Boundary  and  Northwest 
Boundary.) 

Bounty  Lands.  On  September  16,  1776,  Congress  passed  a  resolution, 
promising  both  commissioned  and  non-commissioned  officers  who  would 


78  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

enlist  in  the  cause  of  the  Revolution  certain  "  bounty  lands,"  to  be  taken 
from  the  "  Crown  lands,"  or  Northwest  Territory,  which  was  then  claimed 
in  portions  by  several  States.  Maryland  protested  vigorously  against  this 
resolution  on  the  ground  that  she  had  no  extra  lands,  and  would  therefore 
be  unfairly  taxed. 

Boutwell,  George  S.,  born  in  1818,  cabinet  officer,  was  a  lawyer  and 
Democratic  member  of  the  Massachusetts  Legislature.  By  a  coalition  of 
the  Free-soilers  and  Democrats  he  was  elected  Governor  of  Massachusetts 
in  1851  and  1852.  He  was  a  delegate  to  the  Peace  Conference,  and  was  in 
1862-1863  the  first  commissioner  of  internal  revenue.  He  next  served  as 
Republican  Congressman  1863-1869,  and  was  one  of  the  managers  of  the 
impeachment  of  President  Johnson.  In  Grant's  first  administration  Bout- 
well  was  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  1869-73,  an(^  then  became  U,  S.  Senator, 
serving  until  1877. 

Bowditch,  Nathaniel  (1773-1838),  of  Massachusetts,  mathematician.  His 
greatest  work  was  a  translation  of  Laplace's  "  Me'canique  Celeste,"  but  his 
best  known  is  the  "  American  Navigator." 

Bowdoin,  James  (1727-1790),  of  Massachusetts,  statesman.  In  1756  he 
became  an  executive  councillor,  in  which  capacity  he  opposed  the  encroach- 
ments of  the  governors.  In  1775  he  was  president  of  the  council;  in  1779 
presided  over  the  State  Constitutional  Convention.  In  1785  and  1786  he 
was  chosen  Governor,  in  which  position  he  put  down  Shays'  Rebellion. 

Bowdoin  College,  (Congregational),  was  chartered  in  1794  and  opened  in 
1802  at  Brunswick,  Me.  It  was  named  in  honor  of  Governor  James  Bowdoin, 
of  Massachusetts.  The  Medical  School  of  Maine,  founded  in  1820,  is  con- 
nected with  this  college. 

Bowie,  James  (1790-1836),  of  Texas,  soldier.  A  weapon  which  he  used 
in  a  mele'e  was  -the  model  of  the  celebrated  "  Bowie  knife."  He  went  to 
Texas  about  1830  and  was  killed  at  the  Alamo. 

Bowles,  Samuel  (1826-1878),  entered  the  office  of  the  Springfield  Repub- 
lican at  an  early  age,  and  in  1851  succeeded  his  father  in  the  management 
of  the  journal.  He  made  his  paper  one  of  the  foremost  organs  of  public 
opinion  in  New  England,  and  acquired  a  national  reputation  as  a  journalist. 
He  visited  Europe  and  the  Pacific  slope  on  several  occasions,  and  wrote 
accounts  of  his  travels,  including  the  work  "  Our  Great  West."  He  was  a 
Republican  in  politics  down  to  his  support  of  Greeley's  candidacy  in  1872. 

Bowyer,  Fort  (Mobile  Bay),  'attacked  September  14,  1814,  by  a  combined 
land  and  naval  force  of  British  and  Indians.  They  were  repulsed  with  the 
loss  of  one  vessel  and  232  men.  The  Americans  lost  eight  men. 

"  Boxer,"  brig.     (See  "  Enterprise,") 

Boyd,  Linn  (1800-1859),  of  Kentucky,  was  first  elected  to  Congress  in 
1835,  was  re-elected  from  1839  to  1855,  and  was  Speaker  of  the  House  from 
1851  to  1855.  He  was  afterward  Lieutenant-Goveraor  for  one  year. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  79 

Boydton  Road,  Va.,  a  charge  upon  the  Confederates  by  Ord's  two  divi- 
sions of  Grant's  army,  then  operating  about  Richmond  and  Petersburg, 
April  i,  1865.  This  was  one  of  the  closing  battles  of  that  famous  campaign. 
The  charge  took  place  at  dawn  and  was  directed  along  the  Boydton  Road 
toward  Hatcher's  Run  against  the  rear  of  the  Confederate  intrenchments. 
The  lines  were  forced  and  several  thousand  prisoners  captured. 

Braddock,  Edward  (about  1695-1755),  was  an  English  general  of  the  old 
school,  who  was  sent  by  the  government  as  generalissimo  in  America  soon 
after  the  opening  of  the  French  and  Indian  War.  He  confidently  expected 
to  reduce  the  French  posts,  and  marched  from  Virginia  on  Fort  Duquesne> 
taking  few  precautions,  and  disregarding  the  advice  of  Washington  and 
others.  On  July  9,  1755,  his  army  was  entrapped  on  the  banks  of  the  Mon- 
ongahela  near  the  fort  by  an  inferior  Franco-Indian  force.  Braddock  had 
five  horses  shot  under  him  and  was  mortally  wounded  in  a  contest  in  which 
he  showed  little  generalship,  but  much  bravery,  He  died  four  days  later. 

Braddock's  Field  (July  9,  1755).  On  May  10,  1755,  General  Braddock 
took  command  of  2200  men  at  Fort  Cumberland  to  advance  upon  Fort 
Duquesne.  The  army  moved  slowly,  clearing  a  way,  and  on  July  7  was 
about  eight  miles  from  the  fort.  The  fort  was  strongly  situated  and  well 
garrisoned  ;  but  the  commandant  determined  to  strike  a  blow  on  the  advanc- 
ing English.  On  the  morning  of  the  ninth  an  ambuscading  party  of 
900  left  the  fort.  The  British  had  passed  the  ford  of  the  Monongahela, 
and  were  advancing  through  thick  woods  when  they  were  assailed  from  all 
sides.  They  stood  bravely,  but  could  see  no  foe.  Being  huddled  together 
they  were  fairly  mowed  down.  Their  courage  at  length  forsook  them — they 
broke  and  fled.  The  mortality  was  terrible.  Of  eighty-six  officers  sixty-three 
were  killed  and  disabled.  Of  1373  troops  only  459  came  off  unharmed.  The 
French  loss  was  trifling.  Colonel  Washington  distinguished  himself  by  his 
bravery.  Braddock  was  mortally  wounded.  Dunbar,  next  in  command, 
insisted  on  retreat,  and  left  the  frontier  unguarded. 

Bradford,  William  (1588-1657),  was  born  at  Austerfield,  in  England,  and 
was  prominent  in  the  company  of  Separatists,  who,  in  1607-08,  left  England 
for  Holland.  He  was  among  the  leaders  of  the  Mayflower  Pilgrims,  and»on 
the  death  of  Carver,  in  April,  1621,  was  chosen  Governor  of  the  struggling 
Plymouth  Colony.  This  post  he  retained,  with  a  few  intermissions,  until 
his  death.  Governor  Bradford  was  the  author  of  a  very  valuable  "  History 
of  the  Plymouth  Plantation  "  down  to  the  year  1647.  This  volume,  which 
had  remained  in  manuscript,  and  had  been  frequently  quoted,  disappeared 
from  Boston  during  the  confusion  of  the  Revolution,  and  was  singularly  dis- 
covered in  England  in  the  Fulham  library  in  1855,  and  printed  the  next  year. 

Bradford,  William  (1755-1795),  of  Philadelphia,  jurist,  in  1780  was 
appointed  Attorney-General  of  Pennsylvania,  in  1791  a  judge  of  its  Supreme 
Court,  and  from  1794  until  his  death,  was  Attorney-General  of  the  United 
States. 

Bradley,  Joseph  P.  (1813-1892),  jurist,  was  appointed  an  Associate  Justice 
of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States  by  President  Grant  in  1870, 


8o  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

which  office  he  held  until  his  death.  He  was  a  member  of  the  celebrated 
"  Electoral  Commission  "  of  1877,  and  is  generally  regarded  as  having  given 
the  casting  votes  which  decided  the  contest  in  favor  of  Hayes. 

Bradstreet,  Anne  (1612-1672),  of  Massachusetts,  poetess,  married  Governor 
Bradstreet  in  1628.  Some  of  her  poems  were  published,  and  received  great 
praise  from  her  contemporaries.  They  are  interesting  as  the  work  of  the 
first  poetess  of  New  England. 

Bradstreet,  John  (1711-1774),  soldier,  served  in  Pepperell's  regiment  in 
the  expedition  against  Louisbourg  in  1745.  In  1758  he  captured  Fort 
Frontenac,  served  with  Amherst  against  Ticonderoga  in  1759,  and  negotiated 
a  treaty  of  peace  with  Pontiac  in  1764.  He  was  made  major-general  in  1772. 

Bradstreet,  Simon  (1603-1697),  colonial  Governor  of  Massachusetts,  to 
to  which  he  came  in  1630,  in  1660  was  sent  to  England  to  congratulate 
Charles  II.  on  his  accession,  was  Governor  from  1679 to  J686,  and  again  after 
Andros'  recall  till  1692.  He  was  in  the  service  of  Massachusetts  sixty- two 
years.  He  opposed  the  witchcraft  delusion. 

Bragg,  Braxton  (1817-1876),  was  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1837.  In 
the  Mexican  War  he  was  distinguished  at  the  battle  of  Buena  Vista.  He 
resigned  from  the  army,  and  on  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  joined  the 
Confederates.  He  served  at  Shiloh  and  succeeded  Beauregard  in  command 
in  the  West.  In  the  summer  of  1862  he  invaded  Kentucky,  and  was  defeated 
at  Perry ville.  He  was  defeated  again  at  Murfreesboro',  but  in  1863  won  the 
battle  of  Chickamauga.  Grant  defeated  his  army  at  the  battles  around 
Chattanooga,  and  General  Bragg  was  removed  from  command.  He  served 
against  Sherman  toward  the  close  of  the  war. 

Bragg,  Edward  S.,  born  in  1827,  of  Wisconsin,  soldier.  In  the  Civil  War 
he  rose  to  the  rank  of  brigadier-general  and  was  a  prominent  member  of  the 
Forty-fifth,  Forty-sixth,  Forty-seventh  and  Forty-ninth  Congresses. 

Branch,  John  (1782-1863),  was  Governor  of  North  Carolina  from  1817  to 
1820.  He  was  a  Democratic  U.  S.  Senator  from  1823  to  1829,  and  was  Sec- 
retary of  the  Navy  in  Jackson's  Cabinet  from  1829  to  1831. 

Brandon  or  Brendon,  Saint  (fifth  century),  is  related  to  have  visited  a 
Western  land  in  which  he  traveled  as  far  as  a  great  river.  In  the  early  maps 
his  country  is  represented  west  of  the  Cape  Verde  Islands  and  south  of  the 
Island  of  Antilia. 

Brandy  wine,  Battle  of,  September  n,  1777.  On  Howe's  advance  upon 
Philadelphia  from  the  head  of  Chesapeake  Bay,  Washington  took  up  a  strong 
position  at  Brandywine  Creek,  though  he  had  but  11,000  to  oppose  to  Howe's 
18,000.  While  Knyphausen  engaged  the  centre,  Corn  wall  is  attempted  a 
flank  movement  upon  the  American  right.  He  met  with  obstinate  resistance 
from  Sullivan's  division,  which  had  formed  a  new  front,  but  he  forced  it  to 
retire.  The  American  centre  was  now  obliged  to  fall  back;  this  movement 
was  directed  in  a  masterly  way  by  General  Greene.  The  right,  attacked  by 
Knyphausen  in  front  and  Cornwallis  on  the  flank,  also  accomplished  its 
retreat  in  good  order.  The  British  were  thus  masters  of  the  field,  It  was  a 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  81 

battle  in  which  the  flank  movement  was  warranted,  but  it  was  met  with  a 
promptness  and  sagacity  which  saved  the  Americans  from  defeat  About 
1000  Americans  fell.  The  British  losses  slightly  exceeded  that  number. 

Brant,  Joseph  (1742-1807),  chief  of  the  Mohawk  Indians,  served  in  the 
British  army  during  the  Revolutionary  War.  He  was  active  in  the  massacre 
at  Cherry  Valley  and  at  Minisink  in  1779.  He  led  a  tribe  in  St.  Leger's 
expedition  against  Fort  Stanwix  in  1779.  After  the  war  he  aided  the  U.  S. 
Government  in  negotiating  Indian  treaties. 

Brashear  City,  La.,  a  battle  of  the  Civil  War,  occurring  during  Banks' 
command  of  the  Federal  army  in  Louisiana,  June  23,  1863.  Banks  had 
several  times  engaged  Dick  Taylor  during  this  campaign  and  his  outposts 
were  stationed  in  Brashear,  while  Banks  himself  was  in  pursuit  of  the  Con- 
federates. Taylor,  aware  of  the  weakness  of  the  Federal  force,  2000  in  all, 
eluded  Banks,  and  joining  Green  and  Mouton,  together  they  hurried  down 
to  the  town  with  15,000  men.  The  Federals  were  easily  defeated  and  the 
town  captured,  together  with  1000  prisoners  and  large  quantities  of  valuable 
stores.  Five  thousand  refugee  negroes  were  seized  and  returned  to  slavery. 

Brattleboro,  Vt.,  was  first  settled  as  a  military  post  (Fort  Dummer)  in 
1724. 

Braxton,  Carter  (1736-1797),  was  a  member  of  the  Virginia  Legislature 
from  1761  to  1771.  He  was  one  of  the  Virginia  Committee  of  Safety,  a 
delegate  to  the  Continental  Congress  from  1775  to  1776,  and  signed  the 
Declaration  of  Independence.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Executive  Council 
of  Virginia  from  1786  to  1791,  and  from  1793  to  1797. 

Brazil.  A  commercial  treaty  was  concluded  between  the  United  States 
and  Brazil  December  12,  1828.  By  the  convention  of  January  27,  1849, 
Brazil  agreed  to  pay  500,000  milreis  to  settle  claims  of  American  citizens. 
An  agreement  regarding  trade-marks  was  made  in  1878.  A  reciprocity 
treaty  was  concluded  January  31,  1891. 

Bread  Riots.  In  1837,  during  the  period  of  general  financial  panic,  prices 
rose  enormously.  Rents  were  exorbitant  and  flour  was  twelve  dollars  per 
barrel.  During  February  and  March  the  poor  of  New  York  held  frequent 
riotous  meetings,  which  culminated  in  violent  assaults  upon  flour  warehouses. 
In  several  instances  storehouses  were  broken  open  and  the  mob  helped  them- 
selves. The  militia  was  called  out  to  quell  the  disturbance. 

Brearley,  David  (1745-1790),  was  an  ardent  patriot  during  the  pre-Revo- 
lutionary  movements.  He  served  in  the  Continental  army  from  1775  to 
1779.  He  was  Chief  Justice  of  New  Jersey  from  1779  to  1789  (see  Holmes 
vs.  Walton),  when  he  became  a  U.  S.  District  Judge.  When  a  member  of 
the  Federal  Convention  of  1787,  he  zealously  opposed  the  unequal  represen- 
tation of  States.  He  signed  the  Constitution. 

Breckenridge,  John  (1760-1806),  was  a  member  of  the  Kentucky  Legisla- 
ture from  1797  to  1800.     In  1798,  with  Jefferson  and  Nicholas,  he  draughted 
the  famous  "  Kentucky  Resolutions  "  and  introduced  them  in  the  Legisla- 
ture.    He  was  a  Democratic  leader  in  the  U.  S.  Senate  from  1801  to  1805, 
6 


8a  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

and  was  prominent  in  the  legislation  concerning  the  annexation  of  Louisiana. 
He  was  Attorney-General  in  Jefferson's  Cabinet  from  1805  to  1806. 

Breckenridge,  John  Cabell  (1821-1875),  Vice-President  of  the  United 
States,  was  a  grandson  of  John  Breckenridge.  He  fought  in  the  Mexican 
War,  and  was  a  Democratic  Congressman  from  Kentucky,  1851-55.  He  was 
elected  Vice-President  in  1856  on  the  ticket  with  Buchanan,  and  served  from 
1857  to  1861,  and  was  the  youngest  man  ever  elected  to  the  office.  In  1860 
he  was  the  unsuccessful  candidate  for  President  of  the  ultra  slavery  wing  of 
the  Democratic  party,  and  received  seventy-two  electoral  votes.  He  was  U.  S. 
Senator  in  1861,  but  joined  the  Confederates  and  was  expelled  from  the  Sen- 
ate. He  was  at  the  battle  of  Shiloh  in  1862,  and  commanded  at  the  defence 
of  Baton  Rouge  the  same  year.  He  led  the  right  wing  at  Murfreesboro',  was 
at  Chickamauga  and  Chattanooga,  gained  the  battle  of  Newmarket  in  1864, 
and  served  at  Cold  Harbor,  in  the  Shenandoah  Valley,  in  Eastern  Tennessee, 
and  at  Nashville.  For  a  short  time  before  the  end  of  the  Rebellion  he  was 
Confederate  Secretary  of  War. 

Breckenridge,  William  C.  P.,  born  in  1837,  attained  the  rank  of  brigadier- 
general  of  cavalry  in  the  Confederate  service.  He  represented  Kentucky  in 
the  U.  S.  Congress  as  a  Democrat  from  1884  to  1895,  when  he  was  defeated 
by  the  public  indignation  caused  by  a  private  scandal. 

Breda,  Treaty  of,  was  a  treaty  concluded  between  England,  France, 
Holland  and  Denmark  at  Breda  in  1667.  Among  its  provisions,  those  relat- 
ing to  America  were  the  restoration  of  Acadia  (Nova  Scotia)  to  France  by 
England,  while  England  secured  her  claims  in  the  West  Indies  and  retained 
New  Netherlands  (New  York)  from  Holland. 

Bremen.  An  extradition  convention  was  concluded  in  1853  between  the 
United  States  and  Bremen. 

Brentwood,  Tenn.,  a  minor  battle  of  the  Civil  War,  occurring  March 
25,  1863,  in  which  Wheeler,  Forrest  and  Wharton,  commanding  5000  Con- 
federates, defeated  800  Federals  under  Bloodgood  and  G.  C.  Smith. 

Brevard,  Ephraim  (1750-1783),  was  a  prominent  and  influential  patriot 
of  North  Carolina.  He  was  secretary  of  the  Mecklenburg  Convention  of 
1775,  and  is  said  to  have  been  the  author  of  the  famous  (alleged)  declaration 
which  anticipated  by  over  a  year  the  Declaration  of  Independence  of  Con- 
gress. He  served  in  the  Continental  army,  and  was  taken  prisoner  at 
Charleston  in  1780. 

Brewster,  Benjamin  H.  (1816-1888),  was  Attorney-General  of  Pennsyl- 
vania from  1867  to  1869.  He  was  Attorney-General  in  Arthur's  Cabinet 
from  1 88 1  to  1885.  He  distinguished  himself  in  the  prosecution  of  the 
Star  Route  trials. 

Brewster,  William,  "Elder"  (1560-1644),  led  a  band  of  "Separatists" 
from  England  to  Holland  in  1608.  He  obtained  a  grant  of  land  in  North 
America  from  the  Virginia  Company  and  brought  over  the  first  company  of 
Pilgrims  to  what  is  now  Plymouth,  Mass.,  in  1620.  He  was  castor  of  the 
Plymouth  colony  till  1629. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  83 

Brier's  Creek,  Battle  of,  March  3,  1779.  General  Lincoln  detailed  Ashe 
with  1500  men  to  narrow  the  lines  about  the  British  in  Savannah.  The 
British  turned  his  position  at  Brier's  Creek,  and  of  Ashe's  force  only  500 
again  reached  the  American  camp. 

Briggs,  George  N.  (1796-1861),  represented  Massachusetts  in  the  U.  S. 
Congress  as  a  Whig  from  1831  to  1843,  and  was  prominent  as  an  eloquent 
debater.  He  was  Governor  of  Massachusetts  from  1843  to  1851.  He  was  a 
Judge  of  the  Massachusetts  Court  of  Common  Pleas  from  1851  to  1856,  and 
a  member  of  the  State  Constitutional  Convention  of  1853. 

Briggs  Case.  In  his  address  on  the  occasion  of  his  installation  into  the 
Edward  Robinson  professorship  of  Biblical  Theology  in  the  Union  Theo- 
logical Seminary,  of  New  York,  January  20,  1891,  Professor  Charles  A. 
Briggs  asserted  that  reason  is  a  fountain  of  divine  authority  no  less  savingly 
enlightening  than  the  Bible  and  the  church.  His  views  were  deemed  not 
in  accordance  with  the  Presbyterian  Confession  of  Faith.  Charges  were 
brought  against  Dr.  Briggs  before  the  Presbyterian  General  Assembly.  He 
was  supported  by  his  colleagues  in  the  seminary.  In  1892  Briggs  was  tried 
and  acquitted  by  the  New  York  Synod,  the  several  charges  not  having  been 
sustained. 

Bright,  Jesse  D.  (1812—1875),  was  Lieutenant-Governor  of  Indiana  in 
1841.  He  represented  Indiana  in  the  U.  S.  Senate  as  a  Democrat  from  1845 
to  1862,  when  he  was  expelled  for  having,  in  a  letter  to  Jefferson  Davis, 
recognized  him  as  president  of  the  Confederate  States.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  Kentucky  Legislature  in  1866. 

Brinton,  Daniel  G.,  born  in  1837,  has  made  valuable  contributions  to  the 
study  of  American  archaeology,  ethnology  and  linguistics.  He  wrote  "  Ameri- 
can Hero-Myths,"  "  The  American  Race,"  and  edited  a  "  Library  of  Aboriginal 
American  Literature."  Died  1899. 

Briscoe  vs.  Bank  of  Kentucky.  The  Bank  of  Kentucky  brought  suit 
against  Briscoe  and  others  as  holders  of  a  promissory  note  for  which  the  notes 
of  the  bank  had  been  given,  as  a  loan,  to  the  drawers  of  the  note.  The  defend- 
ants claimed  that  their  note  was  void  since  those  given  in  return  by  the  bank 
were  nothing  else  than  "  bills  of  credit "  and  repugnant  to  the  clause  of  the 
Constitution  which  prohibited  States  from  issuing  such  bills.  The  Circuit 
Court  and  the  Court  of  Appeals  of  Kentucky  gave  judgment  for  the  bank  on 
the  ground  that  the  act  incorporating  the  Bank  of  Kentucky  was  constitu- 
tional and  that  the  notes  issued  were  not  "bills  of  credit"  within  the 
meaning  of  the  National  Constitution.  In  1834  the  Supreme  Court  came 
near  deciding  adversely;  but  in  1837,  when  the  case  was  finally  decided,  it 
was  decided  in  favor  of  the  bank,  the  bills  not  being  deemed  "  bills  of  credit " 
in  spite  of  the  close  relations  of  bank  and  State. 

Bristoe,  or  Bristow  Station,  Va.  Here,  August  27,  1862,  while  Jackson 
was  awaiting  Lee's  arrival  with  reinforcements  from  Longstreet's  division, 
40,000  troops  under  McDowell  were  sent  against  him  by  General  Pope.  A 
brief  engagement  ensued,  Jackson  retiring  slowly  toward  Manassas  Junction 


84  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

with  the  main  body  and  leaving  his  rear-guard  to  cope  with  McDowell. 
October  14,  1863,  during  Lee's  operations  in  Northern  Virginia,  Warren, 
commanding  a  large  force  of  Meade's  Union  Army,  encountered  here  and 
defeated  A.  P.  Hill,  leading  a  strong  body  of  Confederates.  Warren  lost 
200  killed  and  wounded.  The  Confederate  loss  was  greater. 

Bristol,  R.  I.,  was  not  settled  by  white  people  until  the  termination  of 
King  Philip's  War  in  1679.  Until  1747  it  was  a  part  of  Massachusetts. 
It  was  the  ancient  residence  of  King  Philip  who  was  killed  here  in  1676. 
During  the  Revolutionary  War  it  was  bombarded  by  the  British,  and  much 
of  the  town  destroyed  by  fire.  In  the  French  and  Revolutionary  wars  and 
the  War  of  1812  it  was  noted  for  its  privateers. 

Bristow,  Benjamin,  born  in  1832,  attained  distinction  as  a  lawyer,  served 
in  the  Civil  War  and  afterward  in  the  Kentucky  State  Senate  and  as  District 
Attorney.  In  1870-72  he  filled  the  office  of  Solicitor-General.  His  national 
importance  rests  on  his  conduct  of  the  treasury  department  under  Grant  in 
1873—76.  His  reputation  for  reform  led  to  his  candidacy  for  the  Republican 
nomination  for  President  in  1876.  In  this  contest,  however,  Elaine  and 
Bristow,  the  two  leading  candidates,  were  set  aside,  and  Hayes  received  the 
nomination.  Died  1896. 

Broad  River,  Battle  of,  November  12,  1780.  Cornwallis,  having  learned 
the  size  and  position  of  Sumter's  force  above  Camden,  sent  Major -Wemyss 
against  him  with  mounted  infantry.  He  charged  the  picket  but  his  force 
was  repelled  and  himself  wounded  and  taken  prisoner. 

Broad  Seal  War,  a  controversy  arising  from  disputed  election  returns  in 
Middlesex  County,  N.  J.  In  the  congressional  elections  of  1838  the  clerk 
of  this  county  had  thrown  out  the  vote  of  South  Amboy  for  the  Demo- 
cratic nominees  on  the  ground  of  defects  in  the  returns.  The  Democrats 
protested,  but  the  Whig  representatives  were  declared  elected  and  given 
certificates  under  the  broad  seal  of  the  State.  When  Congress  met,  Decem- 
ber 2,  1839,  the  House  contained  119  Democrats  and  118  Whigs  outside  of 
New  Jersey.  The  clerk  refused  to  recognize  the  five  New  Jersey  Whigs  and 
the  greatest  confusion  followed  until  on  December  5,  John  Quincy  Adams 
was  elected  speaker  pro  tempore.  On  December  17  the  House  after  much 
wrangling  chose  R.  M.  T.  Hunter,  of  Virginia,  permanent  speaker.  The 
Democratic  contestants  were  finally  seated. 

Brock,  Sir  Isaac  (1769-1812),  came  to  Canada  from  England  in  1802  in 
the  British  army.  In  1810  he  took  command  of  the  troops  in  upper  Canada 
and  prepared  the  country  for  defence.  In  1812  he  received  the  surrender  of 
General  Hull's  army  at  Detroit  with  all  the  stores,  arms  and  cannon.  He 
was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Queenstown. 

Brodhead,  John  Romeyn  (1814—1873),  was  Secretary  of  Legation  in  Hol- 
land from  1841  to  1844  and  in  England  from  1846  to  1849.  He  collected 
the  valuable  records  and  documents  relating  to  the  history  of  New  York, 
published  as  "  N.  Y.  Colonial  Documents,"  and  wrote  a  valuable  colonial 
"History  of  New  York." 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  85 

Broke,  Sir  Philip  B.  V.  (1776-1841),  commanded  the  British  ship  "Shan- 
non," which  in  1813  captured  the  American  ship  "  Chesapeake,"  Captain 
Lawrence,  off  Boston  harbor  after  an  engagement  of  fifteen  minutes. 

Brook  Farm,  a  communistic  industrial  and  literary  establishment  founded 
in  Massachusetts,  in  1841,  by  George  Ripley  and  other  persons  of  socialistic 
tendencies.  It  was  suggested  by  the  schemes  of  Robert  Owen  and  the 
writings  of  Fourier.  The  farm  was  bought  and  stock  assigned  on  a  commu- 
nistic basis,  and  labor,  manual  or  mental,  received  compensation  on  a  time 
basis.  The  establishment  failed  in  1846,  one  of  the  largest  buildings  being 
destroyed  that  year  by  fire.  Nathaniel  Hawthorne  and  Horace  Greeley  were 
among  those  interested  in  the  scheme. 

Brooke,  Robert  Greville,  Lord  (1608—1643),  a  Puritan  lord,  became  one  of 
the  patentees  of  the  Connecticut  colony  with  Lord  Say  and  Sele  and  others 
in  1632.  Saybrook,  Conn.,  was  named  for  Lord  Say  and  Lord  Brooke. 

Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  was  settled  in  1636  by  a  few  Walloon  colonists. 
English  and  Dutch  settlers  followed  and  in  1667  a  charter  was  granted  the 
town.  In  1776  the  site  of  the  present  town  was  the  scene  of  the  battle  of 
Long  Island.  In  1834  Brooklyn  became  a  chartered  city.  The  population 
of  Brooklyn  was  in  1800,  3298;  1830,  15,292;  1850,  96,850;  1860,  266,661; 
1876,  500,000;  1890,  806,343. 

Brooklyn  Heights.   (See  Long  Island,  Battle  of.) 

Brooks,  James  (1810—1873),  established  the  New  York  Express  in  1836. 
He  represented  New  York  in  the  U.  S.  Congress  as  a  Whig  from  1849  to 
1853  and  as  a  Democrat  from  1865  to  1873.  He  was  associated  with  the 
"  Credit  Mobilier,"  and  was  censured  by  the  House. 

Brooks,  John  (1752-1825),  commanded  a  regiment  at  Saratoga  and  was 
adjutant-general  at  Monmouth.  He  was  Governor  of  Massachusetts  from 
1816  to  1823. 

Brooks,  Phillips  (1835-1893),  was  rector  of  Trinity  Church,  Boston,  from 
1869  to  1891.  He  was  Protestant  Episcopal  Bishop  of  Massachusetts  from 
1891  to  1893.  He  was  regarded  in  England  and  the  United  States  as  the 
greatest  preacher  of  his  church. 

Brooks,  Preston  S.  (1819-1857),  served  during  the  Mexican  War.  He 
represented  South  Carolina  in  the  U.  S.  Congress  as  a  States-rights  Demo- 
crat from  1853  to  I859-  In  1856  he  savagely  assaulted  Senator  Sumner 
with  a  cane  in  the  §enate  chamber  for  certain  expressions  in  a  speech  "  on 
the  crime  against  Kansas."  The  resolution  for  his  expulsion  from  the  House 
was  not  carried. 

Brough,  John  (1811-1865),  was  prominent  in  Western  journalism.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  Ohio  Senate  from  1835  to  1838,  and  was  active  in 
politics.  He  was  Governor  of  Ohio  from  1864  to  1865. 

Brown,  Aaron  V.  (1795-1859),  represented  Tennessee  in  the  U.  S.  Con- 
gress as  a  Democrat  from  1839  to  1845.  He  was  Governor  of  Tennessee 


86  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITBD  STATES  HISTORY. 

from  1845  to  1847,  and  Postmaster-General  in  Buchanan's  Cabinet  from  1857 
to  1859. 

Brown,  Benjamin  Gratz  (1826-1885),  was  a  member  of  the  Missouri 
Legislature  from  1852  to  1858.  He  edited  the  Missouri  Democrat  from 
1854  to  1859.  He  commanded  a  brigade  during  the  Civil  War.  He  repre- 
sented Missouri  in  the  U.  S.  Senate  as  a  Republican  from  1863  to  1867,  was 
Governor  of  Missouri  in  1871,  and  having  an  important  part  in  the  Liberal 
Republican  movement,  was  the  Liberal  Republican  and  Democratic  candi- 
date for  Vice-Presideut  on  the  ticket  with  Horace  Greeley  in  1872. 

Brown,  Charles  Brockden  (1771-1810),  was  the  first  American  to  adopt 
literature  as  a  profession.  He  wrote  upon  topics  of  the  times,  and  published 
six  successful  novels  which  were  unsurpassed  in  America  until  the  appear- 
ance of  Cooper's  works. 

Brown,  Fort,  scene  of  the  two  opening  engagements  of  the  Mexican  War. 
Captain  Thornton,  of  General  Taylor's  dragoons,  was  captured  after  some 
fighting  on  April  25,  1846,  by  Torrejon,  the  Mexican  general.  On  May  3  of 
the  same  year  Arista,  commander-in-chief  of  the  Mexican  forces,  opened  fire 
upon  the  fort  with  the  batteries  of  Matamoras.  The  fort  is  now  so  called 
because  commanded  by  Major  Brown,  who  withstood  a  bombardment  of  168 
hours,  and  died  on  May  8.  It  was  originally  Fort  Texas. 

Brown,  Henry  B.,  born  in  1836,  of  Michigan,  jurist,  was  appointed  Judge 
of  the  U.  S.  District  Court  for  the  eastern  district  of  Michigan  in  1875,  and 
Associate  Justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States  in  1890. 

Brown,  Jacob  (1775— 1828),  had  been  a  militia  general  in  New  York  when 
the  War  of  1812  called  out  his  abilities.  He  gained  a  victory  at  Sackett's 
Harbor  in  1813,  was  made  a  major-general  in  the  regular  army,  and  in  1814 
won  the  victories  of  Chippewa  and  Lundy's  Lane.  In  1821  he  succeeded  to 
the  command  of  the  army  as  general-in-chief. 

Brown,  John  (1736—1803),  of  Providence,  R.  I.,  a  rich  merchant,  led  the 
party  which  destroyed  the  "Gaspee"  in  1772.  He  was  a  delegate  from 
Rhode  Island  to  Congress  from  1799  to  1801. 

Brown,  John  (1744—1780),  of  Massachusetts,  aided  in  the  capture  of 
Ticonderoga  and  took  Fort  Chambly  in  1775.  He  served  under  Montgomery 
at  Quebec.  In  1777  he  captured  Ticonderoga  together  with  large  supplies. 

Brown,  John  [of  Ossawatomie]  (1800—1859),  was  born  at  Torrington, 
Conn.,  and  early  removed  his  home  to  Ohio.  He  was  engaged  in  the  wool 
business  and  farming,  and  developed  into  an  ardent  and  uncompromising 
abolitionist.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  Kansas  troubles  he  settled  near  Ossa- 
watomie in  1855,  and  took  an  active  part  in  the  desultory  warfare  in  that 
region,  including  the  "  Pottawatomie  Massacre"  of  1856.  He  had  many 
sympathizers  in  the  Northern  States,  and  by  1859  ^s  plans  to  liberate  the 
slaves  were  matured.  Having  collected  a  small  force,  well  armed,  he  sud- 
denly on  October  16,  1859,  seized  the  arsenal  at  Harper's  Ferry  in  Virginia. 
He  was  immediately  blockaded,  captured  after  a  desperate  resistance,  tried  by 
a  Virginia  court,  and  executed  at  Charlestown,  Va.,  December  2,  1859.  The 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  4j 

effect  of  this  abortive  undertaking  was  immeasurable.  It  helped  to  "  clear 
the  air "  both  in  the  North  and  South  and  was  an  important  link  in  the 
chain  of  events  leading  up  to  the  war.  Brown  became  a  hero  in  the  songs 
of  the  Northern  armies.  His  life  is  written  by  F.  B.  Sanborn. 

Brown,  Joseph  Emerson,  born  in  1821,  had  risen  to  prominence  as  a 
lawyer  when  he  became  Governor  of  Georgia.  His  service  in  this  position 
lasted  from  1857  to  1865,  including  the  Civil  War  period.  In  this  struggle 
he  took  an  active  part,  seizing  Forts  Pulaski  and  Jackson  at  the  beginning 
of  1 86 1,  and  advocating  earnest  resistance,  though  he  was  several  times 
opposed  to  President  Davis.  He  was  Chief  Justice  of  the  State  Supreme 
Court  and  U.  S.  Senator  1881-91.  Died  1894. 

Brown,  Nicholas  (1769-1841),  of  Providence,  R.  I.,  a  successful  merchant, 
was  a  liberal  benefactor  of  Rhode  Island  College,  which  in  1804  changed  its 
name  to  Brown  University  in  his  honor. 

Brown  University  was  founded  in  1764,  by  a  union  of  Baptists  with  other 
sects,  at  Warren,  R.  I.  In  1770  it  was  removed  to  Providence.  It  received 
its  present  name  in  1804.  Francis  Wayland  was  its  president  from  1827  to 
1855.  From  1811  to  1828  it  had  a  medical  school. 

Browning,  Orville  H.  (1810-1881),  represented  Illinois  in  the  U.  S.  Senate 
as  a  Republican  from  1861  to  1863.  He  advocated  the  abolition  of  slavery. 
He  was  Secretary  of  the  Interior  in  Johnson's  Cabinet  from  1866  to  1869. 

Brownists,  the  nickname  applied  to  the  religious  Separatists  of  England 
during  the  latter  part  of  the  sixteenth  century.  Robert  Brown,  who  intro- 
duced the.  Separatist  doctrines,  was  a  Church  of  England  clergyman  of 
Norwich  until  1580,  when  he  began  declaiming  against  the  discipline  and 
ceremony  of  the  church.  The  Puritans  were  largely  influenced  by  the 
Separatist  doctrines.  The  'Pilgrim  Fathers  were  Brownists. 

Brownlow,  William  Gannaway  (1805-1877),  was  in  early  life  a  Methodist 
preacher,  and  for  many  years  edited  the  Knoxville  Whig.  He  strongly 
opposed  secession  and  became  known  as  the  "Fighting  Parson."  During 
the  war  he  was  a  centre  of  the  Unionist  feeling  in  Eastern  Tennessee,  and 
was  at  one  time  imprisoned.  He  was  Governor  of  the  State  in  1865—69,  and 
U.  S.  Senator  1869-75. 

Brown's  Ferry,  Tenn. ,  a  skirmish  of  the  Civil  War  during  the  manoeuvres 
around  Chattanooga.  At  this  place,  October  27,  28,  1863,  portions  of  Long- 
street's  Confederate  troops  were  surprised  and  routed  by  the  Federals  under 
Hooker  and  Smith.  The  latter  general  secured  an  advantageous  position 
upon  a  height  overlooking  the  ferry.  Howard  with  a  small  force  cut  off  the 
pickets  on  one  side  while  Geary  did  the  same  on  the  other.  The  Confederate 
pickets  had  therefore  to  surrender. 

Brownson,  Orestes  A.  (1803-1876),  a  versatile  writer  and  theologian,  was 
prominent  in  spcial  and  political  reforms.  He  was  active  in  the  formation 
of  the  Workingmen's  and  Loco-foco  parties  in  New  York. 

Brownstown,  Mich.  Major  Van  Home  with  200  men  was  here  defeated 
August  5,  1812,  by  a  body  of  Indians  in  ambush;  seventeen  men  were  killed 


88  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

and  mail  containing  important  information  as  to  the  needs  at  Detroit  was 
captured. 

Brownsville,  Texas,  captured  November  5,  1863,  during  Banks'  expe- 
dition to  the  Rio  Grande,  by  Dana  with  a  small  party  of  Federal  soldiers. 
Bee,  the  Confederate  general,  was  encamped  at  this  place  with  a  small  force. 
He  was  easily  defeated  and  driven  out 

Bruce,  Blanche  K.  (1841-1898),  was  a  slave  in  early  life.  He  repre- 
sented Mississippi  in  the  U.  S.  Senate  as  a  Republican  from  1875  to  1881. 
He  became  Register  of  the  Treasury  in  1881. 

Brunswick.  Brunswick  concluded  with  the  United  States  in  1854  a  con- 
vention respecting  property. 

Brussels  Conference,  an  international  monetary  conference,  held  at 
Brussels  in  the  autumn  of  1892  at  the  suggestion  of  the  United  States 
Government.  The  debate  was  chiefly  upon  the  initial  thesis  of  the  Ameri- 
can programme  suggested  in  the  invitation  to  the  convention,  i.  e.,  that  it 
was  desirable  to  find  some  means  of  increasing  the  use  of  silver  in  the 
currency  systems  of  the  nations.  No  definite  step  was  taken  at  this  conference. 

Bryan,  William  J.,  lawyer;  born  1860,  Salem,  111.  In  Congress  1891-92. 
Nominated  for  President,  July  10,  1896,  Democratic  National  Convention  at 
Chicago.  Defeated  Nov.  3,  1896.  Electoral  vote,  Bryan  176,  McKinley,  271. 

Bryant,  William  Cullen  (1794-1878),  poet,  first  won  distinction  by  his 
poem  "The  Embargo"  in  1807.  He  was  editor-in-chief  of  the  New  York 
Evening  Post  from  1828  to  1878.  The  paper  was  noted  for  its  democratic 
spirit  and  strongly  supported  the  Government  during  the  Civil  War.  He 
aided  in  forming  the  Republican  party  and  entered  zealously  into  all  public 
questions.  His  most  famous  poem  was  "  Thanatopsis." 

Bryn  Mawr  College,  near  Philadelphia,  was  founded  in  1884  by  Jas.  W. 
Taylor,  M.  D. 

Buchanan,  James  (April  23,  I79i-June  I,  1868),  the  fifteenth  President  of 
the  United  States,  was  born  near  Mercersburg,  Pa.  He  graduated  at  Dickin- 
son College  in  1809,  studied  law,  and  soon  entered  the  Pennsylvania  Legis- 
lature. In  1821—31  he  was  Congressman  and  served  as  chairman  of  the 
Judiciary  Committee.  President  Jackson  sent  him  as  Minister  to  Russia  in 
1832;  he  returned  the  next  year  and  in  1834  entered  the  U.  S.  Senate.  In 
that  body  he  continued  until  1845  when  he  entered  President  Folk's  Cabinet 
as  Secretary  of  State.  While  secretary  he  was  called  on  to  conduct  the 
delicate  questions  arising  from  the  Oregon  dispute,  the  acquisition  of  Texas, 
and  the  Mexican  War.  He  had  been  in  1844  mentioned  for  the  Presidency 
and  was  a  candidate  in  1852.  During  1853-56  he  was  U.  S.  Minister  to 
England.  As  the  Democratic  candidate  for  President  in  1856  he  was  elected 
over  Fremont  the  Republican  and  Fillmore  the  Know-Nothing,  and  served 
for  the  term  1857-61.  His  foreign  policy  was  generally  successful.  As  his 
term  went  on,  the  absorbing  slavery  question  overshadowed  all  other  issues. 
After  the  election  of  Lincoln  and  the  beginning  of  secession  it  was  Presi- 
dent Buchanan's  misfortune  to  have  the  conduct  of  affairs  for  three  or  four 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  89 

months  of  extreme  excitement.  His  so-called  "  temporizing  policy  "  during 
this  period  met  with  severe  criticisms.  After  the  close  of  his  term  he  lived 
in  retirement,  and  died  at  Lancaster,  Pa.  His  life  has  been  written  by  G. 
T.  Curtis. 

Buckingham,  Joseph  T.  (1779-1861),  published  the  New  England  Galaxy 
from  1817  to  1828,  and  the  Boston  Courier  from  1824  to  1848.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  Massachusetts  Senate  from  1847  to 


Buckingham,  William  A.  (1804-1875),  one  of  the  "  War  Governors,"  was 
Governor  of  Connecticut  from  1858  to  1866.  He  actively  supported  the 
Civil  War.  He  represented  Connecticut  in  the  U.  S.  Senate  as  a  Republican 
from  1869  to 


Buckner,  Simon  B.,  born  in  1823,  fought  with  distinction  at  Contreras, 
Churubusco  and  Molino  del  Rey.  He  fought  at  Fort  Henry,  and  com- 
manded a  brigade  at  Fort  Donelson,  which  he  surrendered  to  General  Grant 
when  left  in  command.  He  led  a  brigade  in  General  Bragg's  army  in 
Tennessee,  and  commanded  a  division  at  Murfreesboro  and  Chickamauga. 
He  was  Governor  of  Kentucky  from  1887  to  1891. 

Buckshot  War.  The  control  of  the  Pennsylvania  House  of  Representa- 
tives in  1838,  on  which  depended  the  choice  of  a  United  States  Senator, 
turned  upon  the  election  in  Philadelphia  (October  9)  where  the  Democratic 
candidates  for  the  Legislature  were  elected  by  small  majorities;  but  their 
Congressional  candidate  was  defeated.  Thereupon  the  Democratic  return 
judges  cast  out  5000  Whig  votes,  claiming  fraud.  The  Whig,  judges  then 
issued  certificates  of  election  to  both  their  Congressional  and  Legislative  can- 
didates, and  these  returns  were  accepted  by  the  Whig  Secretary  of  State. 
At  the  opening  of  the  Legislature,  at  Harrisburg,  December  4,  1838,  armed 
partisans  were  present.  The  Whig  Senate  adjourned  because  of  the  mob, 
and  in  the  House  two  warring  bodies  assembled.  The  Whig  Governor 
called  on  the  militia,  and  tried,  without  effect,  to  obtain  Federal  aid.  The 
Democratic  House  was  finally  recognized  December  25. 

Bucktails,  a  name  first  given  to  the  Tammany  Society  of  New  York  City, 
from  the  circumstance  of  the  members  of  the  organization  wearing  a  buck's 
tail  in  the  hat  as  a  badge.  The  Bucktails,  from  1812  to  1828,  were  anti- 
Clintonian  New  York  Democrats.  They  were  the  most  vigorous  opponents 
of  the  Clinton  canal  policy  from  its  inception  (1817),  and  the  name  was 
finally  applied  to  all  who  protested  against  this  policy  throughout  the  State. 
Under  Martin  Van  Buren  the  Bucktails  obtained  control  of  the  State  tem- 
porarily. After  Governor  Clinton's  death,  in  1828,  they  became  the  Demo- 
cratic party  of  the  State. 

Buell,  Don  Carlos  (1818-1898),  graduated  at  West  Point  >.  1841,  and 
served  in  the  Mexican  War.  In  the  Civil  War  he  was  appointed  in  1861 
to  the  Department  of  the  Cumberland,  and  occupied  the  strategic  point  of 
Bowling  Green.  Part  of  his  army  arrived  on  the  battle-field  of  Shiloh  in 
time  to  render  important  aid  in  retrieving  the  fortunes  of  that  contest.  In 
the  same  year,  1862,  he  skillfully  manoeuvred  against  Bragg's  army  of 


90  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

invasion,  and  defeated  it  at  Perryville  October  8.     He  was  soon  after  super- 
seded by  General  Rosecrans.     Died  1898. 

Buena  Vista,  Mexico,  a  celebrated  battle  between  the  American  army 
under  General  Taylor,  and  the  Mexicans  under  General  Santa  Anna.  It  is 
sometimes  called  Angostura  after  the  plateau  upon  which  Taylor  drew  up 
his  army.  This  battle  lasted  two  days,  February  22,  23,  1847,  was  hard 
fought,  attended  with  considerable  loss  on  both  sides,  and  remained  undecided 
until  late  in  the  second  day,  when  Taylor,  by  concentrating  his  batteries 
against  the  enemy's  centre,  and  ordering  his  riflemen  to  cover  his  right 
flank,  gained  a  complete  victory.  The  first  day's  fighting  had  been  confined 
to  unsuccessful  attempts  by  the  Mexicans  to  drive  Taylor  from  his  position 
on  Angostura  heights.  Hostilities  were  suspended  during  the  night,  the  two 
armies  suffering  from  the  intense  cold.  The  battle  was  nearly  lost  to  the 
Americans  at  one  time.  Lane  and  O'Brien  in  charge  of  three  guns  and  the 
second  Indiana  volunteers  were  driven  from  their  position  along  the  southern 
ridge  of  the  heights,  and  were  obliged  to  retreat  to  Buena  Vista.  Taylor 
arrived  in  time  to  cover  their  retreat  with  the  second  dragoons  and  the 
Mississippi  riflemen.  Santa  Anna's  poor  generalship  alone  prevented  defeat. 
Number  engaged,  Americans  4769,  Mexicans  17,000. 

Buenos  Ayres.     (See  Argentina.) 

Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  was  founded  in  1801,  and  became  a  military  post  in  1813, 
when  it  was  burned  by  the  British.  It  was  rebuilt  after  the  war  and  in  1832 
attained  the  rank  of  a  city.  After  the  opening  of  the  Erie  Canal  in  1825 
its  growth  was  rapid. 

Bull  Run,  Va.,  the  scene  of  two  important  battles  of  the  Civil  War.  The 
first,  the  first  great  battle  of  the  war,  took  place  July  21,  1861,  between  Mc- 
Dowell commanding  29,000  Union  soldiers,  and  Johnston  and  Beauregard 
leading  28,000  Confederates.  Six  Confederate  brigades  lay  posted  along  the 
stream,  and  upon  these  McDowell  resolved  to  begin  his  attack.  Tyler 
was  sent  across  the  stone  bridge  to  threaten  the  Confederate  front.  Hunter 
and  Heintzelman  were  dispatched  to  make  a  detour  and  attack  the  enemy's 
flank  and  rear.  But  Johnston  had  also  decided  to  hasten  the  attack  in  order 
to  anticipate  Patterson's  arrival  with  reinforcements  for  McDowell.  How- 
ever, the  latter  moved  first,  so  Johnston  acted  on  the  defensive.  Tyler  and 
Hunter  were  slow  in  their  movements;  still  by  midday  McDowell  had  turned 
the  Confederate's  left  and  uncovered  the  stone  bridge.  The  Union  troops 
followed  the  defeated  Confederates  across  Young's  Branch,  but  were  held  in 
check  on  the  plateau  beyond  by  Jackson,  who  here  acquired  his  sobriquet  of 
"  Stonewall,"  until  Johnston  and  Beauregard  had  time  to  come  up  and  rally 
the  disordered  ranks.  At  about  three  o'clock,  when  both  armies  were  ex- 
hausted by  fighting,  the  arrival  of  2300  fresh  Confederate  troops,  under  Kirby 
Smith,  who  had  escaped  Patterson,  turned  the  tide.  McDowell  was  driven 
from  the  plateau,  which  had  been  the  object  of  contention  for  three  hours. 
McDowell  in  vain  tried  to  cover  his  retreat  with  800  regulars.  There  was  a 
panic  which  spread  almost  to  Washington. — Bull  Run  the  second,  or  the 
battle  of  Manassas,  occurred  August  29,  30, 1862.  General  Pope,  commanding 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  9: 

a  Union  army  of  40,000  men,  advanced  to  attack  Jackson,  who  was 
awaiting  reinforcements  from  Lee  at  Bristoe  station.  McDowell  had  been 
dispatched  to  intercept  Lee's  conjunction  with  Jackson,  but  he  was 
immediately  recalled  and  ordered  to  join  Pope  at  Manassas  Junction.  Jackson, 
finding  the  way  open,  immediately  retired  toward  Manassas  Junction  and 
took  a  strong  position  near  Gainsville  behind  'an  old  railroad  grading. 
Pope  ordered  Sigel  to  attack  him  at  daylight  August  29.  All  the  morning 
a  duel  of  batteries  continued  and  Pope,  arriving  about  noon  from  Centreville, 
found  both  armies  badly  cut  up.  Pope  expected  McDowell  and  Porter  to 
join  him.  The  former  arrived  with  27,000  men,  but  the  latter  never  came. 
The  battle  continued  until  sunset,  Jackson  seeming  several  times  on  the 
point  of  retreating  before  such  heavy  odds.  But  Longstreet  came  up  and 
the  fighting  ceased  for  the  night.  It  began  again  the  next  day.  The  Con- 
federates made  a  brilliant  counter-charge  and  swept  Pope  from  the  field. 

B.ulloch,  Archibald  (17307-1777),  was  president  of  the  Georgia  provincial 
congress  in  1775  and  1776.  He  was  a  delegate  to  the  Continental  Congress 
in  1776,  and  president  of  Georgia  from  1776  to  1777. 

Bullock,  Rufus  B.,  born  in  1834,  was  Governor  of  Georgia  from  1869  to 
1870,  when  he  resigned  because  of  the  opposition  to  negro  representatives  in 
the  Legislature,  whose  rights  he  supported. 

Bulwer,  Sir  William  Henry  L.  E.  (1801-1872),  was  British  Minister  to 
the  United  States  from  1849  to  J852.  He  negotiated  with  Senator  John  M. 
Clayton  the  Clayton-Bulwer  treaty  which  related  to  the  establishment  of  a 
communication  between  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  oceans  by  canal  at  the  Isth- 
mus of  Panama,  each  party  guaranteeing  neutrality  of  communication. 

Buncombe,  effusive  rhetoric  irrelevant  to  the  business  in  hand.  It  is  said 
that,  many  years  ago,  a  member  of  Congress  from  Buncombe  County,  N.  C., 
replied,  on  being  taxed  with  the  irrelevancy  of  his  speech,  "  I  am  speaking 
not  for  you,  but  for  Buncombe." 

Bunker  Hill,  Battle  of  (June  17,  1775).  After  the  investment  of  Boston 
by  the  Continental  troops  it  became  evident  that  Boston  was  untenable  unless 
the  surrounding  heights  were  secured.  This  General  Gage  intended  to  do. 
The  committee  of  safety  anticipated  him  and  sent  1200  men  under  Colonel 
Prescott  to  seize  and  fortify  Bunker  Hill,  on  the  night  of  the  sixteenth. 
Breed's  Hill,  a  more  advanced  though  less  protected  position,  was  fortified 
instead.  Dawn  disclosed  the  American  works  to  the  British  and  a  lively 
cannonade  was  directed  upon  the  works.  About  three  p.  m.,  3000  British 
veterans  under  Howe  and  Pigott  charged  up  the  hill,  but  a  deadly  volley 
awaited  both.  They  gave  way  and  retreated.  In  the  meantime  the  village 
of  Charlestown  had  been  fired  by  shells  from  the  fleet.  Again  the  British 
charged.  The  Americans  reserved  fire  until  they  were  within  thirty  yards. 
Again  the  British  ranks  gave  way  before  the  fatal  fire.  Owing  to  confusion 
at  headquarters  neither  reinforcements  nor  ammunition  were  promptly 
despatched  to  the  American  troops.  About  five  o'clock  the  British  charged 
again.  They  were  at  first  shaken  by  the  American  fire,  but  the  latter's 
cartridges  were  soon  spent  and  after  a  stubborn  hand-to-hand  fight  they  left 


92  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

the  field.  The  moat  lamented  among  the  slain  was  the  gallant  General  War- 
ren, who  had  fought  as  a  volunteer  in  the  ranks.  1054  of  the  British  or  over 
one-third,  of  their  whole  number  perished,  of  the  Americans  about  a  quarter 
or  449.  Bunker  Hill  is  thus  one  of  the  bloodiest  battles  of  modern  times. 
The  immediate  result  was  the  possession  of  a  strategic  point  by  the  English; 
upon  the  Americans  its  moral  effect  was  to  encourage  their  spirits  and  to 
inspire  general  respect  for  their  soldierly  ability. 

Bunker  Hill  Monument.  The  corner-stone  was  laid  June  17,  1825,  by 
Lafayette,  before  an  enormous  and  enthusiastic  crowd,  among  them  many 
aged  survivors  of  the  battle  fought  fifty  years  before,  who  had  gathered  from 
far  and  near.  After  the  singing  of  "Old  Hundred,"  Daniel  Webster  delivered 
his  famous  address.  The  monument  was  completed  June  17,  1843,  and  again 
Webster  delivered  the  address  before  a  tumultuously  appreciative  audience, 
among  them  President  Tyler  and  some  of  his  Cabinet. 

Burchard,  Samuel  D.  (1812-1891),  lecturer  and  preacher  in  New  York. 
During  the  political  campaign  of  1884  he  made  a  speech  at  a  "ministers' 
meeting"  called  by  the  Republican  party  managers,  during  which  he  stig- 
matized the  Democrats  by  the  words  "  Rum,  Romanism  and  Rebellion." 
This  helped  to  lose  the  Republicans  the  election,  by  alienating  the  Roman 
Catholic  vote. 

Bureau  of  American  Republics.  A  bureau  established  under  the  recom- 
mendation of  the  Pan-American  Conference  of  October,  1889,  for  the  prompt 
collection  and  distribution  of  commercial  information  concerning  the  Ameri- 
can Republics. 

Bureaus  of  Labor  Statistics.  The  first  such  government  office  estab- 
lished was  that  of  Massachusetts,  created  by  Act  of  June  23,  1869.  Penn- 
sylvania established  one  in  1872.  Connecticut  had  one  from  1873  to  I^75, 
and  re-established  it  in  1885.  That  of  Ohio  was  established  in  1877,  that  of 
New  Jersey  in  1878,  those  of  Indiana,  Missouri  and  Illinois  in  1879,  those 
of  California,  Wisconsin,  New  York  and  Michigan  in  1883,  those  of  Mary- 
land and  Iowa  in  1884.  The  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Labor  was  established  by  Act 
of  June  27,  1884;  an  Act  of  June  13,  1888,  substituted  the  Department  of 
Labor.  Since  then  thirteen  other  States  have  organized  such  bureaus. 

Burgesses,  House  of,  the  lower  branch  of  the  Colonial  Legislature  of  Vir- 
ginia. The  first  House  of  Burgesses  was  summoned  in  1619.  The  House 
met  at  Jamestown  in  the  seventeenth  century,  at  Williamsburg  in  the  eigh- 
teenth. It  consisted  of  two  burgesses  from  each  county,  and  one  from  each 
of  three  towns  and  William  and  Mary  College.  The  printed  journals  begin 
with  the  year  1732.  The  forms  of  procedure  were  those  of  the  House  of 
Commons.  The  last  session  of  the  burgesses  occurred  in  1774. 

Burgoyne,  John  (1723-1792),  one  of  the  chief  British  commanders  in  the 
Revolutionary  War,  was  a  member  of  the  House  of  Commons,  and  an  army 
officer;  he  reached  the  grade  of  lieutenant-general,  served  in  Canada  in  the 
early  stages  of  the  war,  and  was  in  1777  intrusted  with  the  command  of  a 
large  force  which,  was  to  pierce  the  American  centre.  He  ascended  Lake 
Champlain  and  captured  the  forts  without  great  difficulty.  But  his  march 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  93 

from  the  head  of  the  lake  to  Fort  Edward  was  delayed  by  Schuyler's  obstruc- 
tions, while  the  auxiliary  force  under  St.  Leger  came  to  grief,  and  Baum's 
diversion  into  Vermont  was  defeated  at  Bennington.  He  fought  the  first 
indecisive  battle  of  Stillwater  with  Gates'  army  September  19,  1777;  in  the 
second  battle  on  October  7  he  was  defeated,  and  was  obliged  to  surrender 
with  nearly  6000  men  at  Saratoga  October  17.  He  returned  to  England  the 
next  year  and  published  in  1780  his  "  State  of  the  Expedition."  He  was  an 
author  of  some  note,  composing  a  number  of  poems  and  comedies. 

Burke,  Edmund  (1729-1797),  the  English  orator  and  statesman,  was  born 
in  Ireland,  educated  in  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  and  gained  attention  in 
literature,  especially  as  the  author  of  a  treatise  on  "  The  Sublime  and  Beau- 
tiful." After  some  years  spent  as  private  secretary  he  was  returned  to  the 
House  of  Commons  in  1766.  In  the  exciting  debates  attendant  on  the 
American  Revolution  he  took  a  leading  part.  He  favored  constitutional  order, 
freedom,  championed  the  colonies,  and  held  the  first  rank  as  an  orator  and 
political  thinker.  In  1774  he  delivered  a  great  speech  on  American  tax- 
ation, and  the  next  year  favored  strongly  a  policy  of  conciliation.  In  1782, 
and  again  in  1783,  he  held  the  office  of  paymaster  of  the  forces,  and  draughted 
Fox's  East  India  Bill.  Burke  led  the  attack  on  Warren  Hastings  in  the 
House  of  Commons  in  1786-87,  and  in  1788  was  one  of  the  managers  in 
that  statesman's  impeachment,  and  made  a  celebrated  speech.  Soon  after 
the  outbreak  of  the  French  Revolution  Burke,  as  a  lover  of  order  and  con- 
servatism, broke  with  his  friend  Fox,  denounced  the  Revolution,  and  pub- 
lished his  "  Reflections  "  on  that  event.  The  best  biographies  are  by  Prior 
and  Morley. 

Burkesville,  Va.  Here  Sheridan,  pursuing  the  Confederates,  defeated  and 
fleeing  from  the  battlefield  of  Five  Forks,  overtook,  April  3,  1865,  a  body 
of  their  cavalry.  They  endeavored  to  make  a  stand  and  receive  the  Federal 
assault,  but  in  vain.  Sheridan  easily  dispersed  them,  taking  many  prisoners. 
This  battle  is  to  be  remembered  in  connection  with  the  close  of  the  campaign 
around  Richmond  and  Petersburg. 

Burlingame,  Anson  (1820-1870),  rose  to  prominence  in  Massachusetts  as 
a  lawyer  and  politician.  In  1855-61  he  was  Republican  Congressman,  and 
in  1 86 1  he  was  sent  as  U.  S.  Minister  to  China.  His  diplomatic  services 
there  were  so  important  that  in.  1868  he  was  appointed  by  the  Chinese 
Government  a  special  envoy  to  the  United  States  and  Europe.  He  negotia- 
ted at  Washington  in  1868  the  Burlingame  Treaty  with  China,  and  effected 
treaties  with  England,  Prussia,  Holland  and  other  European  countries. 

Burlington,  N.  J.,  was  founded  in  1677  by  Friends. 

Burnet,  David  G.  (1789-1870),  was  active  in  securing  the  independence 
of  Texas.  He  was  chosen  provisional  president  of  the  republic  in  1836  and 
afterward  served  as  vice-president. 

Burnett,  Frances  Hodgson,  born  in  1849,  came  to  America  from  England 
in  1865.  She  wrote  "Through  One  Administration,"  "Little  Lord  Faunt- 
leroy,"  "  That  Lass  o'  Lowrie's,"  and  other  popular  works  of  fiction. 


94  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITBD  STATES  HISTORY. 

Burns  Case  (1854),  the  last  great  fugitive  slave  case  in  Boston.  Burns 
was  an  escaped  slave  of  a  Virginia  planter  and  was  arrested  in  Boston  on 
the  charge  of  theft  He  was  then  claimed  as  a  fugitive.  This  aroused  the 
people  to  fever-excitenient  and  large  meetings,  addressed  by  Wendell  Phillips 
and  Theodore  Parker,  were  held  in  Faneuil  and  Meionaon  Halls  on  the  even- 
ing of  May  26.  The  audience,  refusing  to  wait  until  morning,  armed 
themselves  with  clubs  and  axes  and  broke  into  the  jail,  but  were  driven  away 
by  a  pistol  shot.  Burns  was  tried  and  the  order  for  his  rendition  issued.  He 
was  conveyed  to  the  cutter  "  Morris,"  surrounded  by  a  large  military  force.  The 
streets  were  thronged  and  many  of  the  houses  were  draped  in  black.  Indict- 
ments for  riot  brought  against  Phillips,  Parker  and  others  were  quashed  on 
technical  grounds. 

Burns,  John  (1793-1872),  soldier,  fought  at  Plattsburg,  Queenstown  and 
Lundy's  Lane.  He  distinguished  himself  by  his  patriotic  zeal  during  the 
Civil  War,  particularly  at  the  battle  of  Gettysburg. 

Burnside,  Ambrose  Everett  (1824-1881),  commander  of  the  Army  of 
the  Potomac,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1847.  He  invented  a  breech-load- 
ing rifle,  retired  from  the  army  and  engaged  in  business.  In  the  Civil  War 
he  led  a  brigade  at  the  first  battle  of  Bull  Run  and  was  in  1862  placed  in 
command  of  an  expedition  to  North  Carolina;  this  force  captured  Roanoke 
Island  on  February  8,  and  Newbern  March  14.  He  was  now  made  a  corps 
commander  in  the  Army  of  the  Potomac,  and  rendered  important  services  at 
the  battle  of  South  Mountain  and  at  Antietam  where  he  held  the  stone  bridge 
against  repeated  attacks.  In  November,  1862,  he  succeeded  McClellan  in 
command  of  the  army.  On  December  13  was  fought  the  fatal  and  ill-advised 
battle  of  Fredericksburg,  and  in  January,  1863,  General  Burnside  was  super- 
seded by  Hooker.  Having  been  appointed  to  the  command  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  the  Ohio  he  kept  down  treason,  and  was  later  in  1863  besieged  in 
Knoxville  by  Longstreet.  He  acted  as  corps  commander  in  the  Army  of 
the  Potomac  at  the  Wilderness,  Cold  Harbor,  Petersburg,  etc.  In  1866-68 
he  was  Republican  Governor  of  Rhode  Island,  and  in  1875-81  U.  S.  Senator 
from  the  same  State. 

Burr,  Aaron  (February  6,  1756-September  14,  1836),  was  born  at 
Newark,  N.  J.,  and  was  the  grandson  of  Jonathan  Edwards.  He  graduated 
at  Princeton  in  1772,  and  joined  the  army  at  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolution. 
He  served  in  Arnold's  famous  expedition  through  Maine  to  Canada,  and 
afterward  rose  to  the  rank  of  colonel.  Studying  law,  he  rose  soon  to  a 
position  among  the  leaders  of  the  New  York  bar,  and  was  a  member  of  the 
Legislature,  and  Attorney-General  of  the  State.  Of  fascinating  manners  and 
unscrupulous  principles  he  rapidly  became  a  political  power  in  the  State  and 
the  nation.  He  was  Republican  U.  S.  Senator  from  New  York  in  1791-97, 
and  later  was  a  member  of  the  New  York  Assembly.  His  prominence  and 
power  in  the  Republican  party  caused  him  to  be  a  formidable  aspirant  for 
the  Presidency.  In  the  exciting  contest  of  1 800-01  Colonel  Burr  and  Jeffer- 
son each  received  seventy-three  electoral  votes  for  President,  and  the  matter 
was  left  to  the  House  of  Representatives,  which  finally  chose  Jefferson  for  the 
first  and  Burr  for  the  second  place.  Burr  was  accordingly  Vice-President 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  95 

in  1801-05.  A  bitter  personal  and  political  rivalry  with  Hamilton  led  to  a 
duel  between  the  two  at  Weehawken,  July  n,  1804,  in  which  Hamilton  was 
mortally  wounded.  On  his  retirement  from  the  Vice-Presidency  Burr 
engaged  in  mysterious  and  wide-reaching  schemes,  the  purpose  of  which  was 
apparently  the  formation  of  an  independent  State  in  the  Southwest.  These 
schemes  were  arrested  by  a  proclamation  of  President  Jefferson  in  October, 
1806,  and  in  the  following  year  Burr  was  tried  for  treason  at  Richmond,  but 
was  acquitted.  After  some  years  of  wandering  in  Europe  he  returned  to 
New  York  to  the  practice  of  law,  but  died  in  obscurity  and  poverty  at 
Staten  Island.  There  are  lives  by  Parton,  Davis,  etc. 

Burrites,  in  New  York  politics,  the  followers  of  Aaron  Burr,  a  faction, 
chiefly  of  Democrats,  organized  by  him  through  his  connection  with  the 
Tammany  Society.  In  1807  they  coalesced  with  the  Lewisites,  adherents  of 
Morgan  Lewis,  to  form  the  body  called  "  Martling  men,"  later  Bucktails. 

Burritt,  Elihu  (1810-1879),  while  pursuing  the  trade  of  a  blacksmith, 
acquired  proficiency  in  many  languages.  He  established  the  Christian 
Citizen  in  1842  in  the  interests  of  international  peace,  and  the  abolition  of 
slavery.  He  was  an  ardent  advocate  of  the  compensated  emancipation  of 
slaves.  He  was  U.  S.  Consul  at  Birmingham  from  1865  to  1870.  He  wrote 
"  Handbook  of  the  Nations  "  and  "  Walks  in  the  Black  Country." 

Burrows,  Julius  C.,  born  in  1837,  has  represented  Michigan  in  the  U.  S. 
Congress  as  a  Republican  since  1885.  He  was  twice  elected  Speaker  pro 
tempore  during  the  Fifty-first  Congress.  His  present  term  expires  in  1905. 

Burrows,  William  (1785-1813),  was  acting  lieutenant  in  Preble's 
squadron  during  the  Tripolitan  War.  He  commanded  the  "  Enterprise," 
which  captured  the  "  Boxer  "  in  1813,  but  was  killed  during  the  engagement. 

Bushnell,  Horace  (1802-1876),  Congregational  pastor  in  Hartford,  Con- 
necticut, from  1833  to  1859,  was  prominent  for  the  originality  and  boldness 
of  his  thought  on  religious  topics. 

Bussey,  Cyrus,  born  in  1833,  commanded  a  brigade  at  Pea  Ridge.  He 
was  chief  of  cavalry  at  Vicksburg,  and  defeated  General  Jackson  at  Canton 
in  1863.  In  1864  he  commanded  and  organized  the  Department  of  Kansas. 

Butler,  Benjamin  F.  (1795—1858),  was  a  New  York  district  attorney  from 
1821  to  1825.  He  was  appointed  one  of  the  three  commissioners  to  revise  the 
statutes  of  New  York  in  1825.  He  was  Attorney-General  of  the  United 
States  in  the  Cabinets  of  Jackson  and  Van  Buren  from  1833  to  1838.  He 
was  also  acting  Secretary  of  War  from  1836  to  1837,  and  was  a  prominent 
member  of  the  "  Albany  Regency." 

Butler,  Benjamin  Franklin  (November  5,  i8i8-January  n,  1893),  was 
graduated  at  Waterville  College  in  Maine  in  1838.  He  became  a  successful 
lawyer  at  Lowell  and  was  elected  to  the  Massachusetts  House  of  Representa- 
tives and  Senate.  In  1860  he  was  delegate  to  the  Democratic  National 
Convention  at  Charleston  and  withdrew  from  the  adjourned  convention 
which  met  at  Baltimore.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  he  was  made  a 


96  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

brigadier-general  and  took  possession  of  Baltimore.  Becoming  a  major- 
general,  he  commanded  in  Eastern  Virginia,  where  he  lost  the  battle  of  Big 
Bethel  in  June,  1861,  and  issued  the  famous  order  referring  to  the  negroes  as 
contraband  of  war.  L,ater  in  the  year  he  captured  Forts  Hatteras  and  Clark. 
In  April,  1862,  he  co-operated  with  Farragut  in  the  capture  of  New  Orleans 
and  was  appointed  commandant  in  that  city.  It  was  here  that  he  attracted 
wide  attention  by  his  stern  measures  for  the  preservation  of  order,  and  roused 
considerable  criticism  as  well  as  earned  the  undying  hatred  of  many  of 
the  Southerners.  In  1864,  as  commander  of  the  Army  of  the  James,  he 
co-operated  with  Grant  in  the  advance  on  Richmond.  His  military  career 
closed  with  an  unsuccessful  attack  upon  Fort  Fisher  in  December,  1864. 
He  was  a  Republican  Congressman  from  Massachusetts,  1867-75  and  1877-79. 
He  failed  in  his  attempts  to  secure  the  Republican  nomination  for  Governor 
of  Massachusetts  in  1871  and  1872,  and  in  1878  and  1879  he  was  defeated 
as  the  Greenback  candidate.  He  was,  however,  elected  in  1882  by  the 
Democrats  as  one  of  the  "  tidal  wave  "  Governors  and  aroused  considerable 
excitement  in  1883  by  his  administration.  He  failed  of  a  re-election  and  in 
1884  ran  for  President  as  the  Greenback  and  Anti-Monopoly  candidate. 
Besides  his  reputation  as  politician  and  general  he  was  widely  known  as  a 
skillful  lawyer.  He  wrote  an  autobiography  entitled  "  Butler's  Book." 

Butler,  John,  died  in  1794.  He  commanded  the  Indians  in  Sir  William 
Johnson's  Niagara  campaign  in  1759  and  in  the  Montreal  expedition  of 
1760.  He  joined  the  British  at  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolution  and  con- 
ducted predatory  warfare  in  New  York.  He  conducted  the  famous  "  Wyoming 
massacre"  in  1778.  He  engaged  in  Johnson's  raid  on  the  Schoharie  and 
Mohawk  regions  in  1780. 

Butler,  Matthew  C.,  born  in  1836,  became  a  major-general  in  the  Con- 
federate service.  He  represented  South  Carolina  in  the  U.  S.  Senate  as  a 
Democrat  from  1877  to  1895.  Major-general  of  volunteers,  1898,  commis- 
sioner on  Spanish  evacuation  of  Cuba. 

Butler,  Pierce  (1744-1822),  came  to  America  from  Ireland  as  a  British 
soldier.  He  was  a  delegate  from  South  Carolina  to  the  Old  Congress  in 
1787,  was  a  member  of  the  convention  that  framed  the  Federal  Constitution, 
and  signed  the  Constitution.  He  represented  South  Carolina  in  the  U.  S. 
Senate  from  1789  to  1796  and  from  1802  to  1804. 

Butler,  William  Orlando  (1791-1880),  was  an  officer  in  the  War  of  1812. 
In  1839—43  he  was  a  Democratic  Congressman  from  Kentucky,  and  ran 
unsuccessfully  in  1844  f°r  Governor  of  that  State.  He  was  a  major-general 
in  the  Mexican  War,  and  was  distinguished  at  the  taking  of  Monterey  in 
1846.  He  was  in  1848  the  unsuccessful  Democratic  candidate  for  Vice-Presi- 
dent  on  the  ticket  with  General  Cass. 

Butler,  Zebulon  (1731-1795),  served  in  New  Jersey  from  1777  to  1778, 
He  was  commander  at  Wyoming,  Pennsylvania,  at  the  time  of  the  massacre. 
He  served  with  distinction  in  General  Sullivan's  Indian  expedition  of  1779. 

Butterfield,  Daniel,  born  in  1831,  led  a  brigade  at  Hanover  Court  House 
and  Games'  Mills.  He  commanded  a  corps  at  Fredericksburg  and  was  chief 
of  staff  at  Chancellorsville,  Gettysburg,  Lookout  Mountain  and  Missionary 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  97 

KiJge.  He  commanded  a  division  at  Resaca,  Dallas  and  Kenesaw.  He 
resigned  in  1869  an<^  was  f°r  some  time  Sub-Treasurer  of  the  United  States 
in  New  York. 

Butterworth,  Benjamin,  born  in  1822,  represented  Ohio  in  the  U.  S.  Senate 
as  a  Republican  from  1878  to  1882.  He  was  Commissioner  of  Patents  in 
1883  and  1897,  and  a  U.  S.  Congressman  from  1884  to  1886.  Died  1898. 

Butts,  Isaac  (1816—1874),  edited  the  Rochester  Advertiser  from  1845  to 
1849.  He  originated  and  promulgated  the  doctrine  known  as  "  Squatter 
Sovereignty  "  or  "  Popular  Sovereignty,"  that  the  people  of  each  territory 
should  decide  the  question  of  slavery  for  themselves.  He  edited  the  Rochester 
Union  from  1857  to  1864.  He  was  an  original  writer  upon  economic  and 
political  subjects. 

c. 

Cabeza  de  Vaca,  Alvar  Nunez  (1507-1559),  Spanish  explorer,  went  with 
Narvaez  to  Florida  in  1527,  and  accompanied  him  on  his  westward  march 
and  voyage.  He  was  wrecked  near  Matagorda  Bay  in  Texas,  and  captured 
by  the  Indians,  among  whom  he  became  a  medicine-man.  Finally  escaping 
he  reached  Mexico  after  many  wanderings,  during  which  he  discovered  the 
Rio  Grande.  He  was  afterward  the  first  explorer  of  Paraguay. 

Cabinet.  The  Constitution,  without  providing  distinctly  for  a  cabinet, 
authorizes  the  President  to  consult  the  heads  of  the  departments.  Washington 
thus  consulted  his  Secretary  of  State,  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  Secretary  of 
War  and  Attorney-General.  The  secretaryship  of  the  navy  was  instituted  in 
1798,  and  its  incumbent  was  at  once  treated  as  a  member  of  the  cabinet. 
The  Postmasters-General  before  1829  were  not.  The  Secretary  of  the  Interior 
became  such  at  once  upon  his  institution  in  1849,  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture 
similarly  in  1889.  Lists  of  the  holders  of  cabinet  office  follow. 

Cabinet  Officers.  The  figures  at  the  left  indicate  the  administrative  per- 
iods of  four  years,  corresponding  to  the  following  Presidents:  i,  2,  Washing- 
ton; 3,  John  Adams;  4,  5,  Jefferson;  6,  7,  Madison;  8,  9,  Monroe;  10,  J.  Q. 
Adams;  n,  12,  Jackson;  13,  Van  Buren;  14,  W.  H.  Harrison;  14^,  Tyler; 
15,  Polk;  1 6,  Taylor;  i6#,  Fillmore;  17,  Pierce;  18,  Buchanan;  19,  20, 
Lincoln;  200,  Johnson;  21,  22,  Grant;  23,  Hayes;  24,  Garfield;  240,  Arthur; 
25,  Cleveland;  26,  B.  Harrison;  27,  Cleveland;  28,  McKinley. 

Secretaries  of  State. 

Data  of  Commission. 

1.  Thomas  Jefferson,  Virginia,  September  26,  1789 

2.  Thomas  Jefferson,  Virginia. 

Edmund  Randolph,  Virginia,  Januarv         2,  1794 

Timothy  Pickering,  Pennsylvania,  December    10,  1795 

3.  Timothy  Pickering,  Pennsylvania. 

John  Marshall,  Virginia,  May  13,  i^oo 

4.  James  Madison,  Virginia,  March  5,  1801 

5.  James  Madison,  Virginia. 

6.  Robert  Smith,  Maryland,  March  6,  1809 


9« 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 


James  Monroe, 

7.  James  Monroe, 

8.  John  Quincy  Adams, 

9.  John  Quincy  Adams, 

10.  Henry  Clay, 

11.  Martin  Van  Buren, 
Edward  Livingston, 

12.  Louis  McLane, 
John  Forsyth, 

13.  John  Forsyth, 

14.  Daniel  Webster, 
140.  Hugh  S.  Legar£, 

Abel  P.  Upshur, 
John  Nelson  (acting), 
John  C.  Calhoun, 

15.  James  Buchanan, 

16.  John  M.  Clayton, 
i6a.  Daniel  Webster, 

Edward  Everett, 

17.  William  L.  Marcy, 

1 8.  Lewis  Cass, 
Jeremiah  S.  Black, 

19.  William  H.  Seward, 

20.  William  H.  Seward, 
2oa.  William  H.  Seward, 

21.  Elihu  B.  Washburne, 
Hamilton  Fish, 

22.  Hamilton  Fish, 

23.  William  M.  Evarts, 

24.  James  G.  Blaine, 

240.  Frederick  T.  Frelinghuysen, 

25.  Thomas  F.  Bayard, 

26.  James  G.  Blaine, 
John  W.  Foster, 

27.  Walter  Q.  Gresham, 
Richard  Olney 

28.  John  Sherman, 
William  R.  Day, 

John  Hay, 

Secretaries 

1.  Alexander  Hamilton, 

2.  Alexander  Hamilton, 
Oliver  Wolcott,  Jr., 

3.  Oliver  Wolcott,  Jr., 
Samuel  Dexter, 

4.  Samuel  Dexter, 
Albert  Gallatin, 

5.  Albert  Gallatin, 


Virginia, 

Date  of  Commission. 

April              2,  1811 

Virginia, 

February     28,  1815 

Massachusetts, 

March           5,  1817 

Massachusetts. 

Kentucky, 

March            7,  1825 

New  York, 

March           6,  1829 

Louisiana, 

May             24,  1831 

Delaware, 

May             29,  1833 

Georgia, 

June             27,  1834 

Georgia. 

Massachusetts, 

March           5,  1841 

South  Carolina, 

May               9,  1843 

Virginia, 

July             24,  1843 

Maryland, 

February     29,  1844 

South  Carolina, 

March           6,  1844 

Pennsylvania, 

March           6,  1845 

Delaware, 

March           7,  1849 

Massachusetts, 

July             22,  1850 

Massachusetts, 

November     6,  1852 

New  York, 

March           7,  1853 

Michigan, 

March           6,  1857 

Pennsylvania, 

December    17,  1860 

New  York, 

March           5,  1861 

New  York. 

New  York. 

Illinois, 

March           5,  1869 

New  York, 

March         n,  1869 

New  York, 

March          17,  1873 

New  York, 

March          12,  1877 

Maine, 

March            5,  1881 

New  Jersey. 

December    12,  1881 

Delaware. 

March           6,  1885 

Maine, 

March           5,  1889 

Indiana, 

June             29,  1892 

Indiana, 

March            6,  1893 

Massachusetts, 

June               6,  1895 

Ohio, 

March           5,  1897 

Ohio, 

April           26,  1898 

Ohio, 

September  30,  1898 

of  the  Treasury. 

New  York, 

September  u,  1789 

New  York. 

Connecticut, 

February       2,  1795 

Connecticut. 

Massachusetts, 

January         i,  1801 

Massachusetts. 

Pennsylvania, 

May            14,  1801 

Pennsylvania. 

DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 


99 


Date  of  Commission. 


6.  Albert  Gallatin, 
George  W.  Campbell, 

7.  Alexander  J.  Dallas, 
William  H.  Crawford, 

8.  William  H.  Crawford, 

9.  William  H.  Crawford, 

10.  Richard  Rush, 

11.  Samuel  D.  Ingham, 
Louis  McLane, 

12.  William  J.  Duane, 
Roger  B.  Taney, 
Levi  Woodbury, 

13.  Levi  Woodbury, 

14.  Thomas  Ewing, 
14^.  Walter  Forward, 

John  C.  Spencer, 
George  M.  Bibb, 

15.  Robert  J.  Walker, 

1 6.  William  M.  Meredith, 
i6a.  Thomas  Corwin, 

17.  James  Guthrie, 

1 8.  Howell  Cobb, 
Philip  F.  Thomas 
John  A.  Dix, 

19.  Salmon  P.  Chase, 
William  P.  Fessenden, 

20.  Hugh  McCulloch, 
2oa.  Hugh  McCulloch, 

21.  George  S.  Boutwell, 

22.  William  A.  Richardson, 
Benjamin  H.  Bristow, 
Lot  M.  Morrill, 

23.  John  Sherman, 

24.  William  Windom, 
24^.  Charles  J.  Folger, 

Walter  Q.  Gresham 
Hugh  McCulloch, 

25.  Daniel  Manning, 
Charles  S.  Fairchild, 

26.  William  Windom, 
Charles  Foster, 

27.  John  G.  Carlisle, 

28.  Lyman  J.  Gage, 


1.  Henry  Knox, 

2.  Henry  Knox, 
Timothy  Pickering, 


Pennsylvania. 

Tennessee, 

February      9,  1814 

Pennsylvania, 

October         6,  1814 

Georgia, 

October      22,  1816 

Georgia. 

Georgia. 

Pennsylvania, 

March           7,  1825 

Pennsylvania, 

March           6,  1829 

Delaware, 

August          8,  1831 

Pennsylvania, 

May             29,  1833 

Maryland, 

September  23,  1833 

New  Hampshire, 

June            27,  1834 

New  Hampshire. 

Ohio, 

March           5,  1841 

Pennsylvania, 

September  13,  1841 

New  York, 

March           3,  1843 

Kentucky, 

June             15,  1844 

Mississippi, 

March           6,  1845 

Pennsylvania, 

March           8,  1849 

Ohio, 

July             23,  1850 

Kentucky, 

March           7,  1853 

Georgia, 

March           6,  1857 

Maryland, 

December  12,  1860 

New  York, 

January       n,  1861 

Ohio, 

March           5,  1861 

Maine, 

July               i,  1864 

Indiana, 

March           7,  1865 

Indiana. 

Massachusetts, 

March         n,  1869 

i,               Massachusetts, 

March          17,  1873 

Kentucky, 

June              2,  1874 

Maine, 

June            21,  1876 

Ohio, 

March           8,  1877 

Minnesota, 

March           5,  1881 

New  York, 

October       27,  1881 

Indiana, 

September  24,  1884 

Indiana, 

October       28,  1884 

New  York, 

March           6,  1885 

New  York, 

April             i,  1887 

Minnesota, 

March           5,  1889 

Ohio, 

February    24,  1891 

Kentucky, 

March           6,  1893 

Illinois, 

March          5,  1897 

Secretaries  of  War. 

Massachusetts, 

September  12,  1789 

Massachusetts. 

Pennsylvania, 

January         2,  1795 

DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 


James  McHenry, 

3.  James  McHenry, 
Samuel  Dexter, 
Roger  Griswold, 

4.  Henry  Dearborn, 

5.  Henry  Dearborn, 

6.  William  Eustis, 
John  Armstrong, 

7.  James  Monroe, 
Alexander  J.  Dallas  (acting}, 
William  H.  Crawford, 

8.  George  Graham, 
John  C.  Calhoun, 

9.  John  C.  Calhoun, 

10.  James  Barbour, 
Peter  B.  Porter, 

11.  John  H.  Eaton, 
Lewis  Cass, 

12.  Lewis  Cass, 

Benjamin  F.  Butler  (acting}, 

13.  Joel  R.  Poinsett, 

14.  John  Bell, 
140.  John  McLean, 

John  C.  Spencer, 
James  M.  Porter, 
William  Wilkins, 

15.  William  L.  Marcy, 

1 6.  Reverdy  Johnson  (acting), 
George  W.  Crawford, 

i6a.  Winfield  Scott  (ad  interim), 
Charles  M.  Conrad, 

17.  Jefferson  Davis, 

1 8.  John  B.  Floyd, 
Joseph  Holt, 

19.  Simon  Cameron, 
Edwin  M.  Stanton, 

20.  Edwin  M.  Stanton, 
200.  Edwin  M.  Stanton. 

Ulysses  S.  Grant  (ad  interim}, 
Edwin  M.  Stanton  (reinstated}, 
John  M.  Schofield, 
John  A.  Rawlins, 


May 

February 

March 

March 
January 


Maryland, 

Maryland. 

Massachusetts, 

Connecticut, 

Massachusetts, 

Massachusetts. 

Massachusetts, 

New  York, 

Virginia, 

Pennsylvania, 

Georgia, 

Virginia, 

South  Carolina, 

South  Carolina. 

Virginia, 

New  York, 

Tennessee, 

Ohio, 

Ohio. 

New  York, 

South  Carolina, 

Tennessee, 

Ohio, 

New  York, 

Pennsylvania, 

Pennsylvania, 

New  York, 

Maryland, 

Georgia, 

Virginia, 

Louisiana, 

Mississippi, 

Virginia, 

Kentucky, 

Pennsylvania, 

Pennsylvania, 

Pennsylvania. 

(Suspended  August  12, 

August 
Pennsylvania, 


Date  of  Commission. 

January       27,  1796 


13,  1800 
3,  1801 
5,  1801 

7,  1809 
1813 


September  27,  1814 


March 
August 
April 
October 

March 
May 
March 
August 

March 
March 
March 


14,  1815 
i,  1815 

7,  1817 

8,  1817 

7,  1825 
26,  1828 

9,  1829 
i,  1831 


1837 
1837 
1841 


September  13,  1841 


October 

March 

February 

March 

March 

March 

July 

August 

March 

March 

January 

March 

January 


21 


22. 


William  T.  Sherman  (ad  interim), 


Illinois, 


William  W.  Belknap, 
William  W.  Belknap, 
George  M.  Robeson  (acting), 
Alphonso  Taft, 
J.  Donald  Cameron, 


Iowa, 
Iowa. 

New  Jersey, 
Ohio, 
Pennsylvania, 


January 

May 

March 

September 

October 

March 
March 
May 


12,  1841 
8,  1843 
15,  1844 

6,  1845 
8,  1849 
8,  1849 

23,  1850 
*5>  1850 

7,  1853 
6,  1857 

18,  1861 

5,  1861 

15,  1862 


12,  1867 
14,  1868 
28,  1868 
n,  1869 
9,  1869 
25,  1860 

2,  1876 

8,  1876 

22,  1876 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 


Date  of  Commission. 

23.    George  W.  McCrary, 

Iowa, 

March          12,  1877 

Alexander  Ramsey, 

Minnesota, 

December  10,  1879 

24.    Robert  T.  Lincoln, 

Illinois, 

March           5,  1881 

24^.  Robert  T.  Lincoln, 

Illinois. 

25.    William  C.  Endicot 

Massachusetts, 

March           6,  1885 

26.    Redfield  Proctor, 

Vermont, 

March           5,  1889 

Stephen  B.  Elkins, 

West  Virginia, 

December  22,  1891 

27.    Daniel  S.  Lament, 

New  York, 

March           6,  1893 

28.     Russell  A.  Alger, 

Michigan, 

March            5,  1897 

29.     Elihu  Root, 

New  York, 

August          i,  1899 

Secretaries 

of  the  Navy. 

3.  .  George  Cabot  (declined), 

Massachusetts, 

May               3,  1798 

Benjamin  Stoddert, 

Maryland, 

May             21,  1798 

4.    Benjamin  Stoddert, 

Marylandj 

Robert  Smith, 

Maryland, 

July             15,  1801 

5.    Jacob  Crowninshield, 

Massachusetts, 

May              3,  1805 

(Robert  Smith, 

Maryland, 

May,                 1805) 

6.    Paul  Hamilton, 

South  Carolina, 

March           7,  1809 

William  Jones, 

Pennsylvania, 

January       12,  1813 

7.    Benjamin  W.  Crowninshield, 

Massachusetts, 

December   19,  1814 

8.    Benjamin  W.  Crowninshield, 

Massachusetts. 

Smith  Thompson, 

New  York, 

November     9,  1818 

9.    Smith  Thompson, 

New  York. 

John  Rodgers  (acting], 

Maryland, 

September    i,  1823 

Samuel  L.  Southard, 

New  Jersey, 

September  16,  1823 

10.    Samuel  L.  Southard, 

New  Jersey. 

ii.    John  Branch, 

North  Carolina, 

March           9,  1829 

Levi  Woodbury, 

New  Hampshire, 

May             23,  1831 

12.    Mahlon  Dickerson, 

New  Jersey, 

June             30,  1834 

13.    Mahlon  Dickerson, 

New  Jersey. 

James  K.  Paulding, 

New  York, 

June             25,  1838 

14.    George  E.  Badger, 

North  Carolina, 

March           5,  1841 

14^.  Abel  P.  Upshur, 

Virginia, 

September  13,  1841 

David  Henshaw, 

Massachusetts, 

July              24,  1843 

Thomas  W.  Gilmer, 

Virginia, 

February     15,  1844 

John  Y.  Mason, 

Virginia, 

March         14,  1844 

15.    George  Bancroft, 

Massachusetts, 

March         10,  1845 

John  Y.  Mason, 

Virginia, 

September    9,  1846 

1  6.    William  B.  Preston, 

Virginia, 

March           8,  1849 

i6a.  William  A.  Graham, 

North  Carolina, 

July              22,  1850 

John  P.  Kennedy, 

Maryland, 

July             22,  1852 

17.    James  C.  Dobbins, 

North  Carolina, 

March           7,  1853 

1  8.    Isaac  Toucey, 

Connecticut, 

March            6,  1857 

19.    Gideon  Wells, 

Connecticut, 

March           5,  1861 

20.    Gideon  Wells, 

Connecticut. 

2oa.  Gideon  Wells, 

Connecticut. 

21.    Adolph  E.  Borie, 

Pennsylvania, 

March           5,  1869 

George  M.  Robeson, 

New  Jersey, 

June             25,  1869 

22.    George  M.  Robeson, 

New  Jersey. 

DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 


23.    Richard  W.  Thompson 

,                 Indiana, 

Date  of  Commission. 

March          12,  1877 

Nathan  Goff,  Jr., 

West  Virginia, 

January         6,  1881 

24.    William  H.  Hunt, 

Louisiana, 

March            5,  1881 

240.  William  E.  Chandler, 
25.    William  C.  Whitney, 

New  Hampshire, 
New  York, 

April           12,  1882 
March            6,  1885 

26.    Benjamin  F.  Tracy, 

New  York, 

March            5,  1889 

27.    Hilary  A.  Herbert, 

Alabama, 

«_/'                  Z/ 

March           6,  1893 

28.    John  D.  Long, 

Massachusetts, 

March            5,  1897 

Postmasters-  General. 

^ 

(Not  in  the  Cabinet  until  1829.) 

i.    Samuel  Osgood, 

Massachusetts, 

September  26,  1789 

Timothy  Pickering, 

Pennsylvania, 

August        12,  1791 

2.    Timothy  Pickering, 

Pennsylvania. 

Joseph  Habersham, 

Georgia, 

February     25,  1795 

3.    Joseph  Habersham, 

Georgia. 

4.    Joseph  Habersham, 

Geofgia. 

Gideon  Granger, 

Connecticut, 

November  28,  1801 

5.    Gideon  Granger, 

Connecticut. 

6.    Gideon  Granger, 

Connecticut 

7.    Gideon  Granger, 

Connecticut. 

Return  J.  Meigs, 

Ohio, 

March         17,  1814 

8.    Return  J.  Meigs, 

Ohio. 

9.    John  McLean, 

Ohio, 

June            26,  1823 

10.    John  McLean, 

Ohio. 

ii.    William  T.  Barry, 

Kentucky, 

March           9,  1829 

12.    Amos  Kendall, 

Kentucky, 

May               i,  1835 

13.    Amos  Kendall, 

Kentucky. 

John  M.  Niks, 

Connecticut, 

May             19,  1840 

14.    Francis  Granger, 

New  York, 

March            6,  1841 

140.  Charles  A.  Wickliffe, 

Kentucky, 

September  13,  1841 

15.    Cave  Johnson, 

Tennessee, 

March            6,  1845 

16.    Jacob  Collamer, 

Vermont, 

March            8,  1849 

i6a.  Nathan  K.  Hall, 

New  York, 

July             23,  1850 

Samuel  D.  Hubbard, 

Connecticut, 

August        31,  1852 

17.    James  Campbell, 

Pennsylvania, 

March            7,  1853 

1  8.     Aaron  V.  Brown, 

Tennessee, 

March            6,  1857 

Joseph  Holt, 

Kentucky, 

March          14,  1859 

Horatio  King, 

Maine, 

February     12,  1861 

19.    Montgomery  Blair, 

District  Columbia, 

March           5,  1861 

William  Dennison, 

Ohio, 

September  24,  1864 

20.    William  Dennison, 

Ohio. 

2oa.  William  Dennison, 

Ohio. 

Alexander  W.  Randall, 

Wisconsin, 

July             25,  1866 

21.    John  A.  J.  Creswell, 

Maryland, 

March           5,  1869 

22.    John  A.  J.  Creswell, 

Maryland, 

J.  W.  Marshall, 

Virginia, 

July               3,  1874 

.  Marshall  Jewell. 

Connecticut, 

August       24,  1874 

James  M.  Tyner, 

Indiana, 

July             12,  1876 

DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 


103 


23.    David  M.  Key, 

Tennessee, 

Date  of  Commission. 

March         12,  1877 

Horace  Maynard, 

Tennessee, 

June              2,  1880 

24.    Thomas  L.  James, 

New  York, 

March           5,  1881 

24*2.  Thomas  L.  James, 

New  York. 

Timothy  O.  Howe, 

Wisconsin, 

December   20,  1881 

Walter  Q.  Gresham, 

Indiana, 

April             3,  1883 

Frank  Hatton, 

Iowa, 

October       14,  1884 

25.    William  F.  Vilas, 

Wisconsin, 

March          '  6,  1885 

Don  M.  Dickinson, 

Michigan, 

January       16,  1888 

26.    John  Wanamaker, 

Pennsylvania, 

March           5,  1889 

27.    Wilson  S.  Bissell 

New  York, 

March            6,  1893 

William  L.  Wilson, 

West  Virginia, 

February     27,  1895 

28.     James  A.  Gary, 

Maryland, 

March           5,  1897 

Charles  Emory  Smith, 

Pennsylvania, 

April           21,  1898 

Attorneys-  General. 

i.    Edmund  Randolph, 

Virginia, 

September  26,  1789 

2.    Edmund  Randolph, 

Virginia. 

William  Bradford, 

Pennsylvania, 

January       27,  1794 

Charles  Lee, 

Virginia, 

December  10,  1795 

3.    Charles  Lee, 

Virginia. 

4.    Levi  Lincoln, 

Massachusetts, 

March           5,  1801 

Robert  Smith, 

Maryland, 

March           3,  1805 

5.    John  Breckinridge, 

Kentucky, 

August         7,  1805 

Caesar  A.  Rodney, 

Pennsylvania, 

January      20,  1807 

6.    Caesar  A.  Rodney, 

Pennsylvania. 

William  Pinkney, 

Maryland, 

December  n,  1811 

7.    William  Pinkney, 

Maryland. 

Richard  Rush, 

Pennsylvania, 

February    10,  1814 

8.     William  Wirt, 

Virginia, 

November  13,  1817 

9.    William  Wirt, 

Virginia. 

10.    William  Wirt, 

Virginia. 

* 

u.    John  M.  Berrien, 

Georgia, 

March           9,  1829 

Roger  B.  Taney, 

Maryland, 

July             20,  1831 

12.    Benjamin  F.  Butler, 

New  York, 

November  15,  1833 

13.    Benjamin  F.  Butler, 

New  York. 

Felix  Grundy, 

Tennessee, 

July              5,  1838 

Henry  D.  Gilpin, 

Pennsylvania, 

January       11,  1840 

14.    John  J.  Crittenden, 

Kentucky, 

March            5,  1841 

140.  Hugh  S.  Legare, 

South  Carolina, 

September  13,  1841 

John  Nelson, 

Maryland, 

July               i,  1843 

15.    John  Y.  Mason, 

Virginia, 

March           6,  1845 

Nathan  Clifford, 

Maine, 

October       17,  1846 

Isaac  Toucey, 

Connecticut. 

June            21,  1848 

1  6.    Reverdy  Johnson, 

Maryland, 

March           8,  1849 

i6a.  John  J.  Crittenden, 

Kentucky, 

July            22,  1850 

17.    Caleb  Gushing, 

Massachusetts, 

March           7,  1853 

1  8.    Jeremiah  S.  Black, 

Pennsylvania, 

March           6,  1857 

Edwin  M.  Stanton, 

Pennsylvania, 

December  20,  1860 

104 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 


19.    Edward  Bates, 

Missouri, 

Date  of  Commission. 

March            5,  1861 

James  Speed, 

Kentucky, 

December     2,  1864 

20.    James  Speed, 

Kentucky. 

2oa.  James  Speed, 

Kentucky. 

Henry  Stanberry, 

Ohio, 

July             23,  1866 

William  M.  Evarts, 

New  York, 

July             15,  1868 

21.    E.  Rockwood  Hoar, 

Massachusetts, 

March           5,  1869 

Amos  T.  Akerman, 

Georgia, 

June             23,  1870 

George  H.  Williams, 

Oregon, 

December  14,  1871 

22.    George  H.  Williams, 

Oregon. 

Edwards  Pierrepont. 

New  York, 

April           26,  1875 

Alphonso  Taft, 

Ohio, 

May             22,  1876 

23.    Charles  Devens, 

Massachusetts, 

March         12,  1877 

24.    Wayne  MacVeagh, 

Pennsylvania, 

March            5,  1881 

240.  Benjamin  H.  Brewstcr, 

Pennsylvania, 

December  19,  1881 

25.    Augustus  H.  Garland, 

Arkansas, 

March            6,  1885 

26.    William  H.  H.  Miller, 

Indiana, 

March           5,  1889 

27.    Richard  Olney 

Massachusetts, 

March           6,  1893 

Judson  Harmon, 

Ohio, 

June             n,  1895 

28.    Joseph  McKenna, 

California, 

March            5,  1897 

John  W.  Griggs, 

New  Jersey, 

January       25,  1898 

Secretaries  of  the  Interior. 

1  6.    Thomas  Ewing, 

Ohio, 

March           8,  1849 

i6a.  Alexander  H.  H.  Stuart, 

Virginia, 

September  12,  1850 

17.    Robert  McClelland, 

Michigan, 

March            7,  1853 

1  8.    Jacob  Thompson, 

Mississippi, 

March           6,  1857 

19.    Caleb  B.  Smith, 

Indiana, 

March            5,  1861 

John  P.  Usher, 

Indiana, 

January         8,  1863 

20.    John  P.  Usher, 

Indiana. 

200.  John  P.  Usher, 

Indiana. 

James  Harlan, 

Iowa, 

May             15,  1865 

O.  H.  Browning, 

Illinois, 

July             27,  1866 

21.    Jacob  D.  Cox, 

Ohio, 

March           5,  1869 

Columbus  Delano, 

Ohio, 

November     i,  1870 

22.     Columbus  Delano, 

Ohio. 

;^-  .. 

Zachariah  Chandler, 

Michigan, 

October       19,  1875 

23.    Carl  Schurz, 

Missouri, 

March          12,  1877 

24.    Samuel  J.  Kirkwood, 

Iowa, 

March            5,  1881 

240.  Henry  M.  Teller, 

Colorado, 

April             6,  1882 

25.    Lucius  Q.  C.  Lamar, 

Mississippi, 

March           6,  1885 

William  F.  Vilas, 

Wisconsin, 

January       16,  1888 

26.    John  W.  Noble, 

Missouri, 

March           5,  1889 

27.     Hoke  Smith, 

Georgia, 

March           6,  1893 

David  R.  Francis, 

Missouri, 

August        22,  1896 

28.    Cornelius  N.  Bliss, 

New  York, 

March           5,  1897 

29.     Ethan  Allen  Hitchcock, 

Missouri, 

December  21,  1899 

Secretaries 

of  Agriculture. 

25.    Norman  J.  Colman, 

Missouri. 

26.    Jeremiah  M.  Rusk, 

Wisconsin, 

March          5,  1889 

27.    J.  Sterling  Morton, 

Nebraska, 

March           6,  1893 

28.   Jarnes  Wilson, 

Iowa, 

March          5,  1897 

DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  105 

Cable,  George  W.,  author,  born  in  New  Orleans  in  1844.  In  his  writings 
(mostly  novels)  he  has  vividly  depicted  the  life  and  accurately  rendered  the 
dialect  of  the  Creoles  and  negroes  of  southern  Louisiana,  thus  opening  a  new 
field  in  literature. 

Cabot,  George  (1751-1823),  statesman,  entered  Harvard,  but  left  to  go  to 
sea,  and  became  master  mariner  before  he  was  of  age.  At  twenty-five  he  was 
chosen  to  the  Massachusetts  Provincial  Congress.  In  1788  he  was  a  member 
of  the  State  convention  that  adopted  the  Federal  Constitution.  He  was 
U.  S.  Senator  from  Massachusetts,  1791-96,  and  was  President  Adams'  first 
choice  for  Secretary  of  the  Navy  when  that  department  was  organized  in 
1798.  He  was  a  leading  Federalist,  an  able  coadjutor  of  Hamilton,  and  a 
high  authority  in  political  economy.  He  was  chosen  president  of  the  cele- 
brated Hartford  Convention  in  1814.  Life  by  Lodge. 

Cabot,  John,  the  founder  of  the  English  claim  to  North  America,  was 
born  at  Genoa,  settled  in  Venice  as  a  merchant  and  mariner,  and  removed  to 
Bristol  in  England  about  1490.  In  May,  1497,  he  sailed  from  Bristol  on  a 
voyage  of  discovery,  under  the  authority  of  letters  patent  from  the  king, 
Henry  VII.  He  discovered  a  region  which  was  supposed  to  be  the  coast  of 
China,  returned  to  England  with  the  news,  and  received  from  the  frugal  king 
the  sum  of  ten  pounds.  The  next  year  he  sailed  again  and  explored  the 
coast  of  North  America.  The  exact  extent  of  his  voyages  is  uncertain,  but 
he  probably  visited  Labrador,  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  and  the  coast  of 
New  England,  southward  perhaps  to  Cape  Cod.  After  the  second  voyage  he 
disappears  from  history.  The  best  account  of  the  Cabots  is  by  Harrisse. 

Cabot,  Sebastian,  the  son  of  John,  was  born  in  Bristol  or  Venice  about 
1474,  and  died  in  London  about  1557.  He  probably  accompanied  his  father 
on  the  latter's  first  voyage  to  America,  and  may  have  succeeded  him  as  com- 
mander in  the  second  expedition.  He  was  subsequently  in  the  service  of 
Spain,  and  returned  late  in  life  to  England.  The  voyages  of  the  two  Cabots 
in  1497  and  1498  laid  the  foundation  of  England's  claim  to  North  America. 

Cadillac,  Antoine  de  la  Mothe,  born  1660  of  noble  French  family.  In  1694 
Frontenac  appointed  him  commander  of  Michilimackinac.  July  24,  1701, 
with  fifty  settlers  and  fifty  soldiers  he  founded  Detroit.  In  1707  he  reduced 
the  Miamis  to  subjection.  In  1711  he  was  made  Governor  of  Louisiana.  In 
1714  he  established  a  post  in  the  Natchez  country.  In  1717  he  returned  to 
France.  He  died  after  1717. 

Cadwalader,  John  (1742-1786),  was  a  member  of  the  Philadelphia  Com- 
mittee of  Safety.  He  was  a  brigadier-general  at  Trenton  and  a  volunteer  at 
Brandywine  and  Germantown.  He  wounded  General  Conway,  the  noted 
conspirator  against  Washington,  in  a  duel. 

Cahokia,  111.,  was  settled  by  the  French  in  1683,  and  received  its  name 
from  an  Indian  tribe. 

Calef,  or  Calfe,  Robert,  author,  died  about  1723.  In  1700  he  attacked 
the  witchcraft  delusion  in  a  book  called  "  More  Wonders  of  the  Invisible 
World,"  whose  common-sense  arguments  greatly  affected  public  opinion. 


io6  DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Calhoun,  John  Caldwell  (March  18,  i/Sa-March^i,  1850),  Vice-President 
of  the  United  States,  was  born  near  Abbeville  in  South  Carolina.  He 
graduated  at  Yale,  studied  law,  and  developed  qualities  of  statesmanship  at 
an  early  period.  In  1811  he  entered  the  House  of  Representatives  as 
member  from  South  Carolina,  and  became  prominent  at  once  as  a  leader  of 
the  younger  element  of  the  Democratic  party;  he  advocated  the  war  against 
Great  Britain,  and  was  foremost  in  the  controversy  over  the  United  States 
Bank.  He  left  the  House  for  the  War  Department  in  1817,  and  served 
throughout  Monroe's  administration.  In  1824  he  was  elected  Vice-President, 
and  served  from  1825  with  Adams.  Again  elected  in  1828,  he  continued  in 
office,  this  time  with  Jackson,  and  between  these  two  great  Democratic 
leaders  a  bitter  feeling  of  opposition  soon  arose.  In  the  Nullification  trouble 
which  was  now  developing,  Calhoun's  abilities  and  views  made  him  the 
leader  on  the  side  of  his  native  State.  He  resigned  his  office  in  1832,  and 
immediately  entered  the  U.  S.  Senate,  where  he  was  the  champion  of  the 
"  States  Rights  "  men.  His  career  in  the  Senate  was  interrupted  for  a  short 
period,  when  in  1844—45  he  was  Secretary  of  State  in  Tyler's  administration. 
During  this  time  he  concluded  a  treaty  of  annexation  with  Texas.  Retiring 
from  the  Cabinet  in  1845  he  re-entered  the  Senate,  resuming  the  leadership 
of  the  Southern  Democrats.  It  was  during  this  last  term  that  his  severe 
controversy  with  Benton  occurred.  Calhoun  died  at  Washington  while  the 
compromise  measures  of  1850  were  pending.  In  gifts  of  logic  he  is  com- 
monly said  to  have  surpassed  Clay  and  Webster,  the  two  Senators  with 
whose  names  his  own  is  inseparably  connected.  His  works  were  edited  by 
Gralle",  and  there  is  a  scholarly  biography  by  Professor  von  Hoist  in  the» 
American  Statesmen  Series. 

California  was  formed  from  the  Mexican  cession  of  1848.  The  name 
originated  frorn  a  Spanish  romance  of  1521.  The  coast  of  California  was 
explored  by  the  Spaniards  Cabrillo  (1542)  and  Ferrelo  (1543),  and  by  the 
Englishman  Drake  (1579),  who  named  the  country  New  Albion.  Two 
hundred  years  later  (1769)  Franciscan  monks  founded  a  mission  at  San 
Diego  and  discovered  the  Bay  of  San  Francisco.  The  missions  in  1823 
numbered  twenty-one  and  were  very  wealthy.  The  priests  opposed  the 
government  of  the  towns  which,  was  established  by  the  Mexican  Govern- 
ment and  the  Mexican  Revolution  of  1822,  and  in  1834  the  mission  lands 
were  divided.  In  1826  the  first  American  emigrant  wagon-train  reached 
California.  Before  the  Mexican  War  the  United  States  Government  feared 
that  England  intended  to  seize  California,  and  accordingly  encouraged  the 
inhabitants  to  revolt  from  Mexico.  June  14,  1846,  the  American  settlers, 
upon  the  advice  of  Fre'mont,  proclaimed  a  republic,  and  Sloat,  in  command 
of  an  American  fleet,  occupied  Monterey  July  7.  By  the  treaty  of  Guadalupe 
Hidalgo,  signed  February  2,  1848,  California  was  ceded  by  Mexico  to  the 
United  States.  On  the  nineteenth  of  the  preceding  month  gold  had  been 
discovered  near  Coloma.  By  the  close  of  1849  the  population  was  about 
100,000.  A  State  Constitution  was  ratified  November  13,  1849,  which  pro- 
hibited slavery.  The  admission  of  California  as  a  free  State  formed  part  of 
Clay's  famous  "Omnibus  Bill"  of  1850  (September  9).  For  ten  years  the 
State  was  steadily  Democratic  until  the  division  in  that  party  in  1860  gave 


v 


DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  107 

the  electoral  vote  to  the  Republicans,  who  controlled  the  State  in  national 
politics  until  1876.  From  1851  to  1856  San  Francisco  was  governed  by  a 
"  Vigilance  Committee  "  who  put  down  the  lawlessness  in  the  city.  In  1880 
the  Democratic  presidential  electors  were  elected  with  one  exception.  In 
1892  the  electors  were  again  Democratic.  In  State  politics  the  State  has 
always  been  very  doubtful.  Opposition  to  Chinese  immigration,  monopoly 
in  lancl,  and  the  influence  of  corporations  in  politics  have  complicated  the 
political  history  of  the  State.  The  population  in  1850  was  92,597  ;  in  1890, 
1,208,130.  History  by  Bancroft. 

California,  University  of,  Berkeley,  Cal.,  was  established  in  1868  as  the 
State  University;  formerly  known  as  the  College  of  California,  it  was  char- 
tered in  1855. 

Call,  Richard  K.  (1791-1862),  soldier,  was  appointed  first  lieutenant  in 
1814,  brigadier-general  of  West  Florida  Militia,  1823,  was  delegate  to  Con- 
gress 1823—1825,  Governor  of  Florida,  1835—1840  and  1841-1844. 

Callava,  the  Spanish  ex-Governor  of  Florida,  whom  Andrew  Jackson 
arrested  in  September,  1821,  because  he  refused  to  deliver  certain  papers, 
Florida  having  been  ceded  to  the  United  States  in  1819.  The  papers  were 
seized  forcibly  and  Callava  was  then  released.  He  claimed  the  privileges  of 
a  Spanish  Commissioner,  but  could  get  no  hearing  from  Jackson. 

Calvert,  Cecilius  (or  Cecil),  second  Lord  Baltimore  (1605-1675).  In 
1632  the  charter  intended  for  his  father  was  issued  to  him.  It  granted  to 
him  many  feudal  rights,  but  with  popular  government. 

Calvert,  Sir  George,  first  Lord  Baltimore  (1582-1632),  was  knighted  by 
James  I.  in  1617,  became  a  Roman  Catholic  in  1624;  was  much  interested 
in  the  colonization  of  the  New  World;  and  in  1632  obtained  from  Charles  I. 
a  patent  for  what  are  now  Delaware  and  Maryland.  He  died  before  it  had 
passed  the  Great  Seal,  and  it  was  issued  to  his  son  Cecil,  q.  v. 

Calvert,  Leonard  (16067-1647),  Governor  of  Maryland,  was  sent  by  his 
brother  Cecil,  Lord  Baltimore,  to  found  the  Maryland  Colony,  which  he 
did  at  St.  Mary's,  May  27,  1634.  His  authority  was  disputed  by  William 
Claiborne,  who  at  once  began  hostilities  against  him,  and  it  was  not  till  1647 
that  his  possession  was  fully  established. 

Cambridge,  Mass.,  was  settled  by  colonists  under  Governor  Winthrop  in 
1630,  and  first  called  Newtown.  The  American  army  occupied  Cambridge 
during  the  period  while  the  British  held  Boston.  The  city  was  incorporated 
in  1846.  Harvard  Colkge  was  founded  here  in  1636. 

Cambridge  Platform,  a  system  of  church  government  drawn  up  by  a 
synod  at  Cambridge,  in  the  colony  of  Massachusetts  Bay,  in  1648.  The 
Congregational  churches  differed  somewhat  at  that  time,  some  inclining  to 
Presbyterianism,  some  to  Independency.  The  synod  reaffirmed  the  West- 
minster Confession,  but  recommended  a  form  of  church  discipline  which 
prevails  now  in  the  Congregational  churches. 

Camden,  Charles  Pratt,  Earl  of  (1713-1794),  constantly  opposed  the 
American  policy  of  the  Rockingham  ministry.  His  sympathy  with  the 


i  o«  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITKU  STATKS  HISTORY. 

colonies  continued  during  his  term  as  Lord  Chancellor  from  1766  to  1770. 
He  opposed  the  oppressive  colonial  policy  pursued  by  Lord  North,  and,  on 
account  of  his  liberal  policy  during  the  Revolution,  he  was  very  popular  in 
America. 

Camden,  Battle  of,  August  16,  1780.  On  his  appointment  to  command 
in  the  South,  Gates  determined  to  seize  Camden,  S.  C.  He  made  an  unwise 
choice  of  roads  so  that  his  army  was  exhausted  when  it  came  to  face  the 
enemy.  When  within  ten  miles  of  Camden  he  delayed  two  days.  Mean- 
while Cornwallis  had  come  up  from  Charleston  to  assist  Rawdon.  Gates  also 
made  the  fatal  mistake  of  sending  out  400  of  his  best  troops  on  a  foray. 
With  3052  troops,  only  1400  of  whom  were  regulars,  he  faced  2000  British 
veterans.  Both  parties  attempted  a  night  march,  but  as  the  surprise  failed 
they  waited  for  daylight.  The  American  left  of  raw  militia  was  routed. 
The  right  composed  of  Maryland  regulars  held  its  ground  bravely  until  it 
was  attacked  upon  its  exposed  flank  and  forced  to  retire.  This  it  did  in  good 
order.  Of  the  Americans  1000  were  killed  or  wounded,  and  1000  captured. 
The  loss  of  the  British  was  324.  It  was  a  clear  piece  of  bad  generalship  on 
the  part  of  Gates,  who  fled  precipitately  to  the  North. 

Cameron,  James  Donald,  son  of  Simon,  born  1833;  as  president  of  the 
Northern  Central  Railway  Company  of  Pennsylvania,  did  good  service  during 
the  Civil  War.  He  was  U.  S.  Senator  from  1877  to  1897. 

Cameron,  Simon  (1799-1889),  politician,  worked  at  the  printer's  trade  in 
his  boyhood  and  youth.  In  1822  he  edited  a  newspaper  in  Harrisburg.  He 
soon  became  interested  and  acquired  wealth  in  banking  and  railroad  con- 
struction— was  for  a  time  Adjutant-General  of  Pennsylvania.  He  was  U.  S. 
Senator  from  Pennsylvania  1845-1849,  acting  with  the  Democrats.  Upon 
the  repeal  of  the  Missouri  Compromise  in  1854  he  broke  with  that  party  and 
joined  the  Republican  party  upon  its  organization,  by  which  he  was  elected 
to  the  U.  S.  Senate  in  1857.  He  was  appointed  by  President  Lincoln  his 
first  Secretary  of  War,  resigned  in  1862  and  was  appointed  Minister  to 
Russia.  He  was  again  U.  S.  Senator  1867-1877. 

"  Camillus,"  a  literary  pseudonym  of  Alexander  Hamilton.  In  1795 
there  were  published  at  New  York  a  series  of  papers  called  a  "  Defense  of 
the  Treaty,"  Jay's  treaty  of  the  previous  year  with  Great  Britain.  These 
papers  were  nearly  all  signed  "  Camillus,"  but  were  written  by  Hamilton. 

Campbell,  Alexander  (1788-1866),  theologian,  a  native  of  Ireland,  came 
to  the  United  States  in  1809.  He  was  the  founder  of  the  sect  called  Dis- 
ciples of  Christ  or  Campbellites,  and  of  Bethany  College  in  West  Virginia. 

Campbell,  Sir  Archibald  (1739-1791),  British  soldier,  came  to  Boston  as 
lieutentant-colonel  in  1775,  led  an  expedition  in  1778  against  Savannah, 
which  he  took;  and  took  Augusta,  Ga.,  in  January,  1779.  He  was  afterward 
Governor  of  Jamaica. 

Campbell,  Donald  (1735-1763),  British  soldier,  while  stationed  at  Detroit 
met  Pontiac  (then  besieging  it)  in  conference.  He  was  not  permitted  to 
return,  and  was  put  to  death  with  torture. 


DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  109 

Campbell,  George  W.  (1768-1848),  of  Tennessee,  statesman,  was  gradu- 
ated at  Princeton  in  1794,  was  Representative  in  Congress  1803-1809,  and 
was  chairman  of  Ways  and  Means  in  his  last  term.  He  was  U.  S.  Senator 
from  1811  to  1814,  when  he  became  Secretary  of  the  Treasury;  was  again 
elected  to  the  Senate  in  1815.  In  1818  he  was  appointed  Minister  to  Russia. 
He  returned  in  1820. 

Campbell,  James  (1813-1893),  was  Attorney-General  for  Pennsylvania  in 
1852.  He  was  Postmaster-General  in  Pierce's  Cabinet  from  1853  to  1857. 

Campbell,  John  A.  (1811-1889),  jurist,  was  graduated  at  the  University  of 
Georgia  in  1826,  studied  law  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1829.  He  was 
several  times  a  member  of  the  Assembly  of  Alabama.  He  was  appointed  a 
Justice  of  the  U.  S.  Supreme  Court  in  1853,  resigned  in  1861.  He  was 
opposed  to  secession  although  he  believed  in  the  right.  He  was  Assistant 
Secretary  of  War  of  the  Confederate  States  and  was  one  of  the  peace  com- 
missioners who  met  President  Lincoln  at  Fort  Monroe  in  February,  1865. 

Campbell,  William  (1745-1781),  soldier,  of  Virginia,  led  a  corps  of  rifle- 
men at  King's  Mountain,  Guilford  Court  House  and  Eutaw  Springs.  In 
1778  he  was  a  commissioner  to  run  the  boundary-line  between  Virginia  and 
the  Cherokee  country. 

Campbell's  Station,  Tenn.  Here,  November  16, 1863,  occurred  a  sangui- 
nary conflict  between  Longstreet  leading  about  35,000  Confederates,  and 
Burnside  at  the  head  of  a  slightly  smaller  number  of  Union  soldiers.  Bragg, 
under  orders  from  Richmond,  had  ordered  Longstreet  to  proceed  against 
Burnside.  This  Longstreet  found  some  difficulty  in  doing,  for  his  troops 
were  in  a  deplorable  condition  for  want  of  clothing  and  provisions.  Never- 
theless he  started  in  pursuit  of  the  Federal  leader,  who  slowly  retreated 
toward  Knoxville.  At  Campbell's  Station  Longstreet  came  up  with  him  and 
Burnside  turned  upon  them,  firing  at  long  range  as  the  Confederates  advanced 
over  the  undulating  ground.  Unheeding  the  bullets  the  Confederates  pressed 
forward  until  at  close  range.  Then  they  opened  fire,  raking  the  Federal 
lines.  Burnside  was  forced  after  a  brief  fight  to  retire  to  Knoxville,  where 
Longstreet  followed  him  and  beleaguered  the  town. 

Campbellites.     (See  Disciples.) 

Camp  Alleghany,  Va.  In  this  battle,  December  13,  1861,  the  Federals 
numbering  3000  troops  and  commanded  by  Milroy  were  defeated,  but  retired 
in  good  order,  before  2000  Confederates  led  by  Edward  Johnston.  The  latter 
had  been  left  by  Jackson  in  charge  of  a  strong  position  on  a  high  bluff. 
Milroy  dispatched  Moody  to  attack  his  flank,  while  Jones  assaulted  his  front. 
Both  attempts  were  unsuccessful,  so  Milroy  retired.  The  losses  were  about 
equal  on  both  sides. 

Camp  Cole,  Mo.  Here,  June  18, 1861,  a  half-organized  Unionist  regiment 
under  Captain  Cook  was  surprised,  while  asleep  in  a  barn,  by  a  Confederate 
force  under  Colonel  O'Kane,  and  completely  routed. 

Camp  Defiance,  Ala.  Here  General  Floyd,  in  the  Creek  War,  was  attacked 
January  27,  1814,  by  the  Indians.  The  attack  was  repulsed,  but  at  so  heavy 


no  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

a  loss  that  Floyd  had  to  fall  back.     The  American  loss  was  twenty-two  killed 
and  147  wounded. 

Canada.  For  the  history  of  the  relations  of  the  English  colonies  with 
Canada  before  the  Revolution,  see  New  France  and  Quebec  Act.  The  Conti- 
nental Congress  attempted,  but  without  avail,  to  induce  Canada  to  take  part 
in  the  Revolution.  In  1775  Montgomery  and  Arnold  conducted  an  expedition 
into  Canada,  which  ultimately  failed.  From  Canada  Burgoyne  invaded  New 
York  in  1777.  The  land  operations  of  the  War  of  1812  were  mainly 
efforts  for  the  conquest  of  Canada.  Since  then  our  relations  with  Canada 
have  been  mostly  in  the  way  of  trade,  though  the  sympathy  of  Americans 
with  Canadian  insurgents  in  1837,  the  Caroline  affair,  the  Aroostook  disturb- 
ances and  the  Fenian  invasion  of  1866  have  at  times  interrupted  friendliness. 
The  treaty  of  1871  provided  for  the  free  transit  of  certain  goods  into  Canada 
through  the  United  States  and  into  the  United  States  through  Canada. 
There  has  been  of  late  years  a  strong  movement  for  the  annexation  of  Canada 
to  the  United  States. 

Canada  Company,  a  company  formed  by  Sir  William  Alexander  in  1621. 
On  September  21,  James  I.  granted  to  this  company  an  enormous  territory 
in  America,  covering  a  large  part  of  the  United  States  and  the  whole  of 
Canada.  Alexander,  with  whom  was  associated  David  Kirke,  endeavored  to 
sell  his  lands  as  baronetcies.  This  scheme  failed  and  the  company  was 
dissolved. 

Canals.  The  oldest  completed  canals  in  the  United  States  are  the  South 
Hadley  and  Montague  Canals  of  Massachusetts,  both  undertaken  by  a 
company  chartered  in  1792.  They  are  two  and  three  miles  long  respectively, 
passing  through  the  rapids  at  South  Hadley  and  the  Montague  Falls  on  the 
Connecticut  River.  The  Middlesex  Canal,  connecting  Boston  harbor  with 
the  Merrimac,  was  completed  in  1808.  The  Erie  Canal,  largest  and  most 
important  in  this  country,  connecting  the  Hudson  River  at  Albany  and  Troy 
with  Lake  Erie  at  Buffalo,  was  projected  by  DeWitt  Clinton,  and  begun  in 
1817.  It  was  completed  in  1825.  The  Chesapeake  and  Ohio  Canal,  the 
outcome  of  a  project  for  improving  navigation  on  the  Potomac  River  by 
General  Washington,  was  begun  by  the  Board  of  Public  Works  of  Virginia 
in  1820  and  completed  in  1850.  It  extends  from  Georgetown  to  Cumber- 
land, 184  miles.  The  Delaware  and  Hudson  Canal,  constructed  by  a 
company  for  the  transportation  of  coal,  was  completed  in  1829.  It  extends 
from  Rondout  to  Port  Jervis,  108  miles.  The  Schuylkill  Coal  and  Naviga- 
tion Canal,  extending  from  Mill  Creek  to  Philadelphia,  108  miles,  was  begun 
in  1816  and  completed  in  1825.  The  Lehigh  Coal  and  Navigation  Canal, 
from  Easton  to  Coalport,  was  begun  in  1821  and  completed  in  1829.  The 
chief  period  of  canal  construction  was  from  about  1820  to  about  1840,  when 
railroads  began  to  supplant  them.  In  1880  there  were  about  2500  miles  of 
canals  in  operation,  while  about  2000  miles  had  been  abandoned.  For  inter- 
oceanic  canals,  see  arts.  Panama  Canal  and  Nicaragua  Canal. 

Canby,  Edward  R.  S.  (1819-1873),  of  Kentucky,  soldier,  served  in  the 
Florida  War  1839-1842,  and  received  a  brevet  of  lieutenant-colonel  for 
services  in  Mexican  War.  In  1858  he  served  in  the  so-called  Mormon  War. 


DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  in 

In  1863  he  commanded  the  United  States  troops  in  the  New  York  draft  riots; 
assisted  by  Farragut's  fleet  he  captured  Mobile  in  1865.  In  1873  he  was 
treacherously  murdered  by  Modocs  while  negotiating  a  treaty  of  peace. 

Cane  Ridge  Revival,  a  religious  revival  in  1799  and  1800,  the  first 
famous  one  in  the  United  States  after  the  "  Great  Awakening,"  along  the 
western  frontier,  particularly  in  Kentucky.  It  was  begun  by  the  inspired 
preaching  of  two  brothers  from  Ohio,  who  addressed  a  camp  meeting  on  the 
Red  River,  and  made  numerous  enthusiastic  converts.  At  the  Cane  Ridge 
camp  meeting  of  1800,  the  religious  enthusiasm  was  intense.  Converts  were 
made  by  hundreds. 

Cane  River,  La.,  a  battle  in  the  course  of  Banks'  expedition  through 
the  Southwest,  occurring  April  23,  1864.  The  Confederate  General  Bee  was 
stationed  along  Cane  River  with  8000  troops,  when  Emory,  Birge  and  Fes- 
senden  of  Banks'  army  suddenly  flanked  his  position  and  fell  heavily  upon 
his  right.  The  movement  was  a  complete  success.  The  Confederates 
abandoned  their  position  and  retreated  in  disorder. 

Canning,  George  (1770-1827),  was  British  Secretary  for  Foreign  Affairs 
from  1807  to  1809,  during  the  controversies  with  America  concerning  the 
Chesapeake  affair  and  the  difficulties  which  led  to  the  War  of  1812.  He 
approved  the  British  orders  in  council  in  1807,  which  destroyed  American 
neutral  commerce.  He  supported  the  War  of  1812.  While  Secretary  of 
Foreign  Affairs  from  1822  to  1827,  he  assented  to  the  policy  expressed  in  the 
Monroe  doctrine. 

Canning,  Stratford,  Viscount  Stratford  de  Redcliffe  (1786-1880),  suc- 
ceeded Mr.  Bago  as  British  Minister  to  the  United  States  in  1820.  He 
returned  to  England  in  1823  and  arranged  a  treaty  which  was  signed  by  the 
British  and  American  Commissioners,  but  was  rejected  by  the  U.  S.  Senate. 
In  1830  he  framed  the  British  claims  in  the  American  boundary  question 
which  was  submitted  to  the  arbitration  of  the  King  of  the  Netherlands. 
He  was  afterward  famous  as  Ambassador  to  Turkey  at  the  time  of  the 
Crimean  War. 

Cannon,  Joseph  G.,  born  in  North  Carolina  in  1836,  was  State's  attorney 
in  Illinois  from  1861  to  1868.  He  has  been  a  Republican  member  of  Con- 
gress from  Illinois  from  1873  to  the  present  time  (1897),  and  is  one  of  the 
most  prominent  members. 

Canonicus  (1565  7-1647),  an  Indian  chief,  king  of  the  Nanagansetts. 
He  cordially  received  Roger  Williams  to  his  country  and  was  ever  friendly 
to  the  whites,  but  often  at  war  with  the  Pequots. 

Cape  Ann,  Settlement  at.  In  1625  the  Dorchester  Company  attempted  to 
plant  a  colony  near  the  site  of  the  present  town  of  Gloucester.  Roger 
Conant,  of  Plymouth,  and  a  number  of  other  persons  were  invited  to  settle 
there.  But  the  attempt  failed  in  a  short  time,  and  this  resulted  in  the  dis- 
solving of  the  Dorchester  Company.  The  Naumkeag  settlement  resulted. 

Cape  Girardeau,  Mo.,  a  National  storehouse  during  the  Civil  war.  It 
was  assailed  by  the  Confederate  Marmaduke,  April  26,  1863,  who  although 


iia  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

he  commanded  8000  men  was  obliged  to  retreat  before  McNeil's  garrison  of 
2000. 

Capital,  The.  From  the  beginning  of  the  Revolution  until  the  adoption 
of  the  Constitution  the  Congress  of  the  United  States  had  no  fixed  place  of 
holding  its  sessions,  but  met  on  various  occasions  at  Philadelphia,  Baltimore, 
Lancaster,  York,  Princeton,  Annapolis,  Trenton  and  New  York.  In  1783 
after  a  long  debate  Congress  selected  a  site  near  the  falls  of  the  Delaware, 
and  in  1784  resolved  to  meet  at  New  York  until  the  new  town  was  com- 
pleted. The  plans  for  the  capital  were  not  carried  out  and  nothing  further 
was  done  until  after  the  adoption  of  the  Constitution.  During  the  session 
of  the  first  Congress  the  matter  was  again  called  up,  and  after  a  lengthy 
discussion  in  which  sectional  jealousy  ran  high  an  act  was  passed  June  28, 
1790,  selecting  a  site  upon  the  Potomac.  Maryland  and  Virginia  ceded  land 
for  this  purpose.  By  this  act  Congress  met  at  Philadelphia  until  November, 
1800,  when  the  Government  removed  to  its  permanent  capital  (Washington). 

Capitol.  The  corner-stone  of  the  Capitol  building  at  Washington  was 
laid  by  President  Washington,  September  18,  1793.  The  north  wing  was 
completed  November  17,  1800.  The  south  wing  was  completed  in  1808,  and 
the  interior  of  both  was  burned  by  the  British,  August  24,  1814.  Recon- 
struction was  begun  in  1815.  The  foundation  of  the  main  building  was 
laid  March  24,  1818,  and  the  whole  was  completed  in  1827.  The  act  of 
September  30,  1850,  provided  for  an  extension.  President  Fillmore  laid  the 
corner-stone  of  the  extension  July  4,  1851,  and  Daniel  Webster  delivered  the 
address.  It  was  finished  in  1867. 

Cardinal.  The  first  American  cardinal  was  John  McCloskey,  archbishop 
of  New  York,  who  was  made  a  cardinal  in  1875.  Upon  his  death  in  1885 
Archbishop  Gibbons,  of  Baltimore,  was  made  a  cardinal  (1886).  '. 

Carey,  Henry  C.   (1793-1879),  political  economist,  son  of  Mathew.     In 

1821  he  established  the  firm    of  Carey  &  Lea,  which  became  the  leading 
publishing  house  in  the  country.     He  withdrew  in  1835  and  devoted  him- 
self to  political  economy,  on  which  subject  the  most  important  of  his  writings 
have  been  translated  into  other  languages.     He  viewed  free  trade  as  the  ideal, 
and  protection  as  the  means  of  attaining  it. 

Carey,  Mathew  (1760-1839),  publisher,  came  to  Philadelphia  from  Ire- 
land in  1784.  In  1796  was  a  founder  of  the  first  Sunday-school  Society.  In 

1822  he  published  "  Essays  on  Political  Economy,"  followed  by  numerous 
tracts  in  the  interest  of  protection.     His  "  Olive  Branch  "  was  an  important 
and  influential  pamphlet 

Carleton,  Sir  Guy  (1724-1808),  British  soldier,  distinguished  himself  at 
the  sieges  of  Louisbourg  and  Quebec.  He  was  Governor  of  the  latter  from 
1766  to  1770  and  from  1775  to  1778,  and  defended  it  against  the  Americans 
under  Montgomery  in  1775.  He  commanded  the  army  that  invaded  New 
York  in  1776,  and  fought  a  severe  battle  with  Arnold  on  Lake  Champlain. 
In  1782  he  superseded  Sir  Henry  Clinton  as  commander-in-chief.  From 
1786  to  1796,  as  Lord  Dorchester,  he  was  Governor  of  Canada.  He  became 
a  lieutenant-general  in  1777, 


DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  113 

Carlisle,  Frederick  Howard,  fifth  earl  of  (1748-1825),  British  statesman. 
In  the  House  of  Lords  he  advocated  reconciliation  with  America,  and  was 
one  of  the  commissioners  sent  over  in  1778  to  endeavor  to  effect  it. 

Carlisle,  John  Griffin,  born  in  1835  in  Kentucky,  served  in  the  Legislature 
of  the  State,  and  was  its  Lieutenant-Governor  in  1871-75.  He  entered 
the  National  House  of  Representatives  in  1877  as  Democratic  member  from 
Kentucky,  and  became  widely  known  as  leader  of  the  tariff-reforming  wing 
of  the  party.  He  was  Speaker  of  the  House  for  three  terms,  1883-89,  and 
achieved  a  high  reputation  as  an  able  parliamentarian  and  impartial  presid- 
ing officer.  In  1890  he  was  elected  to  the  U.  S.  Senate,  whence,  in  1893,  he 
was  called  to  enter  President  Cleveland's  Cabinet  as  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury. 

Carnegie,  Andrew,  born  in  Scotland  in  1835,  came  to  the  United  States 
in  1845.  He  is  the  largest  proprietor  of  iron  and  steel  making  works  in  the 
world.  He  has  given  liberally  to  educational  appliances  and  institutions. 

Carnifex  Ferry,  W.  Va.  Here,  August  10,  1861,  General  Floyd,  formerly 
Buchanan's  Secretary  of  War,  was  attacked  and  compelled  to  retreat  by 
General  Rosecrans  of  McClellan's  army.  Floyd  had  superseded  Wise  in  the 
command  of  the  Confederate  forces.  The  latter  failing  to  obey  orders  and 
come  to  his  relief,  he  was  obliged  to  retire  to  Big  Sewell  Mountain.  The 
numbers  engaged  on  either  side  were  small. 

"  Caroline."  In  1836-37  there  was  a  strong  republican  spirit  rife  in 
parts  of  lower  Canada,  which  culminated,  in  December,  1837,  in  an  insur- 
rection in  Toronto.  The  leaders  fled  to  the  United  States,  and  one,  Mac- 
kenzie, with  twenty-five  men,  among  them  some  citizens  of  Buffalo,  whom 
he  had  persuaded  to  join  him,  seized,  December  12,  1837,  the  Canadian 
Navy  Island  in  the  Niagara  River,  set  up  a  provisional  government,  and 
issued  paper  money.  December  26,  a  party  of  Canadians  crossed  the 
Niagara  and  seized,  at  Schlosser,  on  the  American  side,  the  "  Caroline,"  a 
steamer  in  the  service  of  the  rebels.  Several  men  were  killed,  and  the 
vessel  was  burned.  This  invasion  of  the  American  lines  caused  great  indig- 
nation. President  Van  Buren  issued  a  proclamation  declaring  that  the  neu- 
trality laws  should  be  observed.  The  New  York  militia  was  called  out  and 
placed  under  the  command  of  General  Scott.  The  rebels  finally  abandoned 
Navy  Island  January  13,  1838. 

Carpenter,  Matthew  Hale  (1824-1881),  Senator,  settled  in  Wisconsin  in 
1848,  and  soon  acquired  an  extensive  law  practice.  He  successfully  argued 
the  reconstruction  act  of  1867  before  the  U.  S.  Supreme  Court.  He  was 
U.  S.  Senator  from  1869  to  1875  and  from  1879  till  his  death. 

Carpenters'  Hall,  Phila.,  was  the  hall  of  the  company  or  organization  of 
the  carpenters  of  the  city,  analogous  to  the  guild  halls  of  London.  When  the 
first  Continental  Congress  met  in  Philadelphia  in  September,  1774,  the  State 
House  was  offered  them,  but  the  offer  of  the  carpenters  was  accepted  by  the 
members,  to  show  their  respect  for  the  mechanics.  The  second  Continental 
Congress  also  began  its  sessions  there. 
3 


ii4  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Carpet  Baggers,  a  name  given  first  to  Northern  politicians  who  sought 
temporary  homes  in  the  Southern  States  to  obtain  qualifications  for  admission 
to  Congress  from  these  States.  After  1865  the  name  was  given  to  Northern 
Republicans  who  settled  in  the  South  and  later  to  all  whites  who  endeavored 
to  control  the  colored  vote. 

Carpet-bag  Governments.  During  the  period  between  1865  and  1870  the 
government  of  a  majority  of  the  Southern  States  was  controlled  by  unscru- 
pulous adventurers,  who  excluded  the  better  class  of  whites  from  voting  and 
controlled  elections  by  negro  majorities.  Fraudulent  taxes  were  levied  and 
enormous  State  debts  were  rolled  up.  These  governments  were  known  as 
"  Carpet-bag  Governments." 

Carr,  Sir  Robert,  died  in  England  in  1667.  He  was  one  of  the  commis- 
sioners sent  over  by  Charles  II.  in  1664.  New  Amsterdam  and  the  settle- 
ments on  the  Delaware  capitulated  to  their  fleet,  but  Massachusetts  refused 
to  recognize  their  commission. 

Carrick's  Ford,  W.  Va.,  a  running  fight  between  the  rear  ranks  of  Garnet's 
retreating  Confederate  forces  and  McClellan's  vanguard  under  Steedman. 
Garnet  was  slain  and  a  number  of  captures  were  made,  July  13,  1861. 

Carroll,  Charles,  of  Carrollton  (1737-1832),  last  surviving  signer  of  the 
Declaration  of  Independence,  was  educated  by  Jesuits  in  France.  He  returned 
to  Maryland  in  1765.  In  1775  he  was  one  of  the  council  of  safety.  July 
4,  1776,  he  was  appointed  deputy  to  Congress,  and  on  August  2,  signed  the 
Declaration. 

Carroll,  John  (1735-1817),  cousin  of  Charles  Carroll  of  Carrollton,  was 
educated  as  a  priest  at  St.  Omer's.  In  1774  he  returned  to  Maryland  and 
enthusiastically  espoused  the  patriot  cause.  At  the  suggestion  of  Dr.  Frank- 
lin he  was  appointed  superior  of  the  clergy  of  the  United  States  in  1784. 
He  became  bishop  in  1790.  By  unanimous  request  of  Congress  he  pro- 
nounced a  panegyric  on  Washington,  February  22,  1800.  He  was  consecrated 
archbishop  in  1808,  and  was  the  first  Catholic  bishop  and  archbishop  in  the 
United  States. 

Carson  City,  capital  of  Nevada,  was  founded  as  a  ranch  in  1848,  but  its 
real  history  dates  from  the  discovery  of  gold  in  Nevada  in  1849. 

Carson,  Christopher  (Kit)  (1809-1868),  explorer,  was  for  eight  years  a 
trapper  on  the  plains.  He  afterward  accompanied  Fremont  on  two  of  his 
expeditions,  to  the  success  of  which  he  greatly  contributed. 

Carter,  Robert  (1819-1879),  editor  and  author,  was  one  of  the  founders 
of  the  Free-Soil  and  Republican  parties,  to  whose  success  he  largely  contrib- 
uted by  his  brilliant  writings  in  the  periodicals  of  his  time. 

Carter  Brown  Library,  the  most  famous  and  valuable  of  private  collec- 
tions of  Americana,  made  by  the  late  John  Carter  Brown,  of  Providence,  R.  I. 

Carthage,  Mo.,  a  brief  but  severe  engagement,  July  5,  1861,  between 
12,000  Union  troops  under  General  Franz  Sigel  and  5000  Confederates, 
chiefly  volunteers  from  Missouri,  Texas  and  Arkansas,  led  by  Generals  Price, 


SIGNERS  OF  THE  DECLARATION  OF  INDEPENDENCE 


DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  115 

McCulloch  and  Pillow.     General  Sigel  was  compelled  to  retreat,  although 
victorious. 

Carthagena,  in  Spanish  America,  attacked  in  1741  by  a  powerful  fleet  and 
a  strong  body  of  soldiers,  both  English  and  colonial,  under  Admiral  Vernon. 
When  England  was  preparing  to  send  a  force  against  the  Spanish  West 
Indies,  the  colonies  north  of  Carolina  were  summoned  to  contribute  four 
battalions  to  the  armament.  The  requisition  was  generously  complied  with. 
But  the  expedition  against  Carthagena  was  anything  but  successful,  though 
it  was  composed  of  twenty-nine  ships  and  12,000  land  troops.  The  sailors 
and  soldiers  quickly  fell  ill  with  the  fever.  Only  the  outer  fortifications 
were  demolished;  then  the  English  were  obliged  to  retire. 

Carver,  John  (i59O?-i62i),  first  Governor  of  Plymouth  colony.  He  was 
probably  elected  Governor  on  board  the  "  Mayflower  "  in  Provincetown  har- 
bor in  November,  1620;  was  re-elected  March,  1621,  but  died  the  next  month. 

Carver,  Jonathan  (1732-1780),  traveler,  in  1766  explored  the  country 
between  Michilimackinac  and  the  Falls  of  St.  Anthony,  and  in  1767  the 
borders  of  Lake  Superior.  He  died  in  England  in  great  destitution. 

Gary  Rebellion.  In  1705,  Thomas  Gary,  then  Deputy  Governor  of  North 
Carolina,  was  deposed  at  the  solicitation  of  the  Quakers  for  disfranchising 
them  through  the  requirements  of  the  Test  Act.  He  endeavored  to  usurp 
the  government  during  several  years.  Finally,  in  1711  he  endeavored  to 
capture  Governor  Hyde  by  force.  Governor  Spotswood,  of  Virginia,  sent  a 
troop  to  Hyde's  assistance.  Gary  was  forced  into  submission. 

Gary,  Samuel  F.,  born  in  1814,  Congressman,  of  Ohio,  served  in  Congress 
one  term,  1867-1869,  and  was  the  only  Republican  member  of  the  House 
who  voted  against  the  impeachment  of  President  Johnson. 

Cass,  Lewis  (1782-1866),  was  born  at  Exeter,  N.  H.  His  early  life  was 
passed  as  a  lawyer  and  politician  in  Ohio,  broken  by  service  in  the  War  of 
1812,  during  which  he  became  brigadier-general,  and  fought  at  the  battle 
of  the  Thames.  In  the  years  1813-31  he  was  Governor  of  Michigan  Terri- 
tory; during  this  period  his  management  of  Indian  relations  was  highly 
regarded,  and  an  expedition  in  1820  into  the  heart  of  the  Indian  country 
yielded  important  results.  General  Cass  published  in  1823  "Inquiries  Con» 
cerning  the  Indians."  His  reputation  was  increased  as  Secretary  of  Wai- 
1831-36,  U.  S.  Minister  to  France  1836-42,  U.  S.  Senator  from  Michigan 
1845-48  and  1849-57,  and  Secretary  of  State  1857-60.  He  was  an  unsuc- 
cessful candidate  for  the  Democratic  nomination  for  the  Presidency  in  1844 
and  1852.  In  1848  he  gained  the  nomination,  but  was  defeated  in  a  close 
contest  by  General  Taylor. 

Cassidy,  William  (1815-1873),  journalist  and  politician,  of  New  York, — 
was  editor  of  the  Albany  Atlas  and  afterward  of  the  Albany  Argus, 
and  one  of  the  principal  members  of  the  "  Albany  Regency." 

Castine,  Me.,  was  settled  by  the  French  under  Baron  de  Castine  in  1667. 
It  was  subsequently  abandoned  on  account  of  wars  with  the  Indians  and 
English  colonists.  In  1760  it  was  settled  by  the  English. 


ti6  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Castro,  Manuel  (1801-1891),  of  California,  as  Mexican  prefect  of  Mon- 
terey opposed  by  military  force  the  entrance  of  the  Americans  under 
Fremont  into  California. 

Catholic  Church  in  America.  Most  of  the  early  explorers  of  this  country 
were  fervent  Catholics,  and  very  soon  Catholic  colonial  empires  had  been 
formed  in  Mexico  and  Central  and  South  America.  In  1528  the  first 
Catholic  missionaries  landed  in  the  United  States,  at  Florida,  and  in  1565 
the  first  settlement  was  made  at  St.  Augustine.  From  this  were  sent  out 
missionaries  to  the  neighboring  tribes  and  colonies,  till  Florida  was  ceded  to 
the  English  in  1763,  which  proved  a  fatal  check  to  missionary  efforts. 
Other  missions  were  established  along  the  great  lakes,  the  Mississippi,  in  the 
Far  West  and  in  the  English  colonies,  with  more  or  less  success,  but  the  real 
history  of  the  Church  in  the  United  States  begins  with  the  Catholic  colony 
of  Lord  Baltimore  in  Maryland.  The  Church,  however,  prospered  little,  and 
at  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolution  there  were  only  about  twenty-five  thousand 
members,  of  whom  two-thirds  were  in  Maryland.  After  the  war,  immigra- 
tion from  Catholic  countries  and  natural  development  had  increased  the 
number  in  the  States  to  150,000  by  the  year  1807.  From  that  time  on,  its 
growth  has  been  very  rapid.  The  work  of  the  religious  orders,  including 
the  Jesuits,  the  development  of  educational  facilities,  and  the  large  influx 
of  Catholics  from  immigration  have  all  so  built  up  the  Church  that  it  now 
practically  claims  about  one-sixth  of  the  entire  population  of  the  United 
States,  and  a  large  majority  of  the  population  of  the  countries  to  the  south. 
The  first  Catholic  bishop  was  consecrated  in  1790. 

Catlin,  George  (1796-1872),  painter  and  traveler.  He  spent  eight  years 
in  travel  among  the  Indians,  of  whom  he  painted  470  full-length  portraits. 
He  also  traveled  in  South  America. 

Catron,  John  (1778-1865),  was  Chief  Justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  of 
Tennessee  from  1830  to  1836.  He  was  a  Justice  of  the  U.  S.  Supreme 
Court  from  1837  to  1865. 

Caucus.  The  caucus  originated  in  Boston  in  the  earlier  part  of  the  eight- 
eenth century.  It  is  said  to  have  derived  its  name  from  having  been  a 
meeting  of  the  caulkers  connected  with  the  shipping  business  in  the  North 
End.  From  these  private  and  local  meetings  the  term  was  extended,  after 
the  installation  of  the  Federal  Government,  to  the  Congressional  meetings 
which  nominated  candidates  for  the  Presidency  of  the  United  States. 
Members  of  Congress  early  began  to  hold  caucuses  to  nominate  candidates, 
between  whom  it  was  an  understood  thing  that  the  constitutional  electors 
should  choose,  despite  the  provision  of  the  Constitution  that  "  no  Senator  or 
Representative,  or  person  holding  an  office  of  trust  or  profit  under  the  United 
States,  shall  be  appointed  an  elector."  There  were  seven  Congressional 
caucuses  held  between  1800  and  1824.  In  1800  the  Federalist  leaders,  dis- 
liking Adams,  met  in  caucus  and  nominated  the  latter  and  Pinckney,  hoping 
the  latter  might  be  elected.  The  Republicans  nominated  Jefferson  and  Burr 
in  the  same  way.  In  1804  the  first  open  Republican  caucus  nominated 
Jefferson  and  Clinton.  There  was  no  Federalist  caucus  that  year.  In  1808, 
Jefferson  having  refused  a  third  nomination,  the  Republican  caucus 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  iij 

nominated  Madison  and  Clinton.  No  Federalist  caucus  was  held  that  year. 
In  1812  the  Republican  became  a  war  party,  and  the  Congressional  caucus 
renominated  Madison  unanimously  with  John  Langdon  for  Vice-PresidenL 
The  Federalists  in  a  secret  caucus  agreed  to  support  Clinton  and  Ingersoll. 
Monroe  was  nominated  by  the  Republicans  in  caucus  in  1816,  the  Federalists 
making  no  nominations,  but  their  electors  voting  for  Rufus  King.  The 
caucus  of  1820,  called  by  Samuel  Smith  of  Maryland,  separated  without 
action.  The  last  caucus  for  nominating  a  President  was  held  by  the  Republi- 
cans in  1824  and  Crawford  was  nominated,  with  Gallatin  as  Vice-President. 
In  1828  nominations  were  made  by  the  State  Legislatures,  and  in  1831  the 
existing  nominating  system  began  to  be  introduced.  Similarly,  State  nomi- 
nations were  made  in  legislative  caucuses,  until,  somewhat  earlier  than  in  the 
federal  party-system,  nominating  conventions  took  their  place. 

Cayuga  Indians,  one  of  the  Six  Nations,  originally  inhabited  a  district 
on  Cayuga  Lake.  Though  visited  by  French  missionaries,  they  allied 
themselves  with  the  Bnglish.  During  the  Revolution  the  Cayugas  joined 
the  British,  being  already  in  arms  against  the  colonists  at  Point  Pleasant. 
They  annoyed  General  Clinton  on  his  march  to  join  Sullivan  in  1779. 
Their  villages  were  then  destroyed.  After  the  war  they  ceded  nearly  all 
their  lands  to  the  State  of  New  York.  They  later  became  scattered  and 
almost  totally  disappeared. 

Cedar  Creek,  Va.,  the  final  battle  of  Sheridan's  campaign  against  the 
Confederate  Early  in  the  Shenandoah  Valley,  occurring  October  19,  1864. 
Each  general  led  about  30,000  men.  During  the  early  part  of  the  fight 
Sheridan  himself  was  absent,  the  battle  of  Winchester,  or  Opequan,  being 
still  in  progress.  Wright  therefore  commanded  the  Federals.  His  forces, 
under  the  immediate  command  of  Emory  and  Crook,  were  drawn  up  along 
Cedar  Creek  and  were  there  attacked  at  daybreak  by  the  Confederates,  who 
fell  upon  the  Eighth  Corps  and  routed  it  utterly.  Wright  immediately  reformed 
his  line,  making  a  change  of  front  and  a  retrograde  movement,  but  losing 
heavily  during  the  formation.  At  this  point  Sheridan  came  up,  assumed 
command  and  fell  upon  the  Confederates,  putting  them  to  flight  with  great 
slaughter.  This  was  the  last  attempt  of  the  Confederates  toward  the  North 
by  the  Shenandoah  Valley. 

Cedar  Mountain,  Va.,  July  9,  1862.  General  Pope,  commanding  the  Union 
troops,  having  come  into  contact  with  a  portion  of  Jackson's  army,  Banks 
was  detailed  with  a  force  of  12,000  to  engage  him,  although  Jackson's  army 
numbered  more  than  20,000.  Banks  charged  Jackson's  rear  as  he  retreated 
toward  Culpeper.  The  Confederates  were  for  a  time  in  great  confusion,  but 
Jackson  succeeded  in  rallying  them  and  in  repelling  Banks'  assault.  Banks 
fell  back  to  a  strong  position,  and  Jackson,  unwilling  to  attack  him,  retreated 
to  Gordonsville.  The  Union  loss  was  2300,  that  of  the  Confederates  1300. 

Celoron  de  Bienville,  born  about  1715,  French  explorer.  In  1749  he  was 
sent  by  the  Governor  of  Canada  to  take  possession  for  France  of  the  Ohio 
Valley  in  accordance  with  the  terms  of  the  then  recent  treaty. 

Censors.  The  Constitution  of  Pennsylvania,  framed  in  1776,  provided 
that  every  seven  years  the  people  should  choose  a  Council  of  Censors,  two 


n8  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

for  each  city  or  county,  who  should  investigate  the  doings  of  departments  of 
government,  inquire  whether  the  Constitution  had  been  violated,  etc.  This 
institution  was  not  continued  by  the  Constitution  of  1790.  The  Vermont 
Constitution  of  1777,  modeled  on  that  of  Pennsylvania,  made  similar  provis- 
ion for  a  Council  of  Censors,  to  convene  every  seven  years,  and  this  provision, 
continued  by  the  Constitutions  of  1786  and  1793,  was  not  abrogated  until 
1870. 

Censure,  Resolutions  of.  In  case  of  a  violation  of  law  by  the  President, 
the  constitutional  process  of  punishment  is  impeachment  by  the  House,  con- 
viction by  the  Senate  and  removal  from  office.  On  March  28,  1834,  after  a 
three  months'  debate,  Congress  resolved  "that  the  President  (Andrew  Jackson) 
in  the  late  executive  proceedings  in  relation  to  the  public  revenue,  has 
assumed  upon  himself  authority  and  power  not  conferred  by  the  Constitution 
and  laws,  but  in  derogation  of  both."  Jackson  protested  against  this  as 
accusing  him  of  perjury.  The  resolution  was  expunged  in  1837,  after  a 
long  struggle  on  the  part  of  Jackson's  friends. 

Census.  Occasional  censuses  were  taken  in  individual  colonies.  The 
Constitution  of  1787  requiring  that  the  representation  of  each  State  in  Con- 
gress should  be  in  proportion  to  its  population,  it  became  necessary  also  to 
provide  for  enumerations.  The  Constitution  provided  that  they  should  be 
made  decennially.  The  first  was  made  in  1790  (the  first  of  Great  Britain  was 
taken  in  1801),  and  consisted  simply  of  an  enumeration  of  the  population, 
taken  by  the  U.  S.  marshals.  Since  then  the  censuses  have  been  made 
increasingly  elaborate.  The  office  of  Superintendent  of  the  Census,  in  the 
Interior  Department,  once  decennial,  is  now  virtually  perpetual,  since  it 
takes  ten  years  to  publish  the  results  of  a  census.  For  the  figures,  see  art. 
Population. 

Cent,  a  copper  coin  stamped  with  various  designs  and  issued  first  by  the 
States,  later  by  the  Federal  Government.  Vermont  was  the  first  State  to 
issue  copper  cents,  having  permitted,  June,  1785,  Reuben  Harmon,  Jr.,  to  make 
money  for  the  State  for  two  years.  He  started  a  mint  at  Rupert,  Benning- 
ton  County,  coining  the  Vermont  cent  of  1785.  Obverse,  wooded  mountains 
and  rising  sun  with  a  plough,  Vermontis.  Res.  Publica.  Exergue  1785. 
Reverse,  a  ring  surrounded  by  thirteen  stars  with  rays  springing  from  the 
circle;  legend,  Stella.  Quarta.  Decima.  Connecticut,  in  October,  1785,  granted 
to  Bishop,  Hopkins,  Hillhouse  and  Goodrich  the  right  to  coin  ^10,000  of 
copper  cents,  known  as  the  Connecticut  cent  of  1785.  Obverse,  a  mailed  bust, 
head  laureated;  legend,  Auctori.  Connec.  Reverse,  Goddess  of  Liberty  grasp- 
ing olive  branch  in  right  hand  and  liberty  staff  in  left,  which  is  surmounted 
by  a  liberty  cap;  legend,  Inde.  Et  I/ib.  Exergue  1785.  Massachusetts  estab- 
lished a  mint  in  1786,  and  coined  $60,000  in  cents  and  half  cents.  Obverse  of 
cent:  a  clothed  Indian,  in  his  right  hand  a  bow,  in  his  left  an  arrow;  legend, 
Common  *  Wealth.  Reverse,  a  spread  eagle,  a  shield  on  his  breast  bearing 
the  word  cent,  his  talons  grasping  an  olive  branch  and  a  bundle  of  arrows; 
legend,  Massachusetts,  Exergue  1787,  beneath  a  horizontal  bar.  New  Jersey 
granted  to  Goadsby  and  Cox,  in  1786,  the  right  to  coin  ^10,000  at  fifteen 
coppers  to  the  shilling,  known  as  New  Jersey  copper  coin  of  1786.  Obverse, 


DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  119 

horse's  head,  heraldic  wreath  and  plough ;  legend,  Nova.  Caesarea.  Exergue 
1786.  Reverse,  a  shield;  legend,  E  Pluribus  Unum.  In  1781  the  Con- 
tinental Congress  directed  Robert  Morris  to  look  into  the  matter  of  Govern- 
mental Coinage.  Morris  proposed  a  money  unit  equal  to  one-fourth  of  a 
grain  of  fine  silver,  an  equivalent  of  one-fourteen-hundred-and-fortieth  of  a 
Spanish  dollar.  The  coin  equal  to  one  hundred  of  these  units  was  to  be  called 
a  cent  [Latin  centum,  one  hundred],  500  units  a  quint,  10,000  units  a  mark. 
These  were  not  accepted,  but  in  1784  Jefferson  proposed  in  his  coinage 
report  to  Congress  that  the  "  smallest  coin  be  of  copper,  of  which  two 
hundred  shall  pass  for  one  dollar."  In  1786  the  hundredth  was  substituted. 
Copper  cents  began  to  be  coined  in  1793.  In  1796  their  weight  was  reduced. 
In  1857  tne  small  nickel  cent  was  substituted,  in  1864  the  small  bronze. 

Centennial  Exhibition,  an  international  exhibition  of  arts,  manufactures 
and  products  of  the  soil  and  mines  held  at  Fairmount  Park,  Philadelphia, 
during  the  summer  of  1876.  It  was  the  first  international  exhibition  held 
in  this  country,  and  was  also  an  anniversary  exhibition  of  the  world's  prog- 
ress in  the  hundredth  year  of  the  existence  of  the  United  States.  The 
exhibition  was  proposed  by  the  citizens  of  Philadelphia  in  1870.  In  1872 
Congress  permitted  the  appointment  of  a  Board  of  Finance.  This  board 
raised  a  capital  stock  of  $10,000,000  from  among  the  citizens  of  Philadel- 
phia. Congress  afterward  appropriated  $2,000,000  as  a  loan;  the  State  of 
Pennsylvania  $1,000,000,  and  Philadelphia  $1,500,000.  Many  European 
and  other  foreign  countries  sent  exhibits,  which  were  admitted  free  of  duty 
under  bond.  The  exhibition  was  open  from  May  10  to  November  10.  The 
paid  admissions  numbered  8,000,000. 

"  Centinel,  Massachusetts  or  Columbian."  The  Massachusetts  Centinel, 
or  Columbian  Centinel,  as  it  was  afterward  called,  was  founded  by  Benjamin 
Russell  at  Boston,  March  24,  1784.  It  is  considered  -the  best  type  of  the 
early  political  newspaper  of  the  United  States.  The  most  eminent  Federal- 
ist statesmen  and  writers  contributed  to  this  journal,  which  wielded  no  little 
influence  in  the  early  history  of  New  England.  It  was  united  with  the  New 
England  Palladium  in  1830  and  with  the  Boston  Gazette  in  1836.  In  1840 
it  became  merged  in  the  Boston  Daily  Advertiser,  under  which  title  it  is  still 
published  daily,  tri-weekly  and  weekly.  It  was  at  first  semi-weekly. 

Central  America.  The  United  States  concluded  a  commercial  treaty  with 
the  federation  of  Central  America  in  1825.  See  the  several  States. 

Century  Magazine;  its  publication  was  begun  as  a  continuation  of  the 
Scribner's  Monthly,  by  a  company  organized  by  Roswell  B.  Smith,  which 
bought  out  the  Scribner's  Monthly  in  1881  and  styled  itself  the  Century 
Publishing  Company. 

Cerro  Gordo,  a  mountain  pass  commanding'  General  Taylor's  line  of  march 
from  Vera  Cruz  toward  the  city  of  Mexico.  It  was  occupied  and  fortified  by 
the  Mexican  leader,  Santa  Anna,  and  a  battle  took  place  there  April  17-18, 
1847.  Taylor  first  succeeded  in  occupying  the  Ataloga  heights  which  over- 
looked Santa  Anna's  position  and  which  he  had,  contrary  to  the  advice  of 
his  generals,  left  unguarded-  as  impossible  of  access  to  the  Americans.  This 


120  .        DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

step  of  Taylor's  practically  won  the  day.  Actual  fighting  began  early  April 
18.  The  guns  on  the  Ataloga  heights  opened  fire  upon  Santa  Anna's  fortifi- 
cations on  Cerro  Gordo,  while  General  Twiggs  and  Colonel  Baker  attacked 
the  Mexicans'  unprotected  rear.  This  resulted  in  defeat  for  the  Mexicans. 
Santa  Anna  fled.  Number  engaged:  Americans,  8500;  Mexicans,  12,000. 

Chadbourne,  Paul  Ansel  (1823-1883),  of  Massachusetts,  president  of 
Williams  College,  of  the  Massachusetts  Agricultural  College,  and  of  Wis- 
consin University,  was  two  years  State  Senator  and  a  Presidential  elector  in 
1880. 

ChafFee,  Jerome  B.  (1825-1886),  of  Colorado,  Senator,  was  one  of  the 
first  settlers  of  Denver.  Was  delegate  in  Congress  from  Colorado  till  its 
organization  as  a  State  when  he  was  elected  to  the  U.  S.  Senate. 

Chalmette's  (near  New  Orleans),  one  of  the  fights  preceding  the  battle 
of  New  Orleans.  General  Jackson,  here  entrenched,  was  attacked  December 
28,  1814,  by  the  British  under  General  Pakenham.  After  severe  fighting 
the  British  were  driven  back  with  the  loss  of  150  men. 

Chamberlain,  Daniel  H.,  born  in  Massachusetts  in  1835,  was  Governor  of 
South  Carolina  in  1874-75,  and  was  declared  re-elected  in  1876.  The  Demo- 
crats claimed  the  election  of  Wade  Hampton,  and  Governor  Chamberlain 
retired  from  the  contest. 

Chamberlain,  Joshua  L.,  born  in  1828,  soldier,  of  Maine,  was  promoted 
brigadier-general  on  the  field  by  Grant  in  1 864,  was  Governor  of  Maine  from 
1867  to  1871,  was  president  of  Bowdoin  College  from  1871  to  1883. 

Chambersburg,  Pa.,  burned  by  M'Causland  and  Johnson  of  Early's  Con- 
federate army  July  30,  1864.  These  generals  were  at  the  time  engaged  in 
raiding  toward  the  Susquehanna  with  a  cavalry  troop  of  3000  men.  They 
demanded  of  the  citizens  of  Chambersburg,  largely  Union  sympathizers, 
$200,000  in  gold,  or  $500,000  in  greenbacks.  This  being  refused,  the  town 
was  fired.  This  is  said  to  have  been  done  in  retaliation  for  Hunter's  burn- 
ing of  Governor  Letcher's  house  at  Lexington,  Va. 

Champ  d'Asile  (field  of  refuge),  a  colony  of  French  soldiers  of  the 
Empire,  founded  by  General  Lallemand  and  others  in  Texas  in  1818.  It 
proved  a  failure. 

Champion  Hills,  Miss.  At  this  place  during  Grant's  pursuit  in  1863  of 
Pemberton  toward  Vicksburg,  Pemberton  having  25,000  Confederates,  there 
occurred,  on  May  16,  a  severe  battle  in  which  the  Confederates  were  badly 
beaten.  The  Confederates  held  a  position  along  a  narrow  ridge,  their  left 
resting  on  a  height  overlooking  the  Vicksburg  road.  Hovey's  division  of 
Grant's  army  was  engaged  in  building  a  bridge  at  this  point,  and  that  leader 
began  the  battle.  He  was  quickly  reinforced  by  McClernand  and  McPherson. 
Logan's  brigade  had  meantime  reached  the  Confederate  flank  by  a  detonr, 
so  they  were  compelled  to  retreat  hurriedly  to  escape  being  captured.  As  it 
was,  many  of  their  batteries  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Federals. 

Champlain,  Samuel  de  (1567-1635),  French  navigator.  In  1599  he 
sailed  in  the  "  St  Julien  "  for  the  West  Indies,  and  returned  by  way  of  the 


DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  121 

Isthmus  of  Panama,  across  which  he  conceived  the  plan  of  a  ship-canal.  In 
1603-04  he  in  two  voyages  explored  the  St.  Lawrence  River.  In  1604-06 
he  explored  and  mapped  the  coast  as  far  as  Cape  Cod.  On  his  next  voyage 
he  founded  Quebec  .in  1608.  In  1609  he  joined  the  Montagnais  against  the 
Iroquois.  They  ascended  the  Sorel  River  and  entered  the  lake  to  which  he 
gave  his  own  name. 

Chancellorsville,  Va.,  a  famous  battle  of  the  Civil  War,  occurring  May 
1—4,  1863,  during  Hooker's  command  of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac.  The 
Federals  numbered  130,000  troops;  the  Confederates  under  Lee,  who  lay  on 
the  west  side  of  the  Rappahannock  River,  were  about  62,000  strong.  Lee 
had,  during  the  winter,  constructed  an  impregnable  line  from  Bank's  Ford 
to  Port  Royal.  Hooker  dispatched  Sedgwick  across  the  river  to  menace 
Fredericksburg,  and  Stoneman's  cavalry  to  attack  Lee's  rear,  while  he,  with 
the  main  column,  intended  crossing  lower  down  the  stream  and  assaulting 
the  Confederate  flank.  Before  Lee  was  aware  he  had  moved,  he  was  estab- 
lished at  Chancellorsville  with  46,000  troops.  Lee  at  once  decided  to  begin 
the  attack.  May  i  several  short  attacks  were  made  upon  the  Federals  to 
ascertain  their  position  and  strength.  May  2  Jackson,  with  26,000  Con- 
federates, making  a  long  detour  swepf  down  upon  Hooker's  left  under 
Howard,  and  completely  demolished  it.  The  counter  charge  of  Keenan's 
Pennsylvania  troops  alone  saved  the  left  from  utter-  destruction.  Late  in 
the  afternoon  Stonewall  Jackson  was  fired  upon  by  mistake  by  his  own  men 
and  mortally  wounded.  May  3  the  fight  was  renewed  with  terrible  vigor. 
Lee  and  J.  B.  B.  Stuart  combined  forces  and  attacked  Hooker's  centre. 
Hooker  himself  was  wounded,  and  the  National  line  became  completely 
demoralized.  The  Federals  were  rapidly  forced  back  to  some  strong  intrench- 
ments  that  had  been  constructed  the  previous  night.  Just  then  Lee  heard 
that  Sedgwick  had  captured  Fredericksburg  heights,  and  was  advancing  upon 
his  rear.  His  attention  was  turned  to  defeating  Sedgwick.  Hooker 
retreated,  beaten  and  in  confusion. 

Chandler,  William  E.,  born  in  1835,  of  New  Hampshire,  politician  and 
Senator,  was  several  times  member  of  the  Legislature  of  his  State  and  twice 
Speaker  of  its  House  of  Representatives.  From  the  time  of  his  conrng  of 
age  he  has  been  an  active  Republican  politician  and  secretary  of  its  national 
committee  from  1868  to  1876,  was  Secretary  of  the  Navy  from  1882  to  1885 
and  was  elected  U.  S.  Senator  in  1889 :  his  present  term  will  expire  1901. 

Chandler,  Zachariah  (1813-1879),  of  Michigan,  Senator,  removed  from 
New  Hampshire  to  Detroit  in  1833  and  engaged  in  the  dry-goods  business, 
in  which  he  was  successful.  He  became  a  prominent  Whig  and  a  director 
of  the  "  underground  railroad."  Was  elected  to  the  U.  S.  Senate  to  succeed 
General  Cass  in  1857,  and  remained  in  that  post  till  1874,  when  he  was 
appointed  Secretary  of  the  Interior  by  Grant.  He  was  again  elected  to  the 
Senate  in  1879. 

Channing,  William  Ellery  (1780-1842)-  of  Massachusetts,  preacher  and 
writer.  He  was  graduated  at' Harvard  in  1798,  for  the  next  two  years  was  a 
private  instructor  in  Richmond,  studied  theology  at  Cambridge  and  was 
settled  over  the  Federal  Street  Church  in  Boston  in  1803,  where  he  became 


laa  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

the  leader  of  the  Unitarian  movement  then  stirring  New  England,  and  active 
in  all  the  philanthropic  enterprises  of  his  time. 

Chantilly,  Va.,  a  fierce  fight  during  a  violent  thunderstorm,  September  i, 
1862,  between  Jackson's  division  of  Lee's  army  and  rJbrtions  of  Hooker's, 
Reno's,  McDowell's  and  Kearny's  divisions  of  Pope's  army.  Pope  had  retreated 
from  Manassas  to  Fairfax  Court  House  and  Jackson  was  dispatched  by  Lee 
to  cut  off  his  communications  with  Washington.  Jackson  fell  heavily  upon 
Pope's  flank,  which  resisted  him  stoutly  and  finally  repulsed  his  attack.  Many 
lives  were  lost  on  both  sides,  however,  and  among  the  dead  was  General 
Kearny,  an  old  and  experienced  Union  commander. 

Chapin  Farm,  Va.,  a  brief  engagement,  September  28,  1864,  between 
small  detachme'nts  of  Federals  and  Confederates.  The  former  were  worsted. 
This  occurred  during  the  campaign  in  the  vicinities  of  Richmond  and 
Petersburg. 

Chapultepec,  Mexico,  a  famous  battle  of  the  Mexican  War,  September 
12—14,  1847,  Scott  commanding  the  Americans,  Santa  Anna  the  Mexicans. 
Pillow  and  Quitman  were  ordered  to  attack  the  castle,  supported  by  Worth, 
Twiggs  checking  reinforcements  from  the  city.  An  entrance  into  the  castle 
groves  and  the  castle  itself  was  quickly  effected  and  the  fighting  raged  along 
the  streets  of  the  city.  The  castle  flag  was  shot  away  and  General  Bravo. 
four  other  generals,  100  officers  and  800  men  surrendered.  Worth  had 
meanwhile  established  his  headquarters  within  the  city  gates.  September 
14,  Worth  captured  the  citadel  and  hoisted  over  the  palace  the  Stars  and 
Stripes.  Santa  Anna  sent  to  Scott  demanding  guarantees  of  life  and  property. 
Scott  refused  to  be  bound  by  terms  other  than  those  imposed  by  honor  and 
usage.  Scott  was  obliged  to  sweep  the  streets  with  canister  and  grape 
because  of  attacks  from  the  houses.  Numbers  engaged  :  Americans,  7200; 
Mexicans,  25,000. 

Charles  I.  (1600-1649),  King  of  Great  Britain  from  1625  to  1649,  in  1628 
granted  a  charter  to  the  Governor  and  company  of  Massachusetts  Bay  Colony. 
His  arbitrary  rule  and  his  persecutions  of  religious  sects  through  Archbishop 
Laud  caused  a  great  emigration  to  New  England.  He  was  always  hostile  to 
the  government  set  up  there.  In  1629  he  gave  the  "  Province  of  Carolana  " 
to  Sir  Robert  Heath,  his  attorney-general.  In  1632  he  gave  to  Cecilius  Cal- 
vert,  second  Lord  Baltimore,  a  proprietary  grant  of  Maryland. 

Charles  II.  (1630-1685),  King  of  Great  Britain  from  1660  to  1685,  was 
displeased  with  the  independent  spirit  of  New  England,  and  in  1664  sen^ 
four  royal  commissioners,  Nicolls,  Carr,  Cartwright  and  Maverick,  who  should 
correct  abuses  in  those  colonies.  He  was  especially  displeased  with  the' 
treatment  of  the  Quakers  by  Massachusetts.  He  granted  liberal  charters  to 
Connecticut  and  Rho4e  Island,  1662-63.  In  1664  he  claimed  and  took 
possession  of  New  Netherland.  In  1670  he  chartered  the  Hudson  Bay  Company. 
In  1673  he  reaffirmed  Carteret's  New  Jersey'  charter.  In  1681  he  granted 
Pennsylvania  to  William  Penn,  giving  him  a  proprietary  grant  of  40,000 
square  miles.  In  1684  he  revoked  the  charter  of  Massachusetts. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  123 

Charles,  Cape,  Va.,  so  named  in  April,  1607,  by  Admiral  Newport,  in 
honor  of  the  baby  Charles,  son  of  James  I.,  who  was  afterward  Charles  I. 
of  England. 

Charles  City  Cross  Roads.     (See  Glendale.) 

Charles  River  Bridge  Case,  an  important  Supreme  Court  case.  In  1785 
the  Legislature  of  Massachusetts  incorporated  a  company  to  build  a  bridge 
over  the  Charles  River  from  Charlestown  to  Boston,  granting  tolls.  In  1828 
the  Legislature  granted  the  incorporation  of  another  company  to  build  what 
is  known  as  the  Warren  Bridge,  which  was  eventually  to  be  free.  The  first 
company  brought  suit  in  the  Supreme  Court  of  Massachusetts  for  an  injunc- 
tion to  prevent  the  erection  of  the  Warren  Bridge,  stating  that  the  act  of  the 
Legislature  incorporating  the  second  company  impaired  the  obligations  of  a 
contract  made  with  the  first  company  and  was  therefore  repugnant  to  the 
National  Constitution.  The  Supreme  Court  of  Massachusetts  found  judg- 
ment for  the  defendant,  and  this  decision  was  confirmed  by  the  Supreme 
Court  of  the  United  States  in  1837,  on  the  ground  that  a  State  law  may  be 
retrospective  and  may  divest  vested  rights,  without  impairing  contract.  This 
was  a  limitation  of  the  decision  given  in  the  Dartmouth  College  case. 

Charleston,  S.  C.,  was  founded  1670  (in  its  present  situation  1672),  by 
English  colonists  under  William  Sayle.  The  city  joined  with  the  colonists 
against  Great  Britain  at  an  early  period.  It  was  thrice  attacked  during 
the  Revolution,  first  by  Sir  Peter  Parker  and  Sir  Henry  Clinton  in  1776, 
again  by  General  Prevost  in  1779.  In  May,  1779,  Prevost  summoned 
Charleston  to  surrender,  but  was  forced  to  retire  by  the  sudden  appearance 
of  American  reinforcements.  Again  early  in  1780,  Clinton  advanced  upon 
Charleston  with  16,000  men.  Lincoln  undertook  the  defense  with  only 
7000  men.  The  British  army  encompassed  the  city,  and  the  fleet  ran  past 
the  forts.  Lincoln  was  surrounded  and  forced  to  surrender  his  stores  and 
army.  Thus  a  whole  army  was  lost  to  the  Americans.  After  the  capture 
of  Fort  Washington  this  was  the  greatest  disaster  that  befell  their  cause 
during  the  war.  For  events  at  the  opening  of  the  Civil  War,  see  Secession 
and  Sumter,  Fort,  also  Charleston  Harbor.  The  city  was  occupied  February 
1 8,  1865,  by  Sherman's  Federal  troops,  about  75,000  strong,  Hardee  having 
evacuated  it  with  his  35,000  Confederates.  This  occupation  of  Charleston 
took  place  without  bloodshed,  but  Hardee,  before  leaving  the  city,  set  fire  to 
nearly  all  the  warehouses  and  cotton  wharves,  for  he  was  determined  not  to 
leave  anything  for  the  Federals.  An  accidental  explosion  of  powder  destroyed 
about  200  persons.  The  National  flag  was  once  more  raised  on  Fort  Sumter 
by  the  officer  commanding  the  Federal  garrison  at  Fort  Morris.  The  Federals 
captured  450  guns,  which  Hardee  had  left.  Charleston  was  visited  by  an 
earthquake  August  31,  1886,  which  destroyed  a  large  part  of  the  city  and 
many  lives. 

Charleston,  W.  Va.,  became  the  capital  of  that  State  in  1872. 

Charleston,  College  of  (S.  C.).  In  October,  1775,  the  General  Assembly 
passed  an  act  for  the  establishment  of  a  college  at  Charleston.  Owing, 
however,  to  the  Revolution  its  first  class  was  not  graduated  till  1794.  In 


134  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

1886  the  college  was  almost  destroyed  by  aii  earthquake,  but  was  very  soon 
rebuilt     Its  law  school  was  opened  in  1864. 

Charleston  Harbor,  a  battle  of  the  Civil  War  occurring  April  7,  1863,  *n 
which  monitors  were  first  tried,  and  without  success,  against  land  fortifi- 
cations. The  Federal  Admiral  Dupont  proposed  to  capture  Charleston  from 
the  Confederates  by  destroying  Fort  Sumter  with  iron-clads  and  rams.  He 
entered  the  harbor  with  seven  Ericsson  monitors,  the  frigate  "  Ironsides " 
and  the  u  Keokuk,"  both  partially  iron-clad.  The  monitor  "  Weehawken  " 
led  the  way.  An  advance  was  immediately  made  upon  Fort  Sumter,  Forts 
Morris  and  Moultrie  being  disregarded.  The  Confederates  opened  fire  upon 
the  fleet  from  all  three  forts,  including  300  guns.  The  fleet  was  quickly 
disabled  and  thrown  into  the  utmost  confusion.  The  "  Ironsides  "  became 
entangled  with  the  monitors^  the  "  Keokuk  "  was  struck  ninety-nine  times, 
the  "  Passaic  "  twenty-seven  times.  Dupont  was  compelled  to  leave  the 
harbor  after  a  few  hours'  firing,  acknowledging  the  impossibility  of  taking 
the  city  with  his  fleet. 

Charlestown,  Mass.,  was  founded  in  1629.  During  the  battle  of  Bunker 
Hill,  Charlestown  was  completely  destroyed  by  shells  and  fire  (June  17, 
1775).  Charlestown  was  incorporated  with  Boston  in  1874, 

Charlestown,  W.  Va.  John  Brown  was  tried  and  executed  here  on 
December  2,  1859. 

Charnay,  Desire,  born  in  France  in  1828,  explorer.  In  1880  was  sent 
by  the  French  Government  to  explore  Central  America,  in  which  he  was 
aided  by  Pierre  Lorillard,  of  New  York. 

Charter  Oak,  a  tree  near  Hartford,  Conn.,  in  the  hollow  of  which  Captain 
Wads  worth  hid  the  charter  of  the  colony  to  prevent  its  being  taken  by  Sir 
Edmund  Andros  in  1687.  The  tree  was  prostrated  by  a  gale  August  20, 
1856.  The  story  has  been  doubted. 

Charters.  The  kings  of  England  made  grants  by  letters  patent  to  indi- 
viduals, giving  them  land  and  jurisdiction  in  America.  The  name  charter 
is  commonly  restricted  to  the  grants  made  to  companies  or  large  bodies  of 
men.  Of  these  the  chief  were  those  of  the  Virginia  Company  in  1606,  1609 
and  1612,  of  the  Council  for  New  England  (1620),  of  the  Massachusetts  Bay 
Company  (1629),  of  Providence  Plantations  (1644),  of  Connecticut  (1662), 
of  Rhode  Island  and  Providence  Plantations  (1663),  of  Massachusetts  (1691), 
and  of  Georgia  (1732).  Of  a  similar  sort  were  the  charters  which  were 
given  to  the  Dutch  West  India  Company  by  the  States  General  of  the  United 
Netherlands  in  1621,  and  to  the  Swedish  Company  by  Gustavus  Adolphus 
in  1624.  The  attempt  has  been  made  to  derive  the  constitutions  or  forms 
of  government  of  our  colonies  from  the  forms  of  internal  government  pre- 
scribed, in  these  charters,  for  the  colonizing  companies.  But  it  is  much 
more  probable  that  the  colonial  institutions  are  modeled  on  the  govern- 
mental institutions  of  England  itself.  The  theory  that  a  charter  constituted 
a  contract  between  the  granting  government  and  the  grantee  was  apparently 
first  advanced  by  Jeremiah  Dummer,  in  his  "  Defence  of  the  Charters."  See 
Dartmouth  College  case. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  125 

Chase,  Samuel  (1741-1811),  of  Maryland,  signer  of  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence, was  an  ardent  patriot,  was  a  delegate  to  the  Continental  Congress 
1774-78,  became  Chief  Justice  of  the  General  Court  of  Maryland  in  1791,  and 
was  appointed  a  Justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States  in  1796. 
In  1804  he  was  impeached  by  the  House  of  Representatives,  on  the  ground 
of  Federalist  partisanship,  but  the  Senate  failed  to  sustain  the  charges. 

Chase,  Salmon  Portland  (1808-1873),  Chief  Justice  of  the  Supreme  Court, 
was  born  at  Cornish,  N.  H.  He  graduated  at  Dartmouth  College  in  1826, 
and  became  a  school  teacher  and  finally  a  lawyer  in  Cincinnati.  From  an 
early  period  he  was  profoundly  interested  in  the  anti-slavery  movement,  and 
was  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  Liberty  party  and  of  the  later  Free-Soil  party. 
In  1849  he  entered  the  U.  S.  Senate  from  Ohio,  having  been  elected  by  a 
coalition  of  Democrats  and  Free-Soilers.  He  distinguished  himself  as  an 
opponent  of  the  Kansas-Nebraska  Bill  and  in  1856-60  was  Republican 
Governor  of  Ohio.  When  the  Republican  convention  of  1860  met,  Mr. 
Chase  was  a  leading  candidate,  and  was  naturally  a  member  of  President 
Lincoln's  Cabinet.  His  services  in  1861-64  in  supervising  the  finances  of 
the  nation  during  a  critical  and  difficult  period  have  been  rated  at  a  very 
high  value.  Shortly  after  leaving  the  Treasury  Department  he  was  appointed 
in  1864  Chief  Justice  of  the  Supreme  Court,  and  held  that  office  till  his 
death.  His  name  had  been  mentioned  for  the  Presidency  in  1864,  and  in 
1868  it  was  before  the  Democratic  National  Convention;  but  his  position 
respecting  negro  suffrage  led  to  the  rejection  of  his  candidacy.  Life  by 
Schucker. 

Chastellux,  Francois  Jean,  Marquis  de  (1734-1788),  French  author,  was 
major-general  in  America  under  Rochambeau.  In  his  "  Voyage  dans  1'Ame'- 
rique  septentrionale, "  etc.,  he  notes  his  observations  of  men  and  events  in 
America  in  a  lively  manner. 

Chateaubriand,  Francois  Auguste,  Vicomte  de  (1768—1848),  French 
statesman.  In  1791  he  came  to  the  United  States  and  traveled  extensively 
among  the  Indians.  He  returned  to  France,  where  he  attained  high  political 
honors  and  wide  fame  in  literature. 

Chateaugay  (N.  Y.),  action  of  October  25,  1813.  On  the  banks  of  this 
stream  guarding  a  ford  was  Lieutenant-Colonel  Salaberry  with  1000  British. 
General  Hampton  with  4000  men  attacked  in  two  divisions.  A  series  of 
blunders,  disgraceful  to  the  American  arms,  resulted  in  the  inglorious  retreat 
of  the  Americans.  Their  loss  was  thirty-eight  men,  the  British  twenty-five. 

Chatham,  Earl  of  (William  Pitt),  (November  15,  I7o8-May  n,  1788), 
the  great  English  statesman,  was  a  cornet  of  horse  in  the  army  before  he 
entered  the  House  of  Commons  in  1735.  He  had  been  paymaster  of  the 
forces,  but  his  great  period  is  from  1756  to  1761,  when  he  was  Secretary  of 
State  and  practically  Prime  Minister  in  the  administrations  of  the  Duke  of 
Devonshire  and  the  Duke  of  Newcastle.  During  this  epoch  he  was  the  life 
and  soul  of  the  great  struggle  against  France.  ?Ie  supported  Frederick  the 
Great  on  the  Continent,  and  retrieved  the  British  reverses  in  America.  He 
was  the  idol  of  the  nation,  the  "  Great  Commoner,"  and  on  the  English  side 


126  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

the  central  figure  of  the  Seven  Years'  War.  He  resigned  in  1761,  sided  with 
the  Americans  in  the  Revolutionary  struggle,  and  held  office  as  Privy  Seal 
in  the  Grafton  ministry  1766—68,  having  been  created  Earl  of  Chatham. 
He  continued  to  champion  the  cause  of  the  Americans,  and  of  his  speeches 
in  their  behalf  that  of  1777  is  especially  celebrated. 

Chatham,  Canada,  War  of  1812.  General  Procter  and  Tecumtha,  when 
pursued  by  General  Harrison,  here  made  a  stand  October  4,  1813,  but  were 
again  driven  in  flight  with  the  loss  of  several  men  and  military  supplies. 

Chattanooga,  Tenn.,  a  famous  battle  of  the  Civil  War  in  which  Bragg 
with  an  army  of  33,000  available,  was  utterly  routed  by  Grant,  who  could  use 
about  60,000.  Bragg,  after  defeating  Rosecrans  at  Chickamauga,  advanced 
upon  Chattanooga  and  Grant  hastened  to  meet  him.  Bragg' s  army  extended 
about  twelve  miles,  lying  along  Lookout  Mountain  and  Missionary  Ridge 
with  its  centre  stretching  across  Chattanooga  valley.  The  battle  took  place 
November  23-25,  1863.  Grant  placed  Sherman  on  his  left  facing  Mission- 
ary Ridge,  Thomas  in  the  centre  across  the  valley  and  Hooker  on  his  right 
opposite  Lookout  Mountain.  Laying  two  bridges  across  the  Tennessee  River 
on  the  night  of  the  23d,  Sherman  crossed  and  attempted  to  attack  Missionary 
Ridge.  Hooker,  on  the  24th,  made  a  detour  of  Lookout  Mountain,  climbed 
its  heights  and  dispersed  the  Confederates  stationed  there.  This  was  called 
the  "battle  of  the  clouds."  On  the  25th,  Grant,  perceiving  that  Bragg  was 
massing  his  forces  against  Sherman,  ordered  Thomas  to  advance  against  the 
Confederate  centre.  Thomas  broke  the  centre  and  followed  Sherman  to 
Missionary  Ridge.  The  Confederates  were  routed,  their  guns  being  captured 
and  turned  against  them.  The  defeat  of  the  entire  Confederate  army  fol- 
lowed and  Bragg  joined  the  flight. 

Chauncy,  Charles  (1592-1672),  educator.  He  fled  to  New  England  in 
1638;  was  settled  as  minister  at  Scituate,  Massachusetts,  in  1641;  was  presi- 
dent of  Harvard  College  from  1654  till  his  death. 

Chauncy,  Isaac  (1772-1840),  naval  officer,  distinguished  himself  in 
naval  actions  off  Tripoli.  In  1812-1814  he  commanded  the  fleet  on  Lake 
Ontario,  displaying  great  skill  and  energy,  and  gained  important  advantages 
over  the  British. 

Chautauqua,  an  educational  institution  with  headquarters  at  Lake  Chau- 
tauqua,  New  York,  organized  in  1874  by  Lewis  Miller,  of  Akron,  O.,  and 
the  Rev.  John  H.  Vincent.  The  first  assembly  was  called  for  the  discussion 
of  religious  and  secular  topics,  and  opened  on  the  first  Tuesday  in  August, 
1874.  Since  then  the  assembly  has  been  held  regularly  every  year,  and  a 
vast  system  of  education  by  reading  at  home  has  been  organized. 

Cheat  Mountain  Pass,  W.  Va.,  a  strong  position  occupied  by  General 
Reynolds  of  McClellan's  army  with  a  small  force.  Skirmishing  occurred 
September  12,  13  and  14,  Lee  endeavoring  to  drive  Reynolds  from  the  pass. 
Reynolds'  troops  numbered  less  than  half  of  Lee's,  but  so  impregnable  was 
his  position  that  Lee  found  it  impossible  to  dislodge  him.  October  3,  1861, 
Lee  having  departed  for  the  South,  the  pass  was  occupied  by  General  H.  R. 


DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  127 

Jackson,  of  Georgia,  whom  Reynolds  in  his  turn  in  vain  endeavored  to 
dislodge. 

Chemung,  Battle  of,  August  29,  1779,  an  engagement  between  Sullivan's 
troops  and  the  Indian  and  Tory  force  of  Western  New  York,  during  Sullivan's 
march  on  Fort  Niagara.  The  savages  commanded  by  Brant  and  Johnson 
fought  bravely,  but  were  at  length  routed  by  bringing  artillery  into  action. 

Cherokee  Indians  down  to  1830  occupied  the  upper  valley  of  the  Ten- 
nessee River.  They  supported  the  English  against  the  French.  In  1755 
they  ceded  lands  to  Governor  Glen  and  permitted  the  construction  of  English 
forts  within  their  territory.  In  1757  difficulties  arose  which  led  to  hostilities 
with  the  English,  finally  terminated  by  the  Cherokees'  defeat  in  1761.  In 
1773  they  ceded  to  Georgia  a  large  tract  of  land.  At  the  commencement  of 
the  Revolution  they  joined  the  English,  and  in  1780  served  at  Augusta,  They 
were  finally  reduced  by  General  Pickens  and  acknowledged  the  sovereignty 
of  the  United  States  (November  28,  1785).  They  ceded  other  portions  of 
their  territory,  and  in  1790  a  part  of  the  tribe  migrated  to  Louisiana.  The 
Cherokees  rendered  important  services  in  Jackson's  army  in  1812,  but  the 
Georgians  desired  to  get  rid  of  them.  In  1817  they  ceded  lands  to  the 
United  States,  who  in  turn  provided  lands  on  the  Arkansas  and  White. 
Here  3000  emigrated  in  1818,  and  finally  in  1835  the  remainder  found 
homes  in  Indian  Territory,  west  of  the  lands  given  the  first  immigrants. 
During  the  Civil  War  they  first  joined  the  Confederates,  taking  part  in  the 
battle  at  Pea  Ridge,  but  afterward  were  separated  into  two  parties.  (See 
next  art.) 

Cherokee  Nation  vs.  Georgia,  an  important  case  before  the  U.  S.  Supreme 
Court,  decided  in  1831.  By  the  Hopewell  treaty  of  1785  the  United  States 
recognized  the  Cherokees  as  a  nation  capable  of  making  peace  and  war,  of 
governing  its  citizens  and  of  owning  and  governing  its  lands.  About  1826 
the  Georgia  Legislature  through  Governor  Troup  declared  these  treaties  not 
binding  upon  the  State,  on  the  ground  that  Georgia  and  the  Federal  Govern- 
ment were  equal  and  independent  powers,  and  that  disputes  between  them 
could  not  be  decided  by  the  Supreme  Court,  but  by  negotiation.  In  1830 
an  act  was  passed  by  the  Georgia  Legislature  authorizing  a  survey  and  appor- 
tionment of  the  Cherokee  lands  within  the  State,  their  gold  mines  were  seized 
and  they  were  considered  under  the  State's  dominion,  thus  ousting  the  Chero- 
kees from  the  lands  solemnly  guaranteed  by  the  United  States.  The  Cherokees 
applied  to  President  Jackson  without  success.  Then  they  tried  the  Supreme 
Court  This  court  decided  them  not  a  foreign  State,  capable  of  maintaining 
an  action  in  the  court,  but  a  domestic,  dependent  nation.  The  injunction 
was  refused  and  the  Cherokees  relegated  to  the  mercy  of  Georgia.  Later,  in 
the  case  of  Worcester  vs.  Georgia,  State  authority  in  such  matters  was  denied 
by  the  Supreme  Court,  Federal  treaties  being  declared  to  have  precedence. 
(See  Worcester  vs.  Georgia.) 

Cherry  Valley,  Massacre  of.  On  December  10, 1778,  the  village  of  Cherry 
Valley  in  Central  New  York  was  destroyed  by  700  Tories  and  Indians. 
About  fifty  inhabitants  were  murdered  without  regard  to  age  or  sex.  Many 


128  DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

persons  of  refinement  were  among  the  victims.  Such  atrocities  as  this  and 
that  of  the  Wyoming  thoroughly  incensed  the  colonists  against  Tory  methods 
of  warfare. 

"  Cherub,"  sloop.    (See  "  Essex.") 

Chesapeake  and  Delaware  Canal.  This  canal  was  begun  in  1825,  and 
Congress,  by  Act  of  March  3,  1825,  appropriated  $300,000  to  be  subscribed 
to  its  stock.  This  was  among  the  first  acts  relating  to  internal  improvement. 

"  Chesapeake"  and  "  Leopard"  affair.  In  1807  three  negro  sailors  deserted 
from  the  British  man-of-war  "  Melampus  "  and  enlisted  on  the  United  States 
ship  "  Chesapeake."  The  British  squadron  was  then  just  within  the  Virginia 
capes.  The  British  admiral  demanded  a  surrender  of  the  sailors.  This 
was  refused  by  our  Government.  Accordingly,  June  22,  as  the  u  Chesapeake," 
in  a  half-prepared  condition,  was  sailing  out  from  Hampton  Roads,  a 
lieutenant  from  the  British  ship  "  Leopard  "  boarded  her  and  again  demanded 
the  deserters.  Upon  being  refused,  Captain  Humphrey  immediately  opened 
fire  upon  the  "  Chesapeake,"  which  Commodore  Barren,  who  was  wholly 
unprepared,  was  compelled  to  surrender  without  firing  a  gun.  President 
Jefferson  at  once  issued  a  proclamation  demanding  a  disavowal  of  the  act, 
the  restoration  of  the  captured  sailors  and  the  recall  of  Admiral  Berkeley. 
Though  some  tardy  reparation  was  made,  the  affair  greatly  exasperated 
American  opinion  against  the  British,  and  contributed  to  bring  on  the  War 
of  1812. 

"  Chesapeake  "  and  "  Shannon."  The  "  Chesapeake,"  thirty-eight  guns, 
Captain  Lawrence,  was  challenged  by  the  "  Shannon,"  a  British  thirty-eight 
gun  vessel,  but  then  carrying  fifty-two  guns.  June  i,  1813,  was  the  day  set 
for  the  duel,  which  took  place  near  Boston.  After  twelve  minutes  the 
"  Chesapeake  "  became  unmanageable  through  its  injuries.  Its  decks  were 
now  swept  by  the  guns  of  the  "  Shannon."  Lawrence  was  mortally  wounded 
and  was  carried  below  with  the  exhortation,  "  Don't  give  up  the  ship." 
The  boarders  from  the  "Shannon"  now  swarmed  over  the  sides  and  after  a 
severe  struggle  were  victorious.  The  American  loss  was  146  men,  the  Brit- 
ish eighty-four.  The  "Shannon"  sailed  at  once  to  Halifax  with  its  prize, 
which  was  afterward  sold  to  the  Government  and  used  as  a  war  vessel.  In 
1820  it  was  sold  as  old  timber  and  used  as  building  material. 

Chester,  Pa.,  oldest  town  in  the  State,  was  settled  by  Swedes  in  1643, 
and  originally  called  Upland.  The  provisional  assembly  of  William  Penn's 
government  was  held  here  in  1682. 

Chestertown,  Md.,  was  laid  out  in  1706,  and  was  in  colonial  times  a  noted 
seat  of  social  life. 

Chestnut  Hill,  Pa.,  scene  of  a  sharp  skirmish,  December  4,  1777,  between 
the  British  troops  under  Howe,  and  the  Pennsylvania  militia  led  by  General 
James  Irvine.  The  militia  fled  and  Irvine  was  left  wounded  in  the  hands 
of  the  enemy. 

Cheves,  Langdon  (1776-1857),  of  South  Carolina,  statesman,  was  elected 
to  Congress  in  1810;  was  chairman  of  the  Naval  Committee  in  1812  and  of 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  129 

that  of  Ways  and  Means  in  1813.  In  1814  he  succeeded  Henry  Clay  as 
Speaker,  serving  during  Clay's  absence  in  Europe,  one  year.  He  was  presi- 
dent of  the  United  States  bank  1819-1822.  In  1832  he  condemned  nullifi- 
cation as  not  sufficiently  thorough-going. 

Cheyenne,  capital  of  Wyoming,  was  settled  in  1867,  when  the  Union 
Pacific  road  first  reached  that  point. 

Cheyennes,  an  Indian  tribe  of  the  Algonquin  family,  settled  near  the 
Black  Hills  before  the  beginning  of  the  present  century.  In  1825  tne  ^rst 
treaty  of  friendship  was  made  with  them  by  General  Atkinson.  The  tribe 
separated  later,  and  one  part  moved  South.  A  number  of  treaties  between 
both  divisions  of  the  tribe  and  the  United  States  were  executed.  The 
failure  to  fulfill  the  one  of  1861  led  to  war.  Negotiations  for  peace  were 
being  made,  when,  on  November  29,  1864,  Colonel  Chevington  attacked  the 
Sandy  Creek  village,  and  massacred  100  Cheyennes.  A  disastrous  war 
followed.  In  1865  the  southern  division  agreed  to  go  on  a  reservation, 
except  the  Dog  Soldiers  whose  village  was  burned  by  General  Hancock  in 
1867.  This  led  to  another  disastrous  war,  in  which  General  Custer  defeated 
them  at  Washita.  The  northern  band  continued  peaceable. 

Chicago,  111.,  was  organized  as  a  town  in  1833,  and  became  a  city  in  1837. 
In  the  latter  part  of  the  seventeenth  century,  the  French  built  a  fort  on  the 
site  of  the  present  city,  and  later  the  United  States  Government  erected  a 
fort  (Fort  Dearborn)  which  was  not  abandoned  until  1837.  On  October  8, 
187 1,  Chicago  was  visited  by  the  most  disastrous  fire  of  modern  times.  Chicago 
University  was  opened  here  in  1892,  and  here  in  1893  the  Columbian 
Exposition  was  held.  The  population  of  Chicago  was  in  1840,  4479;  1850, 
29,963;  1860,  109,206;  1870,  306,605;  1880,  503,185;  1890,  1,099,880. 

Chicago,  Historical  Society  of,  began  in  1851  and  is  still  in  flourishing 
condition,  though  17,000  volumes  of  its  books  and  its  collections  were  destroyed 
in  the  Chicago  fire  in  1871. 

Chicago,  University  of,  was  first  founded  1857,  but  closed  1886  through 
financial  troubles.  In  1890  it  was  entirely  reorganized,  largely  through  the 
gifts  of  John  D.  Rockefeller,  and  now  has  an  endowment  of  over  seven 
millions.  Its  work  is  largely  graduate. 

Chickamauga,  Ga.,  a  bloody  battle  of  the  Civil  War  between  Rosecrans 
and  Bragg,  commanding  57,000  Federals  and  71,000  Confederates  respec- 
tively. It  occurred  September  19— 20,  1863.  The  Federals  were  badly  defeated. 
They  lost  17,000  men  and  the  Confederates  18,000.  Rosecrans  was  march- 
ing on  Chattanooga,  Bragg  slowly  retreating  and  expecting  reinforcements 
before  he  should  decide  to  give  battle.  These  reinforcements  came  suddenly 
and  unknown  to  Rosecrans.  Bragg  suddenly  halted  at  Chickamauga,  and 
deployed  his  troops  for  battle.  Rosecrans  placed  his  troops  with  Thomas 
on  the  left,  Crittenden  in  the  centre  and  McCook  on  the  right,  along  the 
Chickamauga  Creek.  September  19  the  Confederates  crossed  the  creek,  and 
Polk  struck  Thomas'  line.  That  general  speedily  returned  the  assault, 
thereby  confusing  Bragg's  plan.  September  20  Thomas  was  again  attacked. 
He  had  frequently  to  call  for  reinforcements,  though  he  held  his  position 


1 30  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

stoutly.  Finally  General  Wood,  misinterpreting  an  order,  made  a  false 
move,  which  precipitated  the  Confederate  attack  upon  a  weak  point  in  the 
Federal  line,  and  the  day  was  lost.  Rosecrans  fled  to  Chattanooga,  but 
Thomas  kept  fighting  until  Garfield  was  sent  to  summon  him.  Here  he 
acquired  his  sobriquet  of  "  The  Rock  of  Chickamauga." 

Chickasaw  Case.  In  1836  a  writ  of  habeas  corpus  was  served  against 
Captain  Eldridge  of  the  brig  "  Chickasaw,"  for  holding  two  colored  women 
with  the  intent  of  carrying  them  South.  The  women  were  ordered  dis- 
charged on  their  presenting  free  papers.  This  action  against  Eldridge  resulted 
from  the  efforts  of  Northern  people  in  organizing  vigilance  committees  against 
kidnapping. 

Chickasaw  Indians,  first  known  to  the  whites  as  residing  east  of  the 
Mississippi.  They  early  joined  the  English  against  the  French  and  in  1739 
entered  into  friendly  relations  with  General  Oglethorpe.  In  1 765  their  head 
men  with  those  of  the  Choctaws  met  Governor  George  Johnson  in  a  congress 
at  Mobile  and  established  friendly  trade  relations.  By  the  treaty  of  1786 
their  territory  was  fixed  with  a  boundary  at  the  Ohio  on  the  north  and 
extended  down  into  what  is  now  Mississippi.  They  continued  friendly 
with  the  whites  during  Indian  hostilities  and  aided  them  against  the  Creeks 
in  1793.  By  treaties  in  1805,  1816  and  1818  they  ceded  all  their  lands  east 
of  the  Mississippi,  some  of  the  tribe  having  previously,  about  the  year  1800, 
migrated  to  the  Arkansas.  In  1832  and  1834  the  Chickasaws  ceded  the 
remainder  of  their  lands  and  migrated  to  the  territory  of  the  Choctaws,  with 
whom  they  lived  under  one  government  until  1855,  when  they  were  granted 
a  political  separation.  Early  in  the  Civil  War  they  took  sides  with  the  South. 

Chihuahua,  Mexico,  occupied  by  an  American  army  under  Doniphan, 
February  28,  1847.  Doniphan  had  been  sent  by  General  Kearny  to  relieve 
General  Wool,  who  had  been  dispatched  on  an  expedition  against  Chihuahua 
in  October,  1846.  Wool  had,  however,  failed  of  his  destination.  Doniphan 
took  possession  of  Chihuahua  without  difficulty,  experiencing  no  opposition. 
He  retained  possession  of  the  city  and  then  abandoned  it,  finding  that  Wool 
did  not  seem  likely  to  join  him.  His  troops  were  led  to  New  Orleans  and 
there  disbanded. 

Child,  Lydia  Maria  (1802-1880),  of  Massachusetts,  author.  Her  volumi- 
nous writings  were  mainly  in  the  interest  of  the  anti-slavery  cause,  and  were 
widely  circulated  and  very  influential. 

Childs,  George  William  (1829-1894),  of  Philadelphia,  publisher.  In 
1864  he  became  proprietor  of  the  Public  Ledger,  the  wealth  derived  from 
which  he  liberally  used  for  public  purposes. 

Chili.  The  independence  of  Chili  was  recognized  by  the  United  States  in 
March,  1822.  A  general  commercial  convention  between  the  United  States 
and  Chili  was  concluded  in  1833  and  augmented  in  1833.  By  the  conven- 
tion of  1858  the  "  Macedonian "  claims  of  United  States  citizens  against 
Chili  were  left  to  the  arbitration  of  the  King  of  Belgium,  who  decided  in 
favor  of  the  United  States.  The  attack  on  the  sailors  of  the  U.  S.  Steam- 
ship "Baltimore,"  October  16,  1891,  by  a  Chilian  mob,  has  necessitated  the 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY,  131 

payment  of  an  indemnity  of  $75,000  from  Chili.  The  Chilian  Congress  of 
1891,  victorious  in  its  revolution  against  Balmaceda,  established  a  provisional 
government  June  4,  which  was  promptly  recognized  by  the  United  States. 

Chillicothe,  O.,  was  founded  by  emigrants  from  Virginia  in  1796.  It  was 
the  State  capital  from  1800  to  1810. 

China.  By  the  treaty  with  China  of  1844,  all  citizens  of  the  United 
States  enjoy  complete  rights  of  extra-territoriality.  These  rights,  together 
with  commercial  regulations,  were  still  more  firmly  secured  by  the  treaty  of 
1858.  In  November  of  the  same  year  a  convention  for  the  regulation  of  the 
tariff  was  concluded,  and  a  convention  for  the  settlement  of  claims  against 
China.  A  treaty  embodying  additional  regulations  to  that  of  1858  was 
concluded  July  28,  1868.  These  regulations  granted  chiefly  the  right  to 
exchange  consuls,  the  right  of  religious  liberty,  the  right  of  voluntary 
emigration.  The  two  treaties  of  November  17,  1880,  regulated  Chinese 
immigration  into  the  United  States,  prohibited  the  importation  of  opium, 
and  further  regulated  j udicial  procedure.  (See  art.  Chinese  Immigration.) 

Chinese  Immigration.  The  relations  of  the  United  States  with  China, 
date  back  to  1844,  when  Caleb  Gushing  negotiated  the  first  treaty,  by  which, 
five  Chinese  ports  were  opened  for  trade  purposes,  and  the  protection  of 
American  life  and  property  in  China  and  extra-territorial  consular  jurisdic- 
tion granted  the  United  States.  The  Reed  treaty  of  1858  gained  still  greater- 
advantages.  Under  the  Burlingame  treaty  of  1868  the  right  of  migration 
was  acknowledged  inalienable,  and  the  express  promise  was  made  that  "  the 
subjects  of  China  shall  enjoy  the  same  privileges,  immunities  and  exemptions 
in  respect  to  travel  and  residence  as  may  be  enjoyed  by  the  citizens  and 
subjects  of  the  most  favored  nation."  The  census  of  1880  showed  105,000 
resident  Chinese.  They  had  become  obnoxious  to  the  Californians.  They 
were  persecuted,  and  every  effort  made  to  have  the  treaty  of  1868  abrogated. 
It  was  said  that  they  could  not  be  assimilated  and  that  their  habits  were 
vicious.  In  1876  the  report  of  the  Chinese  Committee  was  violently  denun- 
ciatory of  the  Chinese.  In  1879  a  bill  for  the  restriction  of  Chinese 
immigration  passed  both  Houses,  but  was  vetoed  by  President  Hayes.  In 
1880  a  commission  sent  to  China  negotiated  an  agreement  under  which 
immigration  could  be  partially  prohibited.  Chinamen  leaving  this  country 
could  not  return  unless  possessed  of  a  certificate  issued  by  the  United  States 
Government,  proving  their  former  residence.  In  1885,  twenty-eight  China- 
men were  murdered  by  miners  in  Wyoming  for  refusing  to  join  a  strike  and 
$147,000  of  property  was  destroyed.  In  1888  a  bill  was  passed  and  signed 
by  the  President,  excluding  Chinese  immigration  and  rendering  certificates 
of  returning  Chinamen  valueless.  This  was  because  of  China's  tardiness 
in  ratifying  a  new  treaty.  In  1892  Congress  passed  the  "Geary  Act,"  in 
accordance  with  which  any  Chinaman  adjudged  to  be  not  lawfully  entitled 
to  remain  in  the  United  States  should  be  removed  to  China;  all  Chinese 
laborers  should  be  obliged  to  procure  certificates  of  residence  from  the  col- 
lectors of  internal  revenue,  and  any  who  did  not  do  so  within  a  year  should 
be  sent  back  to  China.  Means  of  executing  the  act  failing,  it  was  partially 
rescinded  in  1893. 


13^  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Chippewa  (Canada,  opposite  Niagara),  scene  of  a  battle  in  the  War  of 
1812.  After  the  capture  of  Fort  Erie,  General  Brown  advanced  to  attack 
the  British  at  Chippewa,  July  5, 1814;  the  armies  were  only  two  miles  apart. 
The  British  advance  corps  fled  back  upon  the  advancing  main  body.  The 
British  charge  was  successful  at  first,  but  repeated  rallies,  reinforcements  and 
finally  a  flank  movement  changed  the  day.  The  fugitives  destroyed  the 
bridge  over  the  Chippewa,  and  stopped  the  pursuit.  The  American  loss  was 
355  in  all,  the  British  604,  of  whom  236  were  killed. 

Chippewas.      (See  Ojibways.) 

Chisholm  vs.  Georgia,  an  important  case  in  the  U.  S.  Supreme  Court.  In 
1792  Alexander  Chisholm,  of  South  Carolina,  brought  suit  against  the  State 
of  Georgia  for  the  payment  of  a  private  claim.  Counsel  for  the  plaintiff 
argued  that  this  court  was  vested  by  the  Constitution  with  jurisdiction  in 
cases  of  this  sort,  and  that  the  plaintiff  could  legally  recover.  The  court 
found  judgment  for  the  plaintiff  upon  this  ground,  and  a  writ  of  inquiry  was 
issued,  but  never  executed,  since  the  Legislature  of  Georgia  passed  an  act 
making  the  execution  of  such  a  writ  punishable  by  death.  The  Eleventh 
Amendment  was  at  once  resolved  upon.  In  1798  the  Supreme  Court  declared 
the  Eleventh  Amendment  to  have  been  constitutionally  adopted,  and 
renounced  its  jurisdiction  in  such  cases. 

Choate,  Joseph  H.,  of  New  York,  a  celebrated  lawyer.  He  was  born  1832 
in  Salem,  Mass.  President  McKinley  appointed  him  Ambassador  to  England 
December,  1898. 

Choate,  Rufus  (1799-1859),  of  Massachusetts,  lawyer.  He  was  graduated 
as  valedictorian,  at  EJartmouth,  in  1819,  when  he  was  already  remarkable  for 
scholarship.  In  1821  he  studied  law  with  William  Wirt  in  Baltimore,  and 
was  admitted  to  the  Massachusetts  Bar  in  1823,  at  which  he  soon  took  the 
foremost  place  as  an  advocate.  He  was  a  member  of  Congress  1831-35, 
and  of  the  U.  S.  Senate  1841-45,  in  which  he  made  many  brilliant  speeches, 
notably  one  against  the.  annexation  of  Texas. 

Choctaw  Indians,  originally  occupying  lands  along  the  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
early  took  sides  with  the  French;  but  later  a  part  became  friendly  to  the 
English.  They  acknowledged  the  sovereignty  of  the  United  States  in  1786. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  present  century  a  migratory  movement  to  the  West 
was  begun.  They  served  in  the  war  with  England  and  in  the  Creek  War. 
In  1820  they  ceded  a  part  of  their  territory  to  the  Government  for  lands  west 
of  Arkansas.  Georgia  assumed  control  over  their  lands  in  the  East,  giving 
the  Indians  the  rights  of  citizenship.  In  1830  they  ceded  the  remainder  of 
their  lands  and  moved  West  with  the  Chickasaws.  By  joining  the  Con- 
federate cause  they  lost  their  civil  rights.  New  treaties  were  made  in  1866. 

Christian  Endeavor,  Young  People's  Society  of,  was  first  established  by 
Rev.  F.  E.  Clark  at  Portland,  Me.,  February  2,  1881.  There  are  now  more 
than  22,000  societies  in  ail  parts  of  the  world,  with  1,500,000  members. 

Christiana  Case  (1851)  grew  out  of  an  attempt  of  Edward  Gorsuch  and 
a  Maryland  party  to  seize  a  fugitive  slave  in  Christiana,  Pa.  A  riot  followed 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  133 

and  Gorsuch  was  killed.  Castner  Hanway,  a  Quaker  in  feeble  health,  was 
ordered  by  Marshal  Kline  to  assist  in  quelling  the  disturbance.  The  Quaker 
refused,  though  he  tried  to  prevent  bloodshed.  He  was  subsequently  charged 
with  treason,  and  later  with  riot  and  bloodshed,  together  with  Elijah  Lewis, 
another  Quaker.  No  indictments  were  found,  but  the  case  became  notorious. 

Chrystler's  Field  (St.  Lawrence  River),  War  of  1812.  General  Wilkinson 
with  the  main  body  of  the  American  army  here  fought  a  slightly  superior  force 
of  British.  The  battle  lasted  five  hours,  victory  alternately  favoring  one  and 
then  the  other.  Night  ended  the  conflict,  with  the  British  in  possession  of 
the  field.  The  American  loss  was  especially  severe;  many  of  the  bravest 
officers  were  killed  or  wounded.  The  total  American  loss  was  339  ;  the 
British,  187  killed,  wounded  and  missing. 

Church,  Benjamin  (1639-1718),  of  Massachusetts,  soldier,  was  active  in 
King  Philip's  War,  was  in  the  Great  Swamp  Fight  in  the  Narragansett  country 
and  finally  compassed  Philip's  death  on  August  12,  1676. 

Church,  Frederic  E.,  born  in  1826,  of  New  York,  painter,  has  traveled 
extensively  for  the  purposes  of  his  art.  His  best  known  pictures  are  "  Ice- 
bergs," «  The  Great  Fall  at  Niagara  "  and  "  The  Heart  of  the  Andes." 

Church,  Sanford  E.  (1815-1880),  of  New  York,  jurist,  was  Lieutenant- 
Governor  1851-1855;  Comptroller  1858-1869;  and  Chief  Justice  of  the  Court 
of  Appeals  from  1870  till  his  death. 

Church  and  State  in  America.  The  relationship  of  Church  and  State  in  the 
United  States  differs  from  all  previous  relationships  in  Europe  and  in  the 
colonies.  In  the  colonies  of  Massachusetts  and  Connecticut,  the  Congre- 
gational Church  was  established;  in  most  of  the  others  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land. Rhode  Island,  Maryland  and  Pennsylvania  early  provided  for  religious 
freedom.  The  Revolution  brought  disestablishment  and  religious  freedom 
in  several  States.  There  are  two  provisions  in  the  Constitution  of  1787 
bearing  on  the  question  of  religion,  which  secure  its  freedom  and  independ- 
ence. In  Article  VI.  it  is  declared  that  "  no  religious  test  shall  ever  be  required 
as  a  qualification  to  any  office  or  public  trust  under  the  United  States."  But 
this  was  not  deemed  a  sufficient  guarantee  for  absolute  religious  freedom,  so 
the  first  amendment  was  to  the  effect  that  "  Congress  shall  make  no  law 
respecting  an  establishment  of  religion,  or  prohibiting  the  free  exercise  there- 
of." In  the  Legislatures  of  some  of  the  States  a  fear  was  early  expressed  that 
government  might  pass  into  the  hands  of  Roman  Catholics,  Jews  or  infidels, 
but  the  spirit  of  freedom  everywhere  proved  too  strong  to  admit  of  religious 
tests  in  matters  of  government.  State  conventions  held  to  ratify  the  Consti- 
tution all  proposed  amendments  guaranteeing  religious  freedom.  Hence 
followed  the  first  amendment.  There  are  of  course  certain  limitations  to 
religious  liberty,  which  have  been  set  by  law.  In  1882  in  the  case  of  the 
Mormons,  Congress  prohibited  polygamy  and  was  sustained  by  the  Supreme 
Court. 

Church  Members'  Suffrage.  In  1631  a  law  was  enacted  by  the  Massa- 
chusetts Assembly,  providing  that  no  man  should  be  a  freeman  of  the  colony 
unless  he  became  a  member  of  some  church.  This  requirement  was 


S34  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

abolished  under  the  charter  of  1691.     A  similar  rule  prevailed  in  the  New 
Haven  colony,  1639-1662. 

Churubusco,  Mexico,  a  small  village  near  the  city  of  Mexico,  where,  on 
August  20,  1847,  the  advance  divisions  of  Taylor's  forces,  pursuing  the 
fugitives  of  Padierna,  encountered  Santa  Anna's  soldiers.  The  convent  of 
San  Pablo  was  the  strong  point,  and  against  this  Twiggs  was  sent,  Worth 
advancing  toward  the  south  and  Quitman  and  Pillow  co-operating  against 
Santa  Anna's  rear.  The  hottest  fighting  took  place  along  the  Rio  Churu- 
busco, where  for  some  hours  the  Americans  seemed  threatened  with  defeat, 
but  rallying  they  drove  the  Mexicans  before  them  and  carried  the  river 
dikes  with  their  t&te  de  pont,  the  key  to  Santa  Anna's  position.  The  attack 
was  then  concentrated  upon  the  convent  of  San  Pablo,  Worth,  Smith  and 
Clarke  joining  with  Twiggs.  Worth's  guns  were  directed  from  an  utterly 
unsuspected  and  unguarded  quarter,  throwing  the  garrison  into  confusion. 
The  white  flag  was  immediately  raised  and  the  stronghold  surrendered. 
Numbers  engaged:  Americans,  8000;  Mexicans,  25,000. 

Cibola,  a  legendary  country  containing  seven  wonderful  Indian  cities, 
supposed  by  explorers  of  the  sixteenth  century  to  be  located  either  in  Florida 
or  Northern  Mexico.  The  legend  originated  from  the  story  of  the  flight  of 
a  Portuguese  archbishop,  who  during  the  conquest  of  Spain  by  the  Arabs 
escaped  to  the  Cape  de  Verde  Islands,  and  founded  seven  cities.  Numerous, 
and  in  nearly  every  instance  fatal,  expeditions  were  sent  in  search  of  these 
mythical  cities.  That  of  Pamfilo  de  Narvaez,  of  1527  to  Florida  was 
especially  disastrous. 

Cider,  Hard.     (See  Log  Cabin.) 

Cilley,  Jonathan  (1802-1838),  of  Maine,  was  Speaker  of  the  Maine  House 
of  Representatives  in  1836,  was  elected  to  Congress  in  1837  as  a  Democrat 
and  served  till  his  death,  which  was  the  result  of  a  duel  with  Congressman 
Graves,  of  Kentucky. 

Cincinnati,  O.,  was  settled  in  1788  by  persons  from  New  Jersey.  The 
village  was  laid  out  in  1789  under  the  name  of  Losantiville  (which  see),  and 
received  its  present  name  in  1790.  It  was  incorporated  as  a  city  in  1814. 
The  introduction  of  steamboats  on  the  Ohio  had  a  great  influence  in  extend- 
ing the  trade  of  the  city.  In  September,  1862,  martial  law  was  fora  brief  time 
declared,  when  an  attack  by  the  Confederate  troops  was  expected  on  the  city. 

Cincinnati,  Society  of  the,  an  organization  founded  in  1783  by  Revolu- 
tionary officers.  Membership  was  first  extended  mainly  to  the  officers  and 
their  eldest  sons,  though  a  number  of  French  officers  were  included.  The 
principle  of  hereditary  membership  aroused  popular  jealousy.  A  pamphlet 
was  published  against  it,  the  Governor  of  South  Carolina  denounced  it,  and 
the  Legislatures  of  Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island  and  Pennsylvania  censured 
it.  In  1784  Washington  persuaded  the  order  to  abandon  the  hereditary 
feature.  The  society  still  exists. 

Cipher  Dispatches,  certain  telegraphic  communications  regarding  the 
Presidential  election  of  1876,  which  were  delivered  by  the  Western  Union 
Telegraph  Company  to  the  Senate.  Committee  on  Privileges  and  Elections, 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITKD  STATES  HISTORY.  135 

to  aid  in  the  investigations  of  the  election  frauds.  While  in  the  possession 
of  this  committee  in  1878,  some  700  of  these  dispatches  were  taken  and 
made  public,  chiefly  through  the  New  York  Tribune.  They  were  sent  by 
friends  of  Tilden,  the  Democratic  candidate,  and  purported  to  arrange  for 
the  payment  of  certain  moneys  to  ensure  the  carrying  of  South  Carolina 
and  Florida  for  Tilden.  The  latter  in  an  open  letter  denied  all  knowledge 
of  the  dispatches. 

Circuit  Courts.  The  Judiciary  Act  of  1789  provided  for  two  classes  of 
United  States  courts  inferior  to  the  Supreme  Court — circuit  courts  and  dis- 
trict courts,  but  not  for  circuit  judges.  The  circuit  courts,  from  that  time 
to  1869,  were  held  by  Justices  of  the  Supreme  Court  or  by  district  judges. 
In  February,  1801,  the  Federalists,  trying  to  extend  the  scope  of  the  Federal 
judiciary,  provided  for  sixteen  circuit  judges;  but  the  Republicans  promptly 
repealed  this  in  1802.  Beginning  with  three,  the  circuits  have  increased  to 
nine.  In  1869  provision  was  made  for  special  judges  for  the  circuit  courts, 
and  the  New  York  circuit  has  since  been  given  an  additional  one.  (See  also 
art.  Circuit  Court  of  Appeals.) 

Circuit  Court  of  Appeals.  By  increase  of  business  the  U.  S.  Supreme 
Court  had  fallen  much  in  arrears  with  its  cases.  After  many  projects  had 
been  discussed,  Congress,  in  1891,  provided  for  an  additional  circuit  judge  in 
each  circuit,  and  established  in  each  a  circuit  court  of  appeals,  to  consist  of 
its  circuit  and  district  judges  and  a  Justice  of  the  Supreme  Court,  the  new 
court  to  have  final  jurisdiction  over  appeals  from  the  district  and  circuit 
courts,  except  in  constitutional,  prize  and  capital  cases,  and  in  questions  ol 
the  jurisdiction  of  these  courts. 

Cities.  The  census  of  1790  showed  only  thirteen  cities  with  more  than 
5000  inhabitants  and  none  with  more  than  45,000.  In  1880  there  were  494 
exceeding  5000,  forty  exceeding  40,000  and  twenty  (m  1890,  twenty-eight) 
exceeding  100,000.  The  percentage  of  inhabitants  of  the  United  States 
living  in  cities  of  more  than  8000  inhabitants  was,  in  1790,  3.3;  in  1880, 
22.5.  Of  the  ten  chief  cities  of  1890  only  four  had  municipal  corporations 
in  1820:  New  York,  Philadelphia,  Baltimore  and  New  Orleans. 

Citronella,  Ala.  Here,  April  8,  1865,  the  Federals  under  Canby  defeated 
Dick  Taylor,  who  commanded  a  strong  force  of  Confederates.  This  occurred 
after  the  evacuation  of  Mobile  by  Maury,  May  8,  on  the  news  of  Johnston's 
capitulation.  Taylor  surrendered  all  the  Confederate  forces  east  of  the 
Mississippi  to  Canby  at  Citronella. 

Civil  Rights  Act,  an  act  passed  by  Congress  over  President  Johnson's 
veto  April  9,  1866,  aiming  to  place  the  negro  on  the  same  civil  footing  as 
the  whites.  Its  principal  section  provided  that  all  persons  born  in  the 
United  States,  and  not  subjected  to  any  foreign  power,  excluding  Indians 
not  taxed,  were  to  be  recognized  as  citizens  of  the  United  States.  The 
violation  of  this  act  was  made  a  misdemeanor  to  be  considered  by  the  Federal 
courts  alone.  The  President  was  given  power  to  enforce  the  act  by  special 
or  military  force.  The  controversy  over  the  constitutionality  of  the  act  led 
to  the  framing  of  the  Fourteenth  Amendment,  passed  June  13,  1866,  After 


136  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

this,  a  more  stringent  act  to  secure  the  civil  rights  of  the  negro  was  passed 
in  1875.  But  the  Supreme  Court  in  1883  declared  its  most  important 
sections  unconstitutional. 

Civil  Rights  Cases,  being  those  of  United  States  vs.  Stanley,  United  States 
vs.  Ryan,  United  States  vs.  Nichols,  United  States  vs.  Singleton  and  Robin- 
son and  Wife  vs.  Memphis  and  Charleston  Railroad  Company.  They  were 
brought  before  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States,  1883,  on  certificates 
of  division  from  the  circuit  courts  respectively  of  Kansas,  California,  Mis- 
souri, New  York  and  Tennessee.  The  cases  against  Stanley  and  Nichols 
were  on  indictments  for  denying  to  certain  persons  the  privileges  of  a  hotel, 
against  Ryan  and  Singleton  for  denying  the  privileges  of  a  theatre.  Robin- 
son sued  the  railroad  company  for  refusing  his  wife,  a  colored  woman,  the 
privileges  of  the  ladies'  car.  In  this  latter  case  and  that  of  Ryan,  in  which 
a  colored  person  was  plaintiff,  judgment  was  confirmed  for  the  plaintiff,  in 
consideration  of  the  violation  of  sections  one  and  two  of  the  Fourteenth 
Amendment  to  the  Constitution.  In  the  other  case  judgment  was  found  for 
the  defendants,  certain  sections  of  the  Civil  Rights  Act  of  1875  being 
deemed  unconstitutional  and  void. 

Civil  Service  Commission,  a  commission  created  under  the  civil  service 
law  prepared  by  Senator  Pendleton,  of  Ohio,  and  approved  January  16,  1883. 
The  commission  was  to  consist  of  three  persons,  at  an  annual  salary  of 
$3500,  appointed  by  the  President,  to  regulate  and  supervise  the  examination 
of  candidates  for  civil  service  offices,  and  to  report  on  all  matters  touching 
the  civil  service  system.  An  earlier  commission  had  existed  from  1871  to 


Civil  Service  Reform.  The  evils  of  the  "spoils  system"  had  long  been 
felt,  when  in  1865,  Mr.  Thomas  A.  Jenckes,  of  Rhode  Island,  introduced  into 
the  House  his  first  bill  to  reform  the  civil  service.  It  was  defeated  several 
times.  In  1871  an  act  was  passed  giving  the  President  authority  to  prescribe 
rules  for  admission  into  the  civil  service.  A  civil  service  commission  was 
appointed,  with  George  William  Curtis  at  its  head,  and  began  the  work  of 
introducing  tests  of  fitness  in  the  place  of  political  influence.  But  in  1873 
Congress  discontinued  its  appropriation  for  the  commission,  and  in  1874 
President  Grant  abandoned  the  system.  In  1883  the  Pendleton  Act,  so 
called  from  Senator  Pendleton,  of  Ohio,  was  passed.  It  provided  for  a  civil 
service  commission  of  three,  representing  both  parties,  which  should  provide 
compeiitive  examinations  for  entrance  into  such  classes  of  the  civil  service 
as  the  President  should  designate.  The  President  (Arthur)  applied  the 
system  at  once  to  the  departments  at  Washington,  and  to  all  custom-houses 
and  post-offices  where  more  than  fifty  clerks  were  employed.  It  has  since 
been  extended  to  the  railway  mail  service  and  to  the  Indian  service,  etc., 
and  now  includes  some  seventy  or  more  thousand  employes  in  its  scope. 
President  McKinley,  in  1899,  exempted  from  4,000  to  10,000  places  from  its 
action. 

Civil  War.  Sectional  differences  had  prevailed  from  the  beginning  of  the 
existence  of  the  Union.  After  the  time  of  the  Missouri  Compromise  of  1820, 
their  main  basis  was  the  economic  and  social  divergence  between  North  and 
South  caused  by  the  existence  of  slavery.  This  caused  frequent  tendencies 
to  disruption,  which  increased  after  1850.  Disunion  sentiment  was  brought 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  137 

to  a  head  by  the  election  of  Lincoln  in  1860.  Secessions  of  the  Southern 
States  immediately  followed.  In  February,  1861,  the  seceding  States,  in 
provisional  Congress  at  Montgomery,  formed  the  Confederate  States  of 
America.  Most  persons,  North  and  South,  at  first  expected  peaceable  separ- 
ation. Buchanan  temporized.  Lincoln  could  not  be  clear  of  his  course  at 
first.  But  the  firing  on  Fort  Sumter  precipitated  conflict.  President  Lincoln 
called  for  troops  to  enforce  the  authority  of  the  Union,  and  the  border  States 
seceded.  The  eleven  seceding  States  had  a  population  of  9,000,000,  of  whom 
3,500,000  were  slaves;  the  remaining  States  had  a  population  of  22,000,000. 
The  North  was  rich  and  of  varied  industrial  life,  the  South  poor  and  almost 
entirely  agricultural.  The  North  was  less_uniied  than  the  South,  and  of  a 

s  the  financi 


spirit.  Unscientific  as  was  the  financial  management  on  both 
sideSjthat  of  the  National  Government  was,  from  the  nature  of  the  case,  more 
successful.  Extraordinary  taxes  were  levied  and  enormous  loans  raised. 
Supplies  of  men  were  obtained  for  both  armies  by  conscription.  Toward  the 
close  of  the  war  the  North  had  a  million  men  in  her  military  and  naval  ser- 
vice, the  South  450,000.  Though  Confederate  cruisers  did  great  damage  to 
American  commerce,  the  naval  operations  of  the  war  were  mostly  not  oceanic, 
but  confined  to  the  assistance  of  land  forces  by  expeditions  on  the  Atlantic 
coast,  in  the  Gulf  and  on  the  rivers,  and  to  the  maintenance  of  the  blockade 
of  Southern  ports.  In  the  first  year  of  the  war  the  leading  land  operations 
of  the  war  were  those  in  attack  and  defense  of  Washington,  the  chief 
battle  being  that  of  Bull  Run.  In  1862,  in  the  West,  Buell,  Pope  and  Grant 
cleared  the  upper  Mississippi,  the  lower  Cumberland  and  Tennessee,  with 
battles  at  Shiloh  and  Corinth,  while  Farragut  took  New  Orleans.  In  the 
East,  Lee  defeated  McClellan  in  the  Peninsular  campaign,  and  Pope  and 
McClellan  at  Manassas,  fought  McClellan  at  Antietam,  and  defeated  Burnside 
at  Fredericksburg.  In  1863  Lee,  having  defeated  Hooker  at  Chancellorsville, 
invaded  Pennsylvania,  where  he  was  defeated  at  Getty  sburg,  the  most  impor- 
tant decisive  battle  of  the  war.  Meantime  Grant  had  taken  Vicksburg  and 
opened  the  Mississippi,  and  the  western  armies  were  concentrated  upon  the 
struggle  for  the  possession  of  the  central  highlands  which  commanded  the 
heart  of  the  Confederate  territory.  Here  Rosecrans  had  defeated  Bragg  at 
Murfreesboro',  but  had  been  defeated  at  Chickamauga.  Grant  took  his  place. 
Grant  and  Sherman  were  henceforth  the  leading  figures  of  the  war,  on  the 
Federal  side.  In  1864  Grant,  in  a  series  of  severe  battles,  forced  Lee  back 
upon  Richmond  and  began  the  siege  of  Petersburg,  while  Sherman,  starting 
from  the  central  highlands,  forced  back  Johnston  and  Hood  and  effected  his 
famous  and  destructive  "  march  to  the  sea  "  through  Georgia.  Sherman  then 
marched  northward  toward  Grant,  who  had  finally  succeeded  in  reducing  Lee 
to  extremities.  April  9,  1865,  Lee  surrendered  to  Grant  at  Appomattox.  John- 
ston surrendered,  and  the  war  ended,  having  cost  the  nation  the  lives  of 
probably  300,000  men,  and  money  losses  of  perhaps  $8,ooo,opj^QQO.  The 
great  resuttsTwhich  justified  all  these  efforts,  were  the  desfnicliion  of  slavery 
and  of  that  extreme  States-rights  view  of  the  Constitution  which  permitted 
secession.  In  malvy"respects  the  most  gigantic  conflict  of  modern  times,  the 
war  had  ended  in  the  triumph  of  the  national  idea  and  the  consolidation  of 
the  Union.  That  the  great  armies  returned  to  civil  life  so  quietly  and  with 
K>  little  difficulty  was  not  the  least  of  its  marvels.  Histories  by  Draper  and 


13&  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

the  Count  of  Paris,  and  the  Century  Company's  "  Battles  and  Leaders  of  the 
Civil  War; "  Greeley,  Pollard  and  Stephens. 

Claflin,  Horace  B.  (1811-1885),  of  New  York,  merchant.  From  1865  to 
the  time  of  his  death  the  sales  of  his  firm  (H.  B.  Claflin  &  Co.)  exceeded 
those  of  any  other  in  the  world. 

Claiborne,  Ferdinand  L.  (1772-1815),  of  Mississippi,  soldier,  as  briga- 
dier-general of  United  States  volunteers,  commanded  in  the  engagement 
with  the  Creeks,  at  the  Holy  Ground,  in  1813.  In  1815  he  became  a  legis- 
lative councillor  of  Mississippi. 

Claiborne  or  Clayborne,  William  (1589-1676),  of  Virginia  and  Maryland, 
colonizer.  In  1631,  under  a  license  from  Charles  I.,  he  established  a  trading 
post  on  Kent  Island  in  Chesapeake  Bay.  His  claim  to  this  involved  Virginia 
and  Maryland,  as  well  as  himself,  in  fierce  disputes.  Lord  Baltimore 
expelled  him  in  1635,  but  in  1645  ne>  ^n  co-operation  with  Captain  Richard 
Ingle,  overthrew  the  Roman  Catholic  government.  In  the  following  year 
Calvert  was  reinstated,  but  in  1651  Claiborne,  as  a  commissioner  of  Parlia- 
ment, reduced  Virginia  and  Maryland  to  submission. 

Clarendon,  Edward  Hyde,  Earl  of  (1609-1674),  Lord  Chancellor  of 
England,  was  one  of  the  proprietors  of  Carolina.  He  was  one  of  a  special 
committee  to  settle  the  government  of  New  England  in  1660.  He  sought 
to  weaken  Massachusetts  and  prevent  the  united  action  of  New  England. 

Clarendon,  Colony  of,  a  colony  established  in  what  is  now  North  Carolina 
by  a  party  of  adventurers  from  Barbadoes  in  1664.  They  purchased  lands 
from  the  Indians,  and  in  1665  obtained  grants  from  the  lords  proprietors. 
John  Yeamans,  of  Barbadoes,  was  knighted  and  made  governor  over  territory 
extending  as  far  south  as  Florida. 

Clark,  Abraham  (1726-1794),  of  New  Jersey,  signer  of  the  Declaration  of 
Independence,  at  the  beginning  of  the  Revolution  was  an  active  member  of 
the  New  Jersey  Committee  of  Safety,  was  a  member  of  the  Continental 
Congress  from  June,  1776,  to  1783,  except  in  1779,  and  also  in  1787  and  1788; 
was  a  member  of  the  New  Jersey  Legislature  from  1782  to  1787  and  of  the 
U.  S.  Congress  from  1791  till  his  death.  He  was  chosen  to  the  Constitutional 
Convention  of  1787,  but  did  not  attend. 

Clark,  Alvan  G.,  born  in  1832,  of  Massachusetts,  astronomer  and  optician, 
made  the  36-inch  refractor,  the  largest  in  the  world,  for  the  Lick  Observa- 
tory, and  discovered  the  companion  to  Sirius.  His  firm  has  attained  great 
fame  in  the  manufacture  of  lenses  for  telescopes.  Died  1897. 

Clark,  George  Rogers  (1752-1818),  soldier,  went  from  Virginia  to  Ken- 
tucky in  1775,  where  he  became  the  leader  against  the  hostile  Indians  and 
British,  and  did  more  than  any  other  to  secure  the  Northwest  to  the 
Republic.  Among  his  more  important  enterprises  were  the  defence  of  Har- 
rodsburg,  the  capture  of  Kaskaskia  and  Vincennes  by  a  famous  expedition 
in  1778,  the  relief  of  Cahokia,  the  invasion  of  the  Shawnee  country  and  the 
defeat  of  the  Miamis. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY  139 

Clark,  William  (1770-1838),  of  Missouri,  soldier.  In  1804,  by  appoint- 
ment of  Jefferson,  he  joined  Captain  Meriwether  Lewis  in  the  famous  expe- 
dition to  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia  River;  was  Governor  of  Missouri  Ter- 
ritory from  1813  to  1821  and,  from  1822  till  his  death,  superintendent  of 
Indian  affairs  at  St.  Louis. 

Clarke,  James  Freeman  (1810-1888),  of  Massachusetts,  clergyman  and 
author.  In  1841  he  founded  in  Boston  the  (Unitarian)  Church  of  the  Dis- 
ciples, of  which  he  was  pastor  for  forty-five  years.  He  was  prominent  in 
the  anti-slavery  cause. 

Clarke,  John  (1609-1676),  a  physician,  came  to  Rhode  Island  and  settled 
Aquidneck  in  1638.  In  1663  he  obtained  from  Charles  II.  a  charter  guar- 
anteeing religious  liberty  to  the  colonists.  He  was  Deputy  Governor  in  1669 
and  1671. 

Clay,  Cassius  M.,  born  in  1810,  of  Kentucky,  politician.  In  1832  he 
became  an  earnest  Abolitionist.  In  1845  he  established  the  True  American, 
an  anti-slavery  paper,  at  Lexington,  Ky.,  and  was  obliged  to  fortify  the  pub- 
lication office  against  violence.  He  was  a  captain  in  the  Mexican  War.  He 
supported  General  Taylor  for  the  Presidency  in  1848,  Fremont  in  1856,  and 
Lincoln  in  1860.  He  was  sent  as  Minister  to  Russia  in  1861,  and  again  in 
1863. 

Clay,  Clement  C.  (1819-1882),  of  Alabama,  was  U.  S.  Senator  from  1853 
till  his  State  seceded  in  February,  1861.  He  was  a  strong  supporter  of  the 
doctrines  of  Calhoun. 

Clay,  Henry  (April  12,  i777~June  29,  1852),  statesman,  orator  and  political 
leader,  was  born  in  the  "  Slashes,"  Va.  He  studied  law,  and  at  the  age  of 
twenty  removed  to  Kentucky.  Having  served  in  the  Legislature,  he  was  at 
a  very  early  age  elected  to  the  U.  S.  Senate,  and  represented  Kentucky  at 
Washington  from  1806  to  1807.  He  was  soon  attached  to  the  cause  of  internal 
improvements,  with  which  his  name  became  identified.  In  rapid  succession 
came  his  term  as  Speaker  of  the  Kentucky  Assembly,  as  U.  S.  Senator  again 
1809-11  and  as  member  of  the  House,  which  he  entered  in  1811.  Although 
a  newcomer,  he  was  immediately  chosen  Speaker,  and  served  until  his 
resignation  in  1814.  He  was  a  leader  of  the  war  party  which  forced 
Madison  into  the  contest  with  Great  Britain.  His  life  in  Congress  was  inter- 
rupted in  1814,  as  he  had  been  chosen  one  of  the  envoys  to  treat  for  the 
peace  finally  negotiated  at  Ghent  in  December,  1814.  In  1815  he  was 
again  in  the  House  and  served  continuously  as  its  Speaker  until  1821.  During 
this  period  he  was  a  powerful  advocate  of  the  Spanish-American  States  in 
insurrection,  and  was  instrumental  in  effecting  the  Missouri  Compromise 
(which  see).  After  a  brief  absence  from  Congress  he  was  again  Speaker  of 
the  House  in  1823-25.  He  was  in  1824  a  candidate  for  the  Presidency,  and 
received  thirty-seven  electoral  votes.  In  the  exciting  contest  in  the  House 
of  Representatives  Adams  was  finally  chosen  President,  and  his  appointment 
of  Clay  as  Secretary  of  State  caused  not  unnaturally  the  groundless  charge 
of  a  "  bargain  "  between  the  two.  (See  Adams,  J.  Q.)  Clay  had  ardently 
supported  the  tariff  of  1824,  and  denominated  the  protective  the  "American 


140  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

System."  While  he  was  Secretary  the  principal  diplomatic  matter  which 
arose  was  the  Panama  Congress.  He  retired  from  office  in  1829,  but  in  1831 
he  entered  the  Senate  from  Kentucky.  For  twenty  years  he  was  the  natural 
leader  of  the  great  party  known  first  as  the  National  Republican,  but  soon 
as  the  Whig.  He  was  nominated  as  its  candidate  for  President  in  December, 
1831,  but  was  overwhelmingly  defeated  by  Jackson.  He  was  active  in  the 
bank  controversy  and  other  questions  of  the  time,  and  brought  about  the 
tariff  compromise  of  1833,  and  the  settlement  with  France  in  1835.  In 
1840  he  failed  to  receive  the  Whig  nomination,  and  in  1843  he  retired  from 
the  Senate.  The  Whig  National  Convention  of  1844  nominated  him  by 
acclamation,  but  Clay's  trimming  "  Alabama  Letter "  turned  the  scale  in 
favor  of  Polk.  He  re-entered  the  Senate  in  1849,  and  took  the  foremost 
part  in  the  great  compromise  bill  of  1850.  Although  by  far  the  most 
popular  man  in  the  party,  he  never  again  received  the  nomination  for  Presi- 
dent. In  comparison  with  his  great  colleagues  he  shone  chiefly  as  a  brilliant 
debater,  "  magnetic  "  platform  orator  and  contriver  of  compromise  measures, 
intended  to  preserve  the  Union.  There  is  an  excellent  biography  by  Carl 
Schurz  (two  volumes). 

Clayton,  John  M.  (1796—1856),  of  Delaware,  of  which  he  was  Chief 
Justice  from  1837  to  1840,  was  U.  S.  Senator  from  1829  to  1835,  from  1845 
to  1849,  and  from  1851  till  his  death.  In  1849  he  became  Secretary  of  State 
under  President  Taylor,  in  which  office  he  was  continued  by  President  Fill- 
more  till  July,  1850.  As  such  he  negotiated  the  celebrated  Clayton-Bulwer 
treaty  with  Great  Britain. 

Clayton,  Powell,  was  born  in  Pennsylvania  in  1833.  ^n  x^6i  he  entered 
the  Union  army  and  became  brigadier-general  in  1864.  After  the  war  he 
became  Governor  of  Arkansas,  and  represented  it  in  the  U.  S.  Senate  from 
1871  to  1877.  Became  Minister  to  Mexico,  May,  1897. 

Clayton-Bulwer  Treaty,  a  treaty  concluded  between  Great  Britain  and 
the  United  States  in  1850,  the  negotiators  being  Secretary  John  M.  Clayton 
and  Sir  Henry  Bulwer.  It  related  to  establishing  communication  between 
the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  Oceans  by  means  of  a  ship  canal  across  Nicaragua. 
It  forbade  the  exclusive  control  of  communication  by  either  party.  Contra- 
dictory constructions  have  since  been  placed  upon  this  treaty,  and  the  claims 
are  as  yet  unadjusted.  ' 

Clearing  House.  The  system  was  first  introduced  into  the  United  States  by 
the  banks  of  the  city  of  New  York  in  1 853.  During  the  Civil  War  the  clearing 
houses  proved  of  the  greatest  value  to  the  Government  in  establishing  credit 
and  securing  loans.  The  panics  of  1873  and  of  May,  1884,  were  checked 
only  through  the  same  instrumentality,  which  similarly  operated  in  1893. 

Cleaveland,  Moses  (1754-1806),  of  Connecticut,  pioneer,  was  a  promoter 
of  the  purchase  from  Connecticut  of  the  so-called  Western  Reserve,  and 
was  the  founder  of  the  city  of  Cleveland. 

Cleburne,  Patrick  R.  (1828-1864),  a  descendant  of  William  Claiborne 
(q.  v.);  came  to  the  United  States  and  joined  the  Confederates  in  the  Civil 
War.  He  commanded  a  corps  at  Franklin  when  he  was  killed. 


DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  141 

Cleveland,  Frances  (Folsom),  was  born  in  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  in  1864,  and  was 
married  to  President  Cleveland  June  2,  1886.  Except  Mrs.  Madison  she  is 
the  youngest  person  who  has  been  mistress  of  the  White  House.  She  has 
performed  the  duties  and  dispensed  the  courtesies  and  hospitalities  of  her 
high  position  with  rare  tact,  sweetness  and  grace. 

Cleveland,  Grover,  the  twenty-second  President  of  the  United  States,  was 
born  at  Caldwell,  N.  J.,  in  1837.  He  received  a  fair  education,  studied  law, 
and  entered  upon  its  practice  at  Buffalo.  He  served  as  sheriff,  but  his  great 
opportunity  did  not  come  until  1881,  when  a  reform  movement  made  him 
the  mayor  of  Buffalo.  His  efficient  administration  attracted  favorable  notice, 
and  in  the  summer  of  1882  he  received  the  Democratic  nomination  for  Gov- 
ernor of  New  York.  Republican  demoralization  contributed  to  his  election 
by  the  enormous  majority  of  192,000.  The  prestige  of  this  achievement 
was  followed  by  such  a  conduct  of  State  affairs  that  he  received  in  1884  the 
Democratic  nomination  for  President.  The  election  turned  on  the  result  in 
the  State  of  New  York,  where  Cleveland  received  about  1000  majority  over 
Blague.  The  new  President  became  known  as  a  supporter  of  civil*  service 
reform,  hard  money,  and  especially  of  tariff  reform,  which  he  advocated  in 
his  celebrated  message  to  Congress  in  December,  1887.  He  was  again  the 
party  candidate  in  1888,  but  was  defeated  by  the  Republican,  Harrison,  in  a 
campaign  which  had  the  tariff  as  its  leading  feature.  After  retiring  from 
office  in  1889  he  resumed  the  practice  of  law,  and  settled  in  New  York  City. 
As  the  new  election  approached,  his  candidacy  was  again  suggested,  and  he 
received  in  1892  for  the  third  time  the  party  nomination.  His  former  com- 
petitor was  again  in  the  field,  and  was  this  time  decisively  beaten.  President 
Cleveland  commenced  his  second  term  in  March,  1893,  and  the  chief  features 
of  his  administration  so  far  have  been  the  repeal  of  the  Silver  Purchase  Act, 
or  Sherman  Act,  the  introduction  of  a  bill  for  the  reduction  of  the  tariff,  and 
the  Hawaiian  imbroglio. 

Cleveland,  Rose  E.,  was  born  in  Fayetteville,  N.  Y.,  in  1846,  youngest 
sister  of  President  Cleveland,  teacher  and  author.  She  was  mistress  of  the 
White  House  ^n  1885  and  1886. 

Cleveland,  O.,  was  founded  in  1796.  It  was  an  important  point  in  the 
War  of  1812,  and  was  incorporated  as  a  city  in  1836. 

Clifford,  Nathan  (1803-1881),  of  Maine,  jurist,  was  Speaker  of  the  Maine 
House  of  Representatives  in  1833  and  1834;  Attorney-General  of  Maine  from 
1834  to  1838,  and  member  of  Congress  from  1839  to  1843.  From  1846  to 
1848  he  was  Attorney-General  in  President  Folk's  Cabinet.  In  1858  he  was 
appointed  by  President  Buchanan  a  Justice  of  the  U.  S.  Supreme  Court 
In  1877  he  was  president  of  the  Electoral  Commission. 

Clinton,  De  Witt  (1769-1828),  was  a  nephew  of  George  Clinton,  and  after 
graduating  at  Columbia  he  acted  as  secretary  to  his  uncle.  He  was  a  Repub- 
lican member  of  the  New  York  Legislature  and  entered  the  U.  S.  Senate  in 
1802,  but  left  that  body  soon  to  become  mayor  of  New  York  City.  In  this 
office  he  served  until  1807,  and  again  in  1809-10  and  1811-15.  He  was 


142  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

also  State  Senator,  Lieutenant-Governor  and  a  member  of  the  council  of 
appointment.  In  1812,  he  was  the  candidate  of  the  Federalists  and  of  the 
New  York  Democrats  for  President,  receiving  eighty-nine  electoral  votes. 
Clinton  was  ardently  devoted  to  the  policy  of  internal  improvements,  and 
especially  to  the  development  of  the  Erie  and  Champlain  canals.  In  1817—23 
and  1825—28  he  was  Governor  of  New  York. 

Clinton,  George  (1739-1812),  Vice-President  of  the  United  States,  was  a 
soldier  in  the  French  and  Indian  War  and  a  member  of  the  New  York 
Assembly;  in  the  first  part  of  the  Revolution  he  was  for  a  short  time  mem- 
ber of  the  Continental  Congress,  and  then  served  in  the  field.  As  a  brigadier- 
general  he  defended  unsuccessfully  the  Highland  forts  against  the  British  in 
1777.  For  the  long  period  of  1777—95  he  was  Governor  of  the  State,  and 
threw  his  great  influence  against  the  ratification  of  the  Federal  Constitution. 
Thereafter  he  was  an  Anti-Federalist  and  Republican  leader.  He  received  a 
few  votes  for  Vice-President  in  1789,  fifty  votes  for  Vice-President  in  1792 
and  several  in  1796.  He  was  again  Governor  in  1801-04,  an(^  was  elected 
Vice- President  in  1804,  serving  as  such,  under  Jefferson  and  Madison,  until 
his  death.  In  1811  he  gave  the  casting  vote  against  the  U.  S.  Bank. 

Clinton,  Sir  Henry  (1738-1795),  British  soldier,  came  to  Boston  as  major- 
general  in  1775  with  Howe  and  Burgoyne.  In  1778  he  was  appointed 
commander-in-chief  of  the  British  forces.  He  evacuated  Philadelphia  in 
June  and  on  his  retreat  thence  to  New  York  fought  with  Washington  the 
indecisive  battle  of  Monmouth.  In  May,  1778,  he  captured  Charleston  and 
the  whole  army  under  Lincoln.  During  the  following  summer  he  planned 
with  Arnold  the  treasonable  surrender  of  West  Point.  He  failed  to  relieve 
Cornwallis  in  October,  1781,  and  returned  to  England  in  1782. 

Clinton,  James  (1736-1812),  of  New  York,  soldier,  during  the  French 
and  Indian  War  captured  a  French  sloop-of-war  on  Lake  Ontario.  As 
colonel  of  a  New  York  regiment  he  was  with  Montgomery  at  Quebec  in 
1775.  As  brigadier-general  he  commanded  at  Fort  Clinton  when  it  was 
taken  by  the  British  in  1777,  and  was  present  at  Yorktown.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  New  York  convention  that  adopted  the  Federal  Constitution. 

Clinton  Bridge  Case,  an  important  litigation  in  the  United  States 
Supreme  Court,  1870,  which  established  the  doctrine  by  which  railroad 
bridges  may  be  said  to  have  gained  clear  recognition  of  their  rights  of  way 
in  preference  to  the  navigable  waters  crossed  by  them,  through  the  power  of 
Congress  to  regulate  interstate  commerce. 

Clymer,  George  (1739-1813),  of  Pennsylvania,  signer  of  the  Declaration 
(although  not  present  at  its  adoption).  In  1775  he  became  continental 
treasurer,  and  was  a  member  of  Congress  in  1776,  1777  and  1780.  In  1778 
he,  with  John  Nixon,  organized  the  Bank  of  North  America.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  convention  that  framed  the  Federal  Constitution,  and  elected 
to  the  first  Congress  held  under  its  provisions. 

Coal.  The  first  organized  effort  to  mine  anthracite  coal  was  in  1793  on 
the  Mammoth  bed  at  Summit  Hill,  near  Mauch  Chunk,  Pennsylvania,  but 
regular  shipments  did  not  begin  until  1820.  It  was  not  until  1825  that  it 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  143 

was  in  general  use  for  the  generation  of  steam,  and  not  until  1839  that  it 
was  employed  as  an  exclusive  fuel  in  the  manufacture  of  pig  iron.  The 
industry  in  bituminous  coal  and  coke  was  begun  in  Connellsville,  Pa.,  in 
1841,  by  McCormick  and  Campbell.  Regular  manufacture  commenced  in 
that  district  in  1861.  The  coal-mining  industry  i?  now  more  or  less  pros- 
perous in  a  very  large  number  of  the  States  and  Territories,  though  Penn- 
sylvania still  holds  the  lead.  The  most  recent  extensive  developments  have 
been  made  in  West  Virginia.  The  total  output  of  anthracite  for  1889 
exceeded  33,000,000  tons;  the  annual  output  of  coke  is  also  enormous. 

Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey.  The  establishment  of  this  important  bureau 
was  first  contemplated  in  1807.  President  Jefferson  suggested  it  in  his 
message  to  Congress  of  that  year.  Congress  appropriated  $50,000  for  the 
survey.  Nothing  practical  was  accomplished  until  1811.  Then  F.  R. 
Hassler,  an  Englishman,  was  made  chief  of  the  survey  and  commenced 
operations  near  New  York.  Since  then  its  work  has  progressed  constantly, 
under  Alexander  Dallas  Bache  and  other  eminent  engineers  and  organizers. 
It  has  been  a  bureau  of  the  Treasury  Department. 

Cobb,  Howell  (1815-1868),  of  Georgia,  statesman,  entered  Congress  as 
a  Democrat  in  1843,  and  served  till  1853  and  again  1855;  was  elected 
Speaker  in  1849;  was  a  warm  defender  of  the  Union,  but  also  a  strong  advo- 
cate of  State  rights  and  of  the  compromise  measures  of  1850;  was  elected 
Governor  of  Georgia  by  the  Union  party  in  1851.  In  1857  he  became 
President  Buchanan's  Secretary  of  the  Treasury.  In  1860  he  urged  forward 
the  secession  movement,  and  was  a  delegate  to  the  provisional  Congress 
which  adopted  the  Confederate  Constitution. 

Cobbett,  William  (1762-1835),  British  journalist  and  pamphleteer,  came 
to  Philadelphia  in  1792,  wrote  in  aid  of  the  Federalists  a  series  of  powerful 
pamphlets  under  the  name  of  u  Peter  Porcupine,"  and  returned  to  London 
in  1800. 

Cochrane,  Sir  Alexander  F.  I.  (1758-1832),  British  admiral,  commanded 
the  British  North  American  fleet  in  1812,  assisted  in  the  capture  of  Wash- 
ington in  1814,  and  in  the  attack  on  New  Orleans. 

Cockburn,  Sir  George  (1772-1853),  British  admiral.  In  1813  expeditions 
from  his  squadron  ravaged  the  coasts  of  the  United  States  from  Delaware  to 
Georgia.  In  1814  under  Admiral  Cochrane  and  in  conjunction  with  General 
Ross  he  captured  Washington,  burning  the  Capitol  and  other  public  build- 
ings, and  unsuccessfully  attempted  to  take  Baltimore.  In  1815  he  conveyed 
Napoleon  to  St.  Helena. 

Cockrell,  Francis  M.,  born  in  1834,  of  Missouri,  Senator,  entered  the 
Confederate  army,  in  which  he  rose  to  the  rank  of  brigadier-general.  He 
became  U.  S.  Senator  in  1875,  in  which  position  he  still  (1897)  continues. 

Cod,  Cape,  discovered  and  named  May  15,  1602,  by  Bartholomew  Gosnold. 

Coddington,  William  (1601-1678),  came  to  Salem,  Mass.,  in  1630.  In 
1638  with  John  Clarke  he  founded  the  colony  of  Rhode  Island  at  Aquidned; 
and  was  its  first  Governor. 


144  DICTIONARY  o»  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Cody,  William  F.,  born  in  1845,  °f  Kansas,  served  with  distinction  as  a 
scout  through  the  Civil  War  and  afterward  in  several  expeditions;  widely 
known  as  "  Buffalo  Bill." 

Coeur  d'Alene,  an  Indian  tribe  in  Idaho  and  Washington  territories.  In 
1858  a  part  of  the  tribe  joined  in  an  attack  on  Colonel  Steptoe.  They  were 
subsequently  defeated  by  Colonel  Wright  and  became  peaceful.  In  1867  a 
reservation  was  set  apart  for  those  in  Idaho,  and  in  1872  a  band  in  Paradise 
Valley  was  removed  to  land  between  the  Okinokane  and  Columbia  rivers. 

Coffee,  John  (1772-1834),  of  Tennessee,  soldier.  In  the  War  of  1812 
he  became  brigadier-general,  fought  and  won  the  battle  of  Tallushatchie  and 
commanded  Jackson's  left  wing  at  New  Orleans. 

Coffin,  Charles  Carleton,  born  in  1823,  of  Massachusetts,  under  the  name 
of  "  Carleton  "  was  war  correspondent  of.  the  Boston  Journal  during  the  whole 
of  the  Civil  War  and  the  Prusso-Austrian  War  of  1866.  Died  1896. 

Cogswell,  Joseph  G.  (1786—1871),  of  Massachusetts,  was  appointed  librarian 
of  Harvard  College  in  1820.  In  1823,  in  conjunction  with  George  Bancroft,, 
he  founded  the  Round  Hill  School  at  Northampton.  Afterward  he  was  for 
many  years  (till  1860)  librarian  of  the  Astor  Library. 

Cohens  vs.  Virginia,  an  important  case  before  the  U.  S.  Supreme  Court, 
decided  in  1821.  In  1820,  P.  J.  and  M.  J.  Cohen  were  presented  before  the 
Quarter  Sessions  Court  at  Norfolk  for  selling  lottery  tickets  in  defiance  of 
the  statute  of  the  State  prohibiting  such  sales.  The  Cohens  appealed  to  the 
Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States  against  the  fine  imposed  by  the  Vir- 
ginia court,  pleading  the  legality  of  their  sale  under  the  "Act  to  amend 
the  charter  of  the  city  of  Washington,"  passed  by  Congress  1812,  v/hich  per- 
mitted the  drawing  of  lotteries.  The  attorney  for  Virginia  denied  the  juris- 
diction of  the  court,  because  a  State  was  defendant  (see  Eleventh  Amendment) 
and  because  in  cases  in  which  States  were  parties  its  jurisdiction  was  original 
and  not  appellate.  But  the  court  decided  that  the  Eleventh  Amendment  did 
not  apply,  and  that  in  constitutional  cases  it  had  always  appellate  jurisdiction. 

Coinage  Laws.  By  the  law  of  April  2,  1792,  any  person  could  have  gold 
or  silver  coined  at  the  mint  into  lawful  money,  receiving  therefor  coins  of 
the  same  species  of  bullion,  weight  for  weight  of  the  pure  metal  contained, 
therein.  The  standard  for  gold  was  eleven  parts  pure  to  one  alloy;  for  silver, 
1485  parts  pure  to  179  alloy.  The  ratio  of  gold  to  silver  was  fifteen  to  one,, 
and  both  coins  were  legal  tender.  By  the  law  of  March  3,  1795,  the  Treas- 
urer retained  twenty-four  cents  per  ounce  for  silver  below  the  standard^ 
four  cents  for  gold.  By  the  law  of  April  21,  1800,  there  was  retained  for 
deposits  of  gold  and  silver  below  the  standard  a  sum  sufficient  for  the  expense 
of  refinement.  By  the  law  of  May  8,  1828,  a  sum  was  retained  from  silver 
bullion  requiring  the  test,  for  materials  and  wastage.  By  the  law  of  June 
28,  1834^1  a  deduction  of  one-half  per  cent  was  to  be  made  from  all  standard 
gold  and  silver  deposited  for  coinage,  if  paid  for  in  coin  within  five  days  from 
deposit.  By  the  law  of  January  18,  1837,  the  standard  gold  and  silver  coin 
was  made  nine-tenths  pure,  one-tenth  alloy  and  legal  tender  for  any  sum. 
JBy  the  law  of  February  21,  1853,  the  weight  of  the  half  dollar  was  reduced 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  145 

from  206 y±  to  192  grains  and  lesser  silver  coins  in  the  same  proportion; 
legal  tender  to  five  dollars.  No  private  deposits  for  coinage  in  these  coins 
were  received  and  charges  of  one-half  per  cent  were  made  for  refining.  By 
the  law  of  February  12,  1873,  the  weight  of  the  trade  dollar  was  to  be  420 
grains,  of  the  half  dollar  19^  grains;  legal  tender  to  five  dollars.  Silver  bull- 
ion could  be  deposited  for  coinage  into  trade  dollars  only^  gold  for  coinage 
for  the  benefit  of  the  depositor.  The  directors  of  the  mint  were  to  buy  sil- 
ver for  coins  less  than  one  dollar.  One-fifth  of  one  per  cent  was  charged  for 
converting  standard  gold  bullion  into  coin,  and  silver  into  trade  dollars. 
Silver  coins,  except  trade  dollars,  were  to  be  exchanged  at  par  for  gold  coins 
in  sums  not  exceeding  $100.  The  charges  on  gold  were  removed  in  1875. 
By  the  law  of  July  22,  1877,  the  trade  dollar  ceased  to  be  a  legal  tender. 
By  the  law  of  February  28,  1878,  silver  dollars  of  412^  grains  were  made 
legal  tender  for  all  debt,  and  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  was  authorized 
to  purchase  at  market  value,  and  coin  not  less  than  $2,000,000  worth  of  sil- 
ver bullion  per  month  and,  not  more  than  $4,000,000  worth  per  month.  By 
the  law  of  June  9,  1879,  silver  coins  less  than  one  dollar  were  made  legal 
tender  to  ten  dollars./'By  the  law  of  July  14,  1890,  the  regulations  of  1878 
in  regard  to  the  purchase  and  coinage  of  silver  were  repealed  and  the  Secre- 
tary of  the  Treasury  was  authorized  to  purchase  4,500,000  ounces  of  silver 
bullion  per  month,  issuing  in  payment  United  States  notes,  to  be  a  legal 
tender ;  and  to  make  a  sufficient  monthly  coinage  for  the  redemption  of 
these  notes.  In  1893  the  silver-purchase  clauses  of  this  act  were  repealed. 

Cold  Harbor,  Va.,  battles  between  the  Federals  and  Confederates  under 
Grant  and  Lee,  fought  irregularly  during  twelve  days,  June  1-12,  1864,  while 
Grant  was  conducting  his  famous  campaign  against  Richmond.  Lee  held 
the  vicinity  of  Cold  Harbor  with  about  58,000  men,  having  thrown  up 
hasty  fortifications.  Grant  had  120,000  troops.  Sheridan  advanced  to  Cold 
Harbor  on  the  thirty-first  of  May.  June  i  the  Sixth  Corps  and  Smith's 
troops  began  the  attack  by  endeavoring  to  take  the  Confederate  fortifications. 
The  assault  was  ineffectual,  the  Federals  being  repulsed  with  heavy  loss. 
June  2  rain  prevented  battle,  so  the  day  was  passed  on  both  sides  in 
arranging  the  lines.  June  3  Lee's  position  had  been  immensely  strengthened 
by  slashes  and  rifle  trenches.  Sheridan's  cavalry  guarded  the  crossing  of 
the  Chickahominy,  and  Wilson  watched  the  Confederates'  right.  Early  in 
the  morning  the  Federals  advanced  upon  the  Confederate  intrenchments. 
Hancock's  corps  forced  the  enemy  from  their  front,  and  with  Wright,  Smith 
and  Warren  made  vigorous  assaults  upon  the  impregnable  earthworks. 
Burnside  failed  to  come  to  their  aid.  Several  regiments,  however,  mounted 
the  parapets  and  placed  their  banners  upon  them.  Many  of  the  bravest 
Federal  officers  lost  their  lives.  The  last  assault  lasted  half  an  hour, 
and  then  the  Federals  retired.  For  ten  days  the  armies  lay  idle,  their 
sharpshooters  picking  off  many  men.  Federal  loss,  10,000;  Confederate, 
1700. 

Golden,  Cadwallader  (1688-1776),  of  New  York,  was  the  first  surveyor- 
general  of  New  York,  was  an  ardent  royalist,  was  president  of  the  council 
in  1760  and  Lieutenant-Governor  in  1761,  took  an  active  part  in  founding 


146  DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

the  American  Philosophical  Society,  and  was  a  correspondent  of  the  promi- 
nent scientific  men  of  his  time,  including  Linnaeus  and  Franklin. 

Cole,  Thomas  (1801-1848),  of  New  York,  landscape  painter.  Among  his 
most  popular  works  are  the  "Voyage  of  Life,"  "The  Course  of  Empire," 
"  The  White  Mountains,"  and  the  "  Dream  of  Arcadia." 

Coleman,  William  T.  (1824-1893),  of  California,  pioneer,  was  an  active 
member  of  the  "Vigilance  Committee"  of  1851,  and  chairman  of  the 
executive  department  of  that  of  1856. 

Colfax,  Schuyler  (1823-1885),  of  Indiana,  Vice-President.  In  1844  he 
made  campaign  speeches  for  Clay.  In  1845  he  established  the  St.  Joseph 
Valley  Register,  which  became  a  very  influential  Whig  journal.  He  was 
secretary  of  the  national  Whig  conventions  of  1848  and  1852,  and  was  in  Con- 
gress as  a  Republican  from  1855  to  1869.  He  was  Speaker  of  the  House 
from  1863  to  1869,  and  Vice-President  from  1869  to  1873,  but  failed  to  obtain 
a  renomination  for  the  next  term.  He  was  charged,  probably  unjustly,  with 
complicity  in  the  "  Credit  Mobilier  "  scandal  of  1873. 

Colgate  University  (formerly  Madison  University),  Hamilton,  N.  Y.,  was 
founded  in  1820  and  chartered  1846  by  Baptists.  Its  theological  school  was 
founded  in  1819.  In  1889  its  name  was  changed  to  Colgate,  in  honor  of  a 
benefactor. 

Collamer,  Jacob  (1791-1865),  of  Vermont,  was  a  Representative  in  the 
Vermont  Assembly  in  1821  and  1827.  From  1833  to  1842  and  from  1850 
to  1854  he  was  a  Justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Vermont,  a  member  of 
Congress  from  1843  to  1849,  and  Postmaster-General  from  1849  to  1850. 
From  1854  until  his  death  he  was  a  U.  S.  Senator. 

Colleges.  In  spite  of  the  vote  of  the  Virginia  Company  in  1619  to  estab- 
lish a  college  there,  the  first  college  established  in  the  United  States  was 
Harvard  (1636).  The  second  was  the  College  of  William  and  Mary  (1693), 
the  third  Yale  (1701).  Other  colleges  established  before  1789  were  the  fol- 
lowing: the  College  of  New  Jersey  (Princeton),  opened  in  1746,  the  Univer- 
sity of  Pennsylvania  in  1753,  King's  College  (now  Columbia)  in  1754, 
Rhode  Island  College  (now  Brown  University)  in  1765,  Dartmouth  in  1770, 
Rutgers  in  1770,  Dickinson  in  1783,  the  College  of  Charleston  in  1785. 
The  colleges  will  be  found  treated  under  their  several  names. 

Colleton,  James,  of  Barbadoes,  was  appointed  Governor  of  South  Caro- 
lina in  1686.  His  authority  was  resisted  by  the  Legislature  which,  after  the 
English  revolution,  impeached,  disfranchised  and  banished  him  (1690). 

Collyer,  Robert,  born  in  1823,  clergyman,  came  to  the  United  States  in 
1850.  In  1859  he  became  a  Unitarian,  and  in  1879  pastor  of  the  Church 
of  the  Messiah  in  New  York  City. 

Colombia.  The  independence  of  Colombia  was  recognized  by  the  United 
States  in  March,  1822.  A  commercial  treaty  was  concluded  between  the 
United  States  and  the  undivided  republic  of  Colombia  October  3,  1824.  *n 
1831  the  republic  was  divided  into  New  Granada,  Venezuela  and  Ecuador. 
New  Granada  concluded  a  commercial  treaty  with  the  United  States  in  1846. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  147 

By  this  treaty  the  United  States  guaranteed  the  neutrality  of  the  Isthmus  of 
Panama  in  compensation  for  specified  commercial  advantages,  and  on  these 
grounds  the  United  States  has  claimed  the  right  to  be  heard  in  Panama  Canal 
affairs.  A  consular  convention  was  concluded  in  1850,  and  claims  conven- 
tions favorable  to  the  United  States  in  1857  and  1861. 

Colonial  System.  Until  the  close  of  the  last  century,  it  was  the  invariable 
practice  of  European  States  to  manage  their  colonies  with  a  view  almost 
solely  to  the  benefit  of  the  mother  country.  Spain,  Portugal,  France,  the 
Netherlands  and  Bngland,  though  they  differed  otherwise  in  their  colonial 
systems,  agreed  in  this.  Yet  on  the  whole  the  disregard  of  colonial  interests 
which  the  English  Government  manifested  was  less  extreme  than  that  of 
other  governments.  Adam  Smith,  by  his  "  Wealth  of  Nations,"  published 
in  1776,  taught  governments  the  expediency  of  a  more  liberal  system. 

Colonization  Society,  The  National.  An  organization  formed  in  1816,  at 
Princeton,  N.  J.,  and  immediately  reorganized  at  Washington,  its  principal 
object  being  to  encourage  the  emancipation  of  slaves  by  obtaining  for  them 
a  place  without  the  United  States  to  which  they  might  emigrate.  The  scheme 
was  also  intended  to  relieve  the  South  of  the  free  black  population  with  which 
it  was  burdened.  Branches  of  the  society  were  soon  established  in  almost 
every  State.  Free  negroes  were  first  sent  to  Sierra  Leone,  later  for  a  short 
time  to  Sherbrooke  Island,  and  finally  in  1821  a  permanent  location  was  pur- 
chased at  Cape  Mesurado.  In  1847  this  colony  declared  itself  an  independent 
republic  under  the  name  of  Liberia.  The  society  engaged  the  attention  of 
many  anti-slavery  advocates  until  the  rise  of  the  Abolition  party  in  1831. 

Colorado,  a  State  of  the  Union,  was  named  from  the  river  of  that  name. 
It  was  formed  in  part  from  the  Louisiana  purchase,  and  in  part  from  the 
Mexican  cession.  The  early  Spanish  gold-hunters  visited  Colorado,  and  in 
1806  Major  Pike  led  a  Government  expedition  into  the  region.  In  1843 
Fremont  explored  the  northern  part.  The  discovery  of  gold  in  1858  attracted 
immigration.  Two  acts  for  the  admission  of  Colorado  as  a  State  were  vetoed  by 
President  Johnson  in  1866  and  1 867.  August  i,  1876,  the  President  announced 
the  admission  of  Colorado.  Down  to  1892  the  State  was  Republican.  In 
that  year  the  electoral  votes  were  cast  for  Weaver,  the  Fusion  candidate. 
The  population  of  the  State  in  1880  was  199,327;  in  1890  it  was  412,198. 

Colquitt,  Alfred  H.  (1824-1894),  of  Georgia,  Senator,  served  as  major- 
general  in  the  Confederate  army.  He  was  Governor  from  1877  to  1883, 
after  which  he  was  U.  S.  Senator  until  his  death. 

Colt,  Samuel  (1814-1862),  of  Connecticut,  inventor.  In  1829,  while  a 
runaway  sailor-boy,  he  made  a  model  in  wood  of  his  celebrated  revolver. 
In  1852  he  built  immense  armories  at  Hartford  for  their  manufacture. 

Columbia,  S.  C.,  became  the  capital  of  the  State  in  1790  under  an  act  of 
the  Legislature  which  provided  for  the  founding  of  the  city.  It  was  taken 
by  the  Federal  forces  under  General  Sherman,  February  17,  1865.  On  the 
evacuation  of  the  city  by  General  Wade  Hampton  a  large  quantity  of  cotton 
was  fired  either  by  accident  or  design,  and  caused  immense  damage. 

Columbia,  District  of.     (See  District  of  Columbia.) 


148  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Columbia  College,  New  York  City.  Originally  called  King's  College  and 
chartered  1754.  During  the  Revolution  studies  were  suspended  and  its 
building  made  into  a  military  hospital.  In  1784  the  college  was  reorganized 
and  resumed  work  under  the  new  name.  In  1891  the  College  of  Physicians 
and  Surgeons  became  a  part  of  the  college.  In  1858  a  law  department  was 
established  and  in  1864  a  school  of  mines  with  eight  distinct  courses  of 
study.  In  1880  and  1890  the  facilities  in  graduate  work  were  largely 
increased. 

Columbia  River  was  discovered  by  the  Spaniard  Heceta  in  1775  and  called 
St  Roque.  Afterward,  in  1792,  Captain  Gray,  of  Boston,  explored  the 
stream  and  changed  the  name  to  Columbia.  In  1805-06  Lewis  and  Clarke, 
under  orders  from  President  Jefferson,  explored  the  Columbia  River  and 
opened  up  the  northwest  region.  Questions  concerning  the  discovery  of  the 
region  had  an  important  part  in  the  discussion  of  the  Oregon  question. 

Columbian  Institute,  founded  at  Washington  in  1819,  by  Joel  Barlow, 
sometime  American  Minister  at  Paris.  Barlow  was  aided  by  Josiah  Meigs, 
Thomas  Law,  Edward  Cutbush,  Judge  Cranch  and  others,  citizens  of  Wash- 
ington. Its  purpose  was  the  advancement  of  knowledge  by  associations  of 
scientific  men,  and  the  dissemination  of  its  rudiments  by  the  instruction  of 
youth. 

Columbian  Order.     (See  Tammany  Society.) 

Columbus,  Christopher  (about  1436-1506),  the  discoverer  of  America, 
was  born  probably  at  Genoa  in  Italy,  about  1436.  His  early  life  was  passed 
at  sea,  interspersed  with  work  as  a  maker  of  maps  and  charts.  About  1470 
he  went  to  Lisbon,  and  engaged  in  voyages  to  Guinea  and  probably  visited 
Iceland.  He  became  acquainted  with  the  map  of  Toscanelli  and  the  results 
of  geographical  investigation,  and  planned  the  discovery  of  a  short  route  to 
China,  Japan  and  the  Indies.  As  his  project  was  rejected  by  the  King  of 
Portugal,  he  followed  the  court  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  setting  forth  his 
schemes  at  Cordova,  Salamanca,  Malaga  and  elsewhere,  but  he  failed  to 
enlist  support  until  after  the  foil  of  Granada  in  1492.  Having  obtained 
authority  from  the  sovereigns  and  financial  aid,  he  sailed  with  his  fleet  of 
three  caravels,  the  "  Santa  Maria,"  "Pinta"  and  "  Nina,"  from  Palos  on 
August  3,  1492.  He  held  a  westerly  course,  quelled  insubordination,  and 
reached  land  in  the  Bahama  group  October  12,  1492;  the  island  of  the  land- 
fall  may  have  been  Watling's  or  Samana  Island.  He  further  discovered 
Cuba  and  Hayti,  and  arrived  home  after  severe  vicissitudes  in  March,  1493. 
In  the  following  autumn  he  sailed  with  a  larger  expedition,  and  remained 
in  the  West  Indies  until  1496.  On  his  third  voyage  in  1498,  he  reached  the 
mainland  at  the  mouth  of  the  Orinoco,  rightly  surmising  that  he  had 
found  a  continent,  though  still  fancying  himself  on  the  eastern  coast  of 
Asia.  Proceeding  to  the  West  Indies  he  was  imprisoned  by  enemies  and 
sent  in  chains  to  Spain,  but  was  soon  released.  In  his  fourth  voyage,  1502 
to  1504,  he  explored  the  coast  of  Central  America.  He  survived  his  patron 
Isabella  a  short  time,  dying  at  Valladolid  in  Spain,  May  20,  1506.  There  is 
a  well-known  biography  by  Irving,  and  recent  lives  by  Harrisse  and  Winsor, 
the  last  being  distinctly  unfavorable. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  149 

Columbus,  O.,  settled  in  1812,  became  the  capital  of  the  State  in  1816. 
It  became  a  city  in  1834. 

Comanche  Indians,  originally  a  roving  tribe,  early  engaged  in  disastrous 
wars  with  the  Spanish.  They  have  always  been  dangerous  and  troublesome. 
They  were  at  one  time  on  a  Texas  reservation,  but  on  being  expelled  became 
bitter  enemies  of  the  State.  The  Government  later  collected  a  portion  on 
lands  in  the  western  part  of  Indian  Territory.  A  part  of  these,  the  Quanhado, 
refused  to  settle  down  until  defeated  by  Colonel  McKenzie  at  McClellan's 
Creek  in  1872. 

Commerce.  From  their  first  foundation,  the  colonies  of  New  Netherland 
and  New  England  were  engaged  to  an  important  extent  in  commerce,  while 
the  chartered  colonizing  companies,  like  the  Virginia  Company,  were  largely 
intended  for  that  pursuit.  The  Navigation  Acts  of  1646,  1651,  1660  and 
1663  aimed  to  restrict  colonial  commerce  for  the  'benefit  of  the  mother 
country;  and  similar  restrictions  were,  beginning  in  1673,  laid  on  inter- 
colonial commerce.  But  all  these  acts  were  constantly  evaded.  The  efforts 
finally  made  to  enforce  them  more  strictly  were  among  the  chief  causes  of 
the  Revolution.  By  1789  the  tonnage  of  American  vessels  .engaged  in  for- 
eign trade  was  about  325,000  tons,  of  that  engaged  in  the  coasting  trade 
125,000  more,  while  that  of  foreign  vessels  trading  with  the  United  States 
was  about  250,000,  chiefly  British.  At  that  time  two-thirds  of  the  imports 
were  from  England,  and  half  the  exports  went  to  that  country.  Trade  with 
the  East  Indies  was  then  just  beginning.  New  England  and  New  York 
were  the  chief  commercial  regions  at  that  time.  From  that  date  American 
commerce  has  been  too  various  to  summarize.  (See  Imports,  Exports.) 

Commissary.  The  English  church  in  the  colonies  was  under  the  nominal 
supervision  of  the  Bishop  of  London,  of  whose  diocese  the  colonies  formed 
a  part.  To  remedy  disorders  caused  by  want  of  real  supervision,  commis- 
saries were  appointed  by  him  in  Virginia  and  Maryland,  with  limited  powers 
of  control  and  supervision  over  the  clergy  of  their  respective  provinces. 

Commissioner  of  .the  Revenue.  An  office  created  by  Act  of  Congress 
May  8,  1792,  for  the  management  of  national  finances,  abolished  April  6, 
1802;  re-established  July  24,  1813,  and  again  abolished  December  23,  1817. 
The  duties  of  the  commissioner  were  similar  to  those  of  the  Assistant  Secre- 
tary of  the  Treasury. 

Committees.  It  is  the  universal  custom  of  American  legislative  bodies 
to  transact  their  business  through  standing  committees,  each  of  which  is 
charged  with  a  special  branch  of  the  business  of  the  body.  This  is  not  the 
present  English  custom,  but  is  nevertheless  not  an  American  invention.  The 
House  of  Commons  developed  the  rudiments  of  such  a  system  in  Queen 
Elizabeth's  time,  and  it  was  in  full  operation  during  the  Commonwealth. 
During  the  latter  part  of  the  seventeenth  and  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth 
centuries  Virginia,  Maryland,  Pennsylvania,  New  York  and  North  Carolina 
adopted  this  system  from  England,  with  nearly  the  same  names  of  com- 
mittees as  those  of  the  House  of  Commons  (in  which  this  system  has  since 
become  obsolete  because  of  cabinet  government).  Therefore  it  was  readily 


150  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

adopted  as  the  mode  of  transacting  business  by  the  Continental  Congress, 
though  it  was  not  used  in  the  Legislatures  of  the  New  England  colonies.  In 
the  Congresses  under  the  Constitution,  beginning  in  1789,  but  few  commit- 
tees were  at  first  used,  but  the  number  gradually  increased.  By  Speaker 
Clay's  time  the  system  of  standing  committees  had  reached  full  develop- 
ment. The  Senate  had  followed,  a  little  more  slowly.  Committees  of  the 
Senate  have  always  been  appointed  by  the  Senate.  In  the  House  a  similar 
practice  was  occasionally  followed  at  first,  but  soon  their  appointment  was 
given  to  the  Speaker,  which  is  the  foundation  of  his  power  in  the  U.  S. 
Government. 

Committees  of  Correspondence.  Committees  of  this  name  had  existed 
in  some  of  the  colonial  Legislatures  much  before  the  Revolution,  e.  g.,  in 
Pennsylvania  from  1744  on.  Their  object  was  to  keep  up  correspondence 
with  the  agents  of  the  colonies  in  England.  But  this  gave  only  a  name  to 
the  famous  Revolutionary  committees.  In  a  Boston  town  meeting  of 
November,  1772,  Samuel  Adams  moved  that  a  "  Committee  of  correspond- 
ence "  be  appointed  to  state  the  rights  of  the  colonists,  and  correspond  with 
the  other  provinces  and  towns  of  New  England.  Their  proceedings  were  to 
be  secret.  The  system  resulted  in  a  union  of  the  colonies,  and  fostered  the 
germs  of  revolution.  About  eighty  towns  in  Massachusetts  responded 
promptly,  and  the  plan  worked  admirably.  In  the  Virginia  Legislature 
similar  committees,  but  intercolonial,  were  proposed  in  March,  1773,  by 
Dabney  Carr,  and  were  eloquently  advocated  by  Patrick  Henry  and  Richard 
Henry  Lee.  The  resolutions  finally  adopted  were  more  comprehensive,  and 
calculated  to  form  the  Confederacy,  than  those  of  Massachusetts. 

Committees  of  Safety.  A  committee  of  eleven  men  was  appointed  by 
the  second  provincial  Congress  of  Massachusetts  in  February,  1775,  to  resist 
every  attempt  at  executing  the  acts  of  Parliament.  They  were  empowered 
to  muster  the  militia  and  take  possession  of  warlike  stores.  In  April  of  the 
same  year  the  committee  wrote  to  the  various  Massachusetts  towns,  and  to 
New  Hampshire  and  Connecticut,  begging  for  aid  against  the  tyranny  of 
Parliament.  Upon  this  ensued,  as  the  Revolution  advanced,  the  formation 
of  such  committees  in  each  province.  In  each  the  Committee  of  Safety, 
appointed  by  the  popular  conventions,  took  the  place  of  the  royal  Governor 
as  the  executive  of  the  province  or  State,  and  remained  such  until  the  fram- 
ing of  the  new  State  Constitutions.  The  name  first  appears  as  the  name  of 
a  committee  organized  in  England  during  the  Civil  War  of  1642-44. 

Commodore.  Until  1862  the  grade  of  captain  was  the  highest  naval 
office  recognized  by  law.  A  captain  who  commanded  two  or  more  ships  was 
called  a  commodore  by  custom,  and  the  title,  having  been  once  applied, 
usually  continued.  In  1862  the  grade  of  commodore,  along  with  that  of 
rear-admiral,  was  created. 

Common  Law.  The  fundamental  documents  of  all  the  colonies  declared 
the  colonists  entitled  to  the  benefits  of  the  common  law  of  England.  But  it 
was  left  to  the  colonial  courts  to  decide  what  the  common  law  was,  and  the 
colonial  Legislatures  variously  modified  the  law.  Under  the  Constitution  the 
strict-constructionist  school  maintained  that  there  was  no  common  law  in 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  151 

respect  to  the  jurisprudence  of  the  Federal  Government,  the  national  school 
maintaining  the  opposite. 

Commons,  the  lands  cultivated  in  common  by  the  townspeople  under  the 
early  land  system  of  New  England.  Common  cultivation  was  at  first  upon 
a  considerable  scale,  though  varying  for  different  towns.  The  commons 
sometimes  included  nearly  all  the  improved  lands  of  the  town,  being  laid  out 
by  a  committee  of  the  general  court.  In  other  instances  they  included 
smaller  portions,  in  which,  nevertheless,  all  the  people  were  interested. 
Occasionally  authority  over  such  lands  was  given  to  the  selectmen,  or  to  the 
major  body  of  the  freemen.  These  commons  were  formed  for  the  sake  of 
convenience  generally,  but  sometimes  from  lack  of  facility  in  fencing  sepa- 
rately. The  bounds  of  such  lands  were  marked  by  their  particular  proprie- 
tors and  scrupulously  kept  up.  Generally  the  "  proprietors  "  were  a  distinct 
body  from  the  town,  and  kept  separate  records.  The  system  was  adopted 
from  English  villages. 

Commons,  House  of,  the  name  borne  by  the  lower  House  of  the  Legis- 
lature of  North  Carolina  from  1776  to  1868. 

Commonwealth  vs.  Caton,  Virginia.  John  Caton  and  others,  having  been 
convicted  of  treason  by  the  general  court  of  Virginia  and  sentenced  to 
death,  were  pardoned  in  1782  by  the  House  of  Delegates  of  the  State,  the 
Senate  not  concurring.  The  pardon  was  not  executed,  and  the  attorney- 
general  denying  its  validity,  the  case  was  brought  before  the  Court  of  Appeals 
of  Virginia  in  1782.  There  it  was  decided  that  this  court  had  jurisdiction 
in  such  matters,  but  it  was  declared  that  the  pardon  was  not  valid  without 
the  concurrence  of  the  Senate,  and  that  this  act  of  the  Legislature  was 
unconstitutional.  This  is  the  second  instance  in  which  a  court  assumed 
authority  to  pronounce  upon  the  constitutionality  of  an  act  of  the  Legis- 
lature. 

Compagnie  de  1' Occident,  or  Mississippi  Company.  A  company  chartered 
September  6,  1717,  which  succeeded  to  the  rights  granted  by  Louis  XIV.  in 
1712,  to  Anthony  Crozat,  to  trade  in  all  French  possessions  in  America  which 
were  bounded  by  New  Mexico  and  by  the  lands  of  the  English  in  Carolina. 
In  1719  it  was  absorbed  by  the  Compagnie  des  Indes. 

Compagnie  des  Indes  (Company  of  the  Indies),  a  corporation  organized 
in  Paris  by  John  Law  in  1719,  by  combination  of  the  Guinea  Company,  the 
Company  of  the  West,  the  East  India  Company  and  the  China  Company. 
It  was  the  basis  of  his  great  credit  operations,  in  connection  with  his  bank, 
and  of  the  Mississippi  Bubble,  but  is  of  importance  in  American  history 
because  it  for  several  years  owned  Louisiana.  * 

Compromise,  Crittenden.     (See  Crittenden  Compromise.) 
Compromise,  Missouri.     (See  Missouri  Compromise.) 

Compromise  of  1833,  a  tariff  measure  passed  by  Congress  March  i,  1833, 
as  a  compromise  for  the  high  tariff  act  of  1828,  which  had  caused  intense 
dissatisfaction  through  the  South,  and  had  brought  about  nullification  by 
South  Carolina  and  a  threat  of  secession  in  the  event  of  its  being  too 


152  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

strictly  emorced.  The  compromise  was  proposed  and  passed  in  the  House 
while  Clay  himself  was  endeavoring  to  get  a  compromise  measure  through 
the  Senate.  The  bill  as  passed  was  in  effect  practically  the  same  as  that 
proposed  by  Clay  in  the  Senate.  It  was  designed  to  scale  down  periodically 
the  high  duties  then  existing.,  until  after  ten  years  a  free-trade  basis  should 
be  reached.  The  Verplanck  low  tariff  measure,  then  under  debate  in  the 
House,  was  thus  thrown  out 

Compromise  of  1850.  As  this  compromise  between  the  anti-slavery  and 
pro-slavery  parties  was  finally  passed,  it  took  the  form  of  several  separate 
bills,  which  had  been  practically  comprehended  in  Clay's  "  Omnibus  Bill," 
proposed  and  defeated  a  short  time  before.  Under  the  compromise,  Texas 
was  allowed  $10,000,000  for  New  Mexico,  and  the  boundary  of  that  territory 
was  cut  down  considerably.  August  13,  California  was  admitted  to  the 
Union  with  her  free  Constitution.  August  15,  bills  for  establishing  territorial 
governments  in  New  Mexico  and  Utah  were  passed,  containing  a  slavery 
option  clause  proposed  by  Senator  Soule".  August  26,  the  fugitive  slave  bill, 
denying  arrested  negroes  a  trial  by  jury,  and  prohibiting  redress  to  free 
colored  seamen  imprisoned  in  Southern  ports,  was  passed. 

Compromises  of  the  Constitution.  The  Convention  of  1787  was  mainly 
divided  as  to  whether,  in  the  new  government,  one  State's  influence  should 
be  equal  to  that  of  any  other  State,  or  should  bs  based  on  population.  The 
plans  for  a  Constitution  submitted  by  Edmund  Randolph,  of  Virginia,  and 
William  Paterson,  of  New  Jersey,  were  diametrically  opposed  in  this  respect 
The  former  favored  representation  according  to  population  in  both  Houses; 
the  latter  an  equal  vote  for  each  State  and  only  one  House.  Johnson,  of 
Connecticut,  proposed  as  a  compromise,  two  Houses,  an  equal  representation 
in  the  Senate  and  a  proportionate  one  in  the  House.  Ellsworth  formally 
moved  that  this  be  adopted,  and  thus  the  first  compromise  was  effected  after 
considerable  debate.  The  second  was  in  regard  to  the  regulation  of  commerce 
by  Congress.  It  was  proposed  to  tax  both  exports  and  imports  at  the  dis- 
cretion of  Congress.  C.  C.  Pinckney  declared  that  South  Carolina  would 
not  enter  the  Union  if  exports  were  to  be  taxed.,  since  nearly  the  whole  of 
her  wealth  lay  in  cue  article  of  export,  rice.  Hence  it  was  decided,  August 
6,  that  "  no  tax  or  duty  shall  be  laid  by  the  Legislature  on  articles  exported 
from  any  State,"  and  on  these  terms  the  Federal  control  over  commerce  was 
conceded.  Georgia,  South  Carolina  and  North  Carolina  refused  to  enter  the 
Union  if  the  slave  traffic  was  to  be  prohibited,  so  the  third  compromise 
effected  that  Congress  should  not  prohibit  the  slave  trade  until  1808,  and 
that  a  fugitive  slave"  law  should  be  provided. 

Concord,  capital  of  New  Hampshire,  settled  in  1725.  It  was  known  as 
Rumford  until  1765,  when  it  received  its  present 'name.  It  became  capital 
of  the  State  in  1807,  and  a  city  in  1853. 

Concord.     (See  Lexington.) 

Confederate  Constitution.  The  Constitution  framed  by  the  Montgomery 
Convention  of  1862  was  based  upon  that  of  the  Union  with  a  few  important 
changes.  It  recognized  the  "  sovereign  and  independent  character  "  of  the 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  153 

States  and  the  protection  of  slavery  in  all  new  Territories.  It  prohibited 
protective  tariffs  and  general  internal  improvements  at  Federal  expense. 
The  admission  of  a  new  State  was  to  be  accorded  by  a  vote  taken  by  the 
poll  of  the  States.  State  Legislatures  could  impeach  Confederate  officers 
acting  within  their  individual  jurisdictions.  The  Presidential  term  was 
lengthened  to  six  years,  and  the  President  was  made  ineligible  for  re-election. 
Heads  of  the  executive  departments  were  granted  the  right  of  debate  in 
Congress,  and  the  latter's  appropriating  power  was  restricted. 

Confederate  States,  a  government  formed  in  1861  by  seceding  States.  The 
second  State  to  secede,  Mississippi,  at  the  time  of  secession,  January  9,  1861, 
proposed  a  convention  to  form  a  Southern  Confederacy.  This  provisional 
Congress  met  at  Montgomery,  Alabama,  on  February  4,  with  delegates  pres- 
ent from  six  of  the  seven  States  which  had  then  seceded.  It  voted  by  States. 
On  February  8,  it  adopted  a  provisional  Constitution,  and  the  next  day  chose 
Jefferson  Davis,  of  Mississippi,  provisional  President  and  Alexander  H.  Steph- 
ens, of  Georgia,  Vice- President.  The  permanent  Constitution  was  adopted 
on  March  n.  It  set  forth  the  doctrines  of.  State  sovereignty  and  recognized 
slavery,  though  it  forbade  the  slave  trade.  It  forbade  protective  tariffs  and 
Federal  expenditures  for  internal  improvements.  Congress  was  forbidden  to 
emit  bills  of  credit.  It  could  permit  members  of  the  Cabinet  to  speak  before 
it.  The  President  was  empowered  to  veto  single  items  in  appropriation  bills.' 
His  term  was  to  be  six  years,  and  he  was  not  to  be  re-elected.  All  the  seced- 
ing States  ratified  the  Constitution  through  conventions.  Virginia,  North 
Carolina,  Tennessee  and  Arkansas  seceded,  and  were  admitted  into  the  Con- 
federacy. The  seat  of  government  was  removed  to  Richmond,  and  Davi?  and 
Stephens  were  chosen  again  under  the  permanent  Constitution. .  They  were 
inaugurated  as  such  on  February  22,  1862.  During  most  of  the  existence  of 
the  Confederate  Government,  Judah  P.  Benjamin  was  Secretary  of  State, 
Charles  G.  Memminger  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  James  A.  Seddon  Secre- 
tary of  War,  Stephen  R.  Mallory  of  the  Navy  and  John  H.  Reagan  Post- 
master-General. In  this  government  Congress  (see  art.  Congress,  Confederate) 
was  of  little  account.  Everything  was  subordinated  to  the  energetic  prose- 
cution of  the  war,  for  which  the  President  assumed  almost  dictatorial  powers. 
Extraordinary  efforts  were  made.  Money  was  obtained  bymeans  of  the  issue 
of  Treasury  notes,  by  cotton  loans  and  by  requisitions.  Supplies  were  obtained 
by  any  means  possible.  Troops  were  obtained,  finally,  by  conscription.  The 
Government,  though  given  belligerent  rights  by  most  maritime  nations, 
could  not  secure  any  recognition  of  its  independence.  As  the  armies  began 
to  be  more  and  more  completely  destroyed,  dissensions  broke  out.  Violent 
criticism  of  Davis  prevailed.  Finally,  the  surrender  of  Lee  brought  the 
Confederate  Government  to  an  end.  The  Federal  Government  never  T^cog- 
nized  its  existence. 

Confederation,  Articles  of,  the  first  Constitution  of  the  United  States.  On 
the  same  day  on  which  the  Continental  Congress  appointed  a  committee  to 
frame  a  declaration  of  independence,  it  appointed  another  to  prepare  articles 
of  confederation.  The  committee  soon  reported  a  scheme.  But  it  was  not 
till  November  15,  1777,  that  Congress  adopted  the  "Articles  of  Confedera- 
tion and  Perpetual  Union."  The  articles  provided  for  a  single-chambered 


154  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Congress,  with  limited  powers  over  war,  peace,  foreign  affairs,  coin,  weights 
and  measures,  Indians  and  postal  arrangements;  it  could  raise  money  only 
by  requisitions  upon  the  States.  In  it  each  State  had  but  one  vote.  Nine 
votes  were  necessary  for  the  most  important  acts.  Ratification  by  every 
State  was  necessary,  and  was  not  secured  till  March  i,  1781.  The  articles 
then  went  into  operation.  Their  leading  defects  were,  that  they  left  too 
much  power  to  the  States,  and  left  Congress  entirely  dependent  upon  them 
for  money  and  the  enforcement  of  its  decrees;  that  they  did  not  operate  on 
individuals,  nor  prevent  the  violation  of  treaty  obligations,  nor  command 
respect  abroad,  nor  ensure  tranquillity  at  home;  and  that  they  could  not  be 
amended  save  by  consent  of  every  State.  After  vain  efforts  to  secure  such 
consent  to  amendments  which  would  at  least  have  enabled  the  Government 
to  pay  its  debts,  it  became  obvious  that  more  drastic  alterations  were  neces- 
sary. Accordingly  the  Annapolis  Convention  of  1786  called  the  Philadel- 
phia Convention  of  1787,  and  the  articles  were  superseded  by  a  better 
Constitution. 

Confiscation.  In  1861  Congress  passed  an  act  directing  a  blockade  of 
Southern  ports  and  the  confiscation  of  all  property  used  against  the  National 
Government.  This  was  necessary  in  order  to  strengthen  the  depleted  treasury. 
This  policy  was  unflinchingly  enforced  in  1862  and  later. 

Congo.  A  declaration  of  the  intention  of  the  International  Association 
of  the  Congo  and  recognition  of  its  flag  by  the  United  States  took  place 
April  22,  1884. 

Congregationalists.  This  denomination  came  first  to  this  country  with 
the  "  Pilgrim  Fathers  "  at  Plymouth,  Mass.  The  Puritans  and  other  settlers 
of  New  England  gradually  were  led  to  separate  from  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land and  to  form  themselves  into  Congregational  churches.  At  first  these 
were  closely  connected  with  the  colonial  government.  Expenses  of  church 
and  pastor  were  met  by  public  taxes  and  even  the  rights  of  citizenship 
depended  upon  church  fellowhip.  These  features,  however,  were  gradually 
eliminated  (in  Connecticut  in  1818,  in  Massachusetts  in  1833).  The  first 
colonial  synod  was  held  1637  at  Cambridge,  Mass.;  the  second,  1646,  approved 
the  Westminster  Assembly's  Confession  of  Faith  and  set  forth  a  statement 
of  church  polity  known  as  the  "  Cambridge  Platform."  The  fourth,  held  in 
Boston,  1865,  revised  the  platform  of  church  polity  and  issued  a  declaration 
of  faith.  This  denomination  still  has  its  main  strength  in  New  England, 
but  has  been  carried  westward  by  settlers  in  the  newer  States.  Number  of 
members  in  1890,  513,000. 

Congres  des  Americanistes,  a  gathering  of  European  students  of  Ameri- 
can history,  more  especially  of  the  aboriginal  antiquities  and  voyages  of 
exploration,  which  has  met  periodically  at  various  places  in  Europe  since 
1875. 

Congress  (see  arts.  Senate,  House  of  Representatives).  (For  the  Congresses 
existent  before  1789,  see  Stamp- Act  Congress  and  Congress,  Continental.) 
The  Convention  of  1787  planned  a  Congress  of  two  Houses,  and  reconciled 
the  contest  between  the  large  and  the  small  States  by  providing  an  upper 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  155 

House  in  which  States  were  represented  equally  and  a  lower  House  in  which 
they  were  represented  proportionally  to  population.  The  old  Congress 
summoned  the  new  Congress  to  meet  on  March  4,  1789,  but  the  House  did 
not  have  a  quorum  till  April  i,  nor  the  Senate  till  April  6.  Each  Congress 
has  been  in  existence  two  years,  from  March  4  to  March  4.  (See  art.  Ses- 
sions.) The  relations  of  Congress  with  the  President  have  mostly  depended 
on  whether  they  were  or  were  not  of  the  same  party.  The  warmest  struggles 
have  been  in  the  times  of  Presidents  J.  Q.  Adams,  Jackson,  Tyler,  Buchanan 
and  Johnson.  The  latter  was  impeached  by  the  House. 

Congress,  Confederate.  The  Confederate  Congress  was  practically  con- 
trolled by  tne  executive.  It  never  met  the  executive  face  to  face,  but  was 
obliged  to  provide  for  every  executive  need.  Its  make-up  was  fictitious  and 
carried  little  weight,  the  need  for  force  and  executive  ability  being  far  more 
urgent  in  the  field  than  in  counsel.  In  both  the  first  and  second  Congresses 
Representatives  were  present  from  Kentucky  and  Missouri,  though  those 
States  did  not  succeed  in  seceding.  The  provisional  Congress  held  four 
sessions,  the  first  beginning  February  4,  1861,  the  fourth  ending  February 
17,  1862.  Under  the  Constitution  there  were  two  Congresses;  the  first 
(February  18,  i862-February  18,  1865)  had  four  sessions,  the  second  (May 
2,  i864~March  18,  1865)  two.  They  included  about  twenty-four  Senators 
and  a  hundred  Representatives. 

Congress,  Continental,  was  first  suggested  by  a  letter  of  Benjamin 
Franklin  to  the  Assembly  of  Massachusetts  in  1773.  Franklin  was  then 
agent  for  that  colony  at  London.  The  first  step  was  taken  by  the  Virginia 
Assembly  in  1774,  upon  the  news  of  the  passage  of  the  Boston  Port  Bill. 
Its  committee  advised  a  Congress  of  all  the  colonies.  The  first  Continental 
Congress,  therefore,  assembled  at  Philadelphia  September  5,  1774,  Georgia 
alone  being  unrepresented.  Action  was  confined  to  a  declaration  of  the 
rights  and  wrongs  of  the  colonies,  a  recommendation  of  an  agreement  not 
to  import  British  goods  after  December  i,  1774,  and  not  to  export  goods  to 
England  after  September  10,  1775,  unless  their  wrongs  were  righted;  and  a 
resolution  commending  the  people  of  Massachusetts  for  their  temperate 
resistance  to  the  objectionable  measures  of  Parliament,  and  a  declaration 
that  if  these  acts  "  shall  be  attempted  to  be  carried  into  execution  by  force, 
all  America  ought  to  support  them  in  their  opposition."  The  second  Con- 
tinental Congress  assembled  May  10,  1775,  at  Philadelphia,  was  a  revolu- 
tionary body,  plenipotentiary  in  its  nature,  and  was  theoretically  in  perpetual 
session  till  March,  1781.  Each  State  had  but  one  vote.  The  appointment  of 
delegates  was  generally  by  the  State  Legislatures.  The  Congress  declared 
independence,  carried  on  the  war,  and  in  many  respects  governed  the  country. 
The  Articles  of  Confederation,  adopted  in  1781,  weakened  the  Congress  by 
requiring  the  assent  of  nine  States  to  make  valid  its  most  important  acts,  and 
forbidding  any  man  to  be  a  member  more  than  three  years  in  succession.  Under 
its  provisions  each  State  should  have  from  two  to  seven  delegates,  but  only 
one  vote.  This  Congress  sat  at  Philadelphia  until  December,  1776,  then  at 
Baltimore  until  March,  1777,  then  at  Philadelphia  again,  at  Lancaster,  Pa.,  in 
September^  1777,  at  York  until  the  ensuing  June,  at  Philadelphia  again  from 


156  DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

July,  1778,  to  June,  1783,  then  at  Princeton  until  November,  then  at  Annapolis 
until  June,  1784.  In  November  and  December,  1784,  it  sat  at  Trenton. 
From  January,  1785,  until  its  last  recorded  session  (October  21,  1788),  it  sat 
in  New  York.  Peyton  Randolph  and  Henry  Middleton  were  presidents  of 
the  first  Congress;  of  the  rest,  successively,  Peyton  Randolph,  John  Hancock 
(1775-1777),  Henry  L,aurens  (1778),  John  Jay  (1779),  Samuel  Huntington 
(1779-1781),  Thomas  McKean  (1781),  John  Hanson  (1782),  Elias  Boudinot 
(1783),  Tnomas  Mifflin  (1784),  R.  H.  Lee  (1785),  John  Hancock  (1786), 
Nathaniel  Gorham  (1786),  Arthur  St.  Clair  (1787),  Cyrus  Griffin  (1788). 
Charles  Thomson  was  secretary  from  1774  to  1788. 

Conkling,  Roscoe  (1829—1888),  of  New  York,  Senator,  was  elected  to 
Congress  as  a  Republican  in  1858,  1860  and  1868,  was  chosen  U.  S.  Senator 
in  1867  and  re-elected  in  1873  and  1879.  *n  lne  Senate  he  was  from  the 
first  a  member  of  the  Judiciary  Committee,  was  a  zealous  supporter  of  the 
administration  of  President  Grant,  and  advocated  his  election  for  a  third 
term.  In  1881  he  broke  with  President  Garfield  on  a  question  of  patronage 
and  resigned  his  seat  in  the  Senate,  and  was  not  re-elected. 

Connecticut  is  named  from  the  river  of  that  name,  which  is  an  Indian 
/  "^word  meaning  "  long  river."  Two  colonies  were  established  in  Connecticut. 
Certain  people,  who  were  dissatisfied  with  the  close  connection  of  church  and 
State  in  Massachusetts  Bay  colony,  left  that  province  for  the  valley  of  the 
Connecticut  under  Thomas  Hooker,  where  they  settled  Hartford,  Windsor 
and  Wethersfield.  In  1639  they  adopted  a  Constitution  which  made  no 
reference  to  the  King  of  England,  and  provided  for  the  election  of  all  officers 
annually  by  the  people,  with  no  religious  qualification.  In  1635  John  Win- 
throp  founded  Saybrook.  Two  years  later  New  Haven  was  founded  by  a 
company  from  England,  who  came  over  under  Theophilus  Eaton  and  John 
Davenport,  to  establish  a  strict  theocracy.  They  adopted  the  Bible  as  their 
Constitution,  and  refused  to  institute  trial  by  jury,  because  it  was  not  recog- 
nized by  the  Bible.  In  1643  Hartford  and  New  Haven  both  joined  the 
New  England  Confederation  for  protection  against  the  Dutch,  who  claimed 
the  valley  of  the  Connecticut.  New  Haven  was  incorporated  with  Hartford 
in  1662,  under  a  charter  from  Charles  II.,  which  named  the  South  Sea  as 
the  western  boundary.  This  charter  was  adopted  as  a  Constitution  in  1776, 
and  continued  in  force  until  1818.  In  1687  Andros  had  demanded  this  charter, 
but  it  was  concealed  in  the  "charter  oak."  In  1700  Yale  College  was 
founded.  The  claims  of  Connecticut  to  western  lands  were  surrendered  to 
the  General  Government.  Her  claim  to  Westmoreland  County  in  Northern 
Pennsylvania  was  set  aside  in  1782.  Connecticut  ratified  the  national  Con- 
stitution January  9,  1788,  by  a  vote  of  128  to  40.  Connecticut  was  strongly 
Federalist  until  1820,  was  opposed  to  the  War  of  1812,  and  sent  delegates  to 
the  Hartford  Convention  of  1814.  The  State  cast  its  electoral  votes  for  the 
Democratic  candidates  in  the  years  1836,  1852,  1876,  1884,  1888  and  1892. 
The  State  has  been  doubtful  in  State  politics.  In  1891  there  was  a  dispute 
over  the  election  of  Governor,  which  caused  Governor  Bulkley  to  hold  over 
after  the  expiration  of  his  term.  The  population  of  the  State  in  1790  was 
237,496;  in  1890  it  had  increased  to  746,258.  History  by  Hollister. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  157 

Conquistadores,  Spanish  for  conquerors,  the  name  given  to  those  Spanish 
adventurers  who  conducted  expeditions  of  conquest  in  the  New  World. 

Conrad,  Charles  M.  (1804-1878),  represented  Louisiana  in  the  U.  S. 
Senate  as  a  Whig  from  1842  to  1843,  an^  m  Congress  from  1848  to  1850. 
He  was  Secretary  of  War  in  Fillmore's  Cabinet  from  1850  to  1853. 

"  Conscience  Whigs,"  in  the  decade  preceding  the  disruption  of  the 
Whig  party,  those  Whigs  who  were  conscientiously  opposed  to  the  extension 
of  slavery.  These  mostly  became  Free-Soilers,  or  later,  Republicans,  when 
that  party  was  formed. 

Conscription.     (See  Draft.) 

Conservative,  a  name  given  to  those  Democrats  who  during  the  years 
from  1837  to  1840  voted  with  the  Whigs  against  the  sub-treasury  bill,  which 
was  then  supported  by  the  Democrats  at  large.  On  other  questions  the  Con- 
servatives generally  adhered  to  the  principles  of  their  party. 

Constable.  In  colonial  times  the  duties  of  the  constable  were  both  varied 
and  extensive.  In  New  England  he  was  usually  appointed  by  the  select- 
men of  the  town;  in  Virginia  and  Maryland  by  the  Hundred;  in  some 
States  he  was  appointed  for  the  parish.  The  constable  gave  notice  of  town 
meetings,  collected  and  disbursed  taxes,  was  often  overseer  of  the  roads, 
made  arrests  and  preserved  the  peace,  and  rilled  some  judicial  functions. 
His  scope  of  office  varied  for  different  States  and  even  for  different  towns, 
but  was  in  earlier  times  of  more  importance  and  dignity  than  now. 

"Constellation,"  the  United  States  man-of-war  commanded  by  Truxton, 
which,  February  9,  1800,  during  the  troubles  with  France  of  that  period, 
defeated  and  captured  the  French  frigate  "  L'Insurgente  "  in  the  West  Indies. 
Truxton  was  presented  by  Congress  with  a  gold  medal  for  his  bravery. 

Constitution.  The  first  written  Constitution  of  modern  times  seems  to 
have  been  the  Union  of  Utrecht,  or  Constitution  of  the  United  Netherlands, 
framed  in  1579.  The  first  suggestion  of  a  written  Constitution  for  England 
was  made  in  the  "Agreement  of  the  People,"  drawn  up  in  1647.  During 
the  Commonwealth  England  had  two  written  Constitutions,  the  Instrument 
of  Government,  1653,  and  the  Humble  Petition  and  Advice,  1657.  Vane's 
"  Healing  Question  "  (1656)  first  suggested  the  separate  constitutional  con- 
vention. The  first  written  Constitution  which  any  American  community 
framed  for  itself  was  the  Fundamental  Orders  of  Connecticut,  1639.  At 
the  time  of  the  Revolution,  the  desire  to  have  governments  of  limited  powers 
made  it  inevitable  that  the  Constitutions  should  be  set  down  in  writing. 
The  existence  of  colonial  charters  helped  to  familiarize  the  idea.  (See  Con- 
vention, Constitutional.) 

"  Constitution,"  the  most  famous  of  American  frigates,  a  vessel  of  forty- 
four  guns,  was  finished  in  1798.  Under  Barry  it  had  some  service  against 
the  French  in  1799.  On  July  5,  1812,  under  Captain  Hull,  it  started  from 
Annapolis  and  ran  into  a  British  fleet  of  five  frigates.  For  three  days  it 
avoided  an  attack  by  masterly  seamanship  and  at  last  escaped  without 
damage.  On  August  19  it  encountered  the  "  Guerriere,"  Captain  Dacres,  not 


i5&  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

far  from  Cape  Race.  The  "  Constitution  "  was  the  stronger  ship  in  the  pro- 
portion of  ten  to  seven,  but  Captain  Dacres  of  the  "Guerriere"  believed  the 
Americans  could  not  fight.  Within  thirty  minutes  after  the  battle  began  his 
vessel  was  a  wreck  and  seventy-nine  of  his  men  killed  or  wounded.  Thi* 
victory  greatly  strengthened  the  Americans  in  self-confidence  and  prestige. 
On  December  29,  1812,  in  the  West  Indies,  the  "Constitution"  encountered 
the  "Java,"  thirty-eight  guns,  Captain  Lambert.  After  two  hours'  battle 
and  an  hour  spent  in  repairing  damages,  Captain  Bainbridge  (now  com- 
mander of  the  "  Constitution ")  was  about  to  renew  the  attack,  when  the 
"Java"  surrendered.  The  British  lost  about  100  killed  and  200  wounded. 
The  Americans  lost  thirty-four  in  all.  The  "  Constitution  "  in  this  battle 
earned  the  name  of  "  Old  Ironsides."  Both  the  "  Guerriere  "  and  the  "Java," 
on  capture,  were  so  disabled  that  they  were  blown  up.  December  30,  1813, 
the  "  Constitution,"  Captain  Stewart,  sailed  toward  the  West  Indies.  Feb- 
ruary 14,  1814,  it  captured  the  "  Picton,"  sixteen  guns,  and  a  convoy.  Next 
year,  February  15,  1815,  it  attacked  and  captured  two  vessels,  the  "  Cyane," 
thirty-six  guns,  and  the  "  Levant,"  eighteen  guns.  The  latter  was  afterward 
recaptured,  the  "  Constitution  "  itself  narrowly  escaping  capture  at  the  same 
time  from  three  British  frigates. 

Constitution  of  the  United  States.  The  first  Constitution  of  the  United 
States  was  the  Articles  of  Confederation  (see  art.).  Its  defects  and  failure 
caused  many  to  consider  the  desirability  of  drastic  amendment.  The  Alex- 
andria Conference  of  Maryland  and  Virginia  led  to  the  Annapolis  Conven- 
tion of  1786,  this  to  the  Convention  of  1787  at  Philadelphia.  That  con- 
vention forthwith  proceeded,  not  to  amend  the  Confederation,  but  to  make  a 
new  Constitution.  (See  art.  Convention  of  1787.)  This  Constitution  differed 
from  its  predecessor  in  that  it  dealt  directly  with  individuals,  that  it  invested 
the  Federal  Government  with  coercive  powers,  that  it  provided  an  efficient 
executive,  and  that  it  was  susceptible  of  amendment  by  easier  means  than 
unanimous  consent.  Since  it  went  into  operation  in  1789  it  has  been  devel- 
oped by  amendment  (see  art.  Amendments),  by  interpretation  and  by  cus- 
tom. Courts,  especially  the  Supreme  Court,  have  developed  it  by  interpre- 
tation. Under  Chief  Justice  Marshall  the  court  much  enlarged  the  powers 
of  the  Federal  Government  in  this  way.  Expansions  of  this  sort  have  come 
mostly  from  the  clauses  giving  Congress  the  taxing  power  and  the  power  to 
regulate  commerce,  and  from  the  war  powers  of  the  President  and  Congress. 
Usage  has  added  such  features  as  the  committee  system,  the  Speaker's  power, 
the  spoils  system,  the  gerrymander  and  so  forth.  In  fact  we  have  a  written 
Constitution  plus  an  unwritten  Constitution. 

Constitutional  Union  Party,  a  name  assumed  by  the  remnants  of  the 
Whig  party  in  the  South  in  the  election  of  1860.  The  party  held  a 
convention  at  Baltimore  May  9,  1860,  in  which  delegates  from  twenty  States 
were  present.  John  Bell,  of  Tennessee,  was  nominated  for  President  and 
Edward  Everett,  of  Massachusetts,  for  Vice-President.  The  platform  of  the 
party  was  of  the  most  general  character,  recognizing  "  no  political  principle 
but  the  Constitution  of  the  country,  the  union  of  the  States  and  the  enforce- 
ment of  laws."  In  the  election  it  carried  Kentucky,  Tennessee  and  Virginia, 
Sut  failed  utterly  in  the  North.  The  Civil  War  blotted  it  out  immediately. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  159 

Constitutionalists,  in  Pennsylvania,  under  the  Constitution  of  1776—1790, 
the  party  who  favored  the  maintenance  of  that  democratic  Constitution,  as 
opposed  to  the  party  called  Republicans,  who  desired  to  see  a  stronger 
government  substituted.  They  formed  the  germ  of  the  Pennsylvania  Anti- 
Federalists  and  Democrats  of  a  later  time.  From  1804  to  1808  the  name 
Constitutionalists  was  assumed  by  those  moderate  Democrats  who  desired  to 
maintain  the  then  existing  Constitution,  as  opposed  to  the  Conventionalists 
or  "  friends  of  the  people,"  who  desired  to  see  it  made  more  popular. 

Constitutionality.  The  power  of  American  courts  to  "  set  aside " 
(neglect)  a  statute  of  the  State  or  the  Federal  Congress  for  want  of  conform- 
ity to  the  Constitution  is  treated  under  Unconstitutionality. 

Constitutions,  First  State.  (^Upon  the  establishment  of  independence  in 
1776,  the  thirteen  colonies  necessarily  passed  from  the  crown.  Not  one  of 
the  thirteen  was  a  State  prior  to  that  event,  though  a  fewa  had  established 
temporary  governments  at  the  suggestion  of  Congress.  ]  Massachusetts 
remained  under  the  form  of  government  fixed  by  her  colonial  charter  until 
1780,  Connecticut  until  1818  and  Rhode  Island  until  1842.  New  Hamp- 
shire was  the  first  to  modify  and  establish  a  local  government.  She  did  so 
in  January,  1776.  South  Carolina,  Virginia  and  New  Jersey  followed  in 
March,  June  and  July  of  the  same  year,  Delaware  and  Pennsylvania  in 
September,  Maryland  in  November,  North  Carolina  in  December,  Georgia 
and  New  York  in  1777.  By  1780  all  had  formed  local  governments  except 
Connecticut  and  Rhode  Island. 

Consul.  Consuls  have  been  appointed  from  the  beginning  of  the  Govern- 
ment. By  acts  of  1848  and  1860  they  are  empowered  to  hear  and  determine 
judicial  cases  in  uncivilized  countries. 

Consul-General.  The  title  Consul-General  was  first  introduced  in  the 
American  service  in  1855. 

Continental  Money.  The  second  Continental  Congress,  in  its  straits  for 
money,  began  in  June,  1775,  to  issue  paper  money.  Altogether,  about  $242,- 
000,000  were  issued  up  to  the  end  of  1779,  when  further  issues  were  stopped. 
For  the  first  year  these  issues  continued  equal  in  value  to  gold;  then  they 
began  to  depreciate.  In  two  years  they  had  become  reduced  till  they  stood 
of  *wo  to  one.  In  three  years  they  stood  at  four  to  one;  in  September,  1779, 
au  twenty  to  one;  in  the  ensuing  March  at  forty  to  one.  Congress  now 
required  the  notes  to  be  brought  in,  to  be  redeemed  at  their  market  value, 
or,  to  a  certain  extent,  replaced  by  "  new  tenor  "  notes  at  twenty  to  one,  the 
new  issues  to  bear  interest  at  five  per  cent.  The  old  notes  sank  to  one  thou- 
sand to  one,  and  finally  ceased  to  circulate. 

Continentals,  the  regular  troops  of  the  American  army  during  the  Revo- 
lution, enlisted  and  paid  by  the  Continental  Government  and  commanded  by 
Washington.  They  are  to  be  distinguished  from  the  militia  and  guerrilla 
companies.  The  name  was  first  applied  in  June,  1775,  when  Congress  appro- 
priated £6000  for  the  support  of  a  "  Continental  army,"  and  appointed 
Washington  commander-in-chief.  Washington  at  once  took  command  of 


i6o  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

the  forces  then  beleaguering  Boston,  and  ten  companies  of  expert  riflemen 
•  were  enlisted  in  Pennsylvania  and  Virginia. 

Contraband.  Under  the  laws  of  war,  goods  (such  as  arms)  which  may 
aid  an  enemy  to  prolong  the  war  are  called  contraband  and  held  liable  to 
seizure  and  condemnation,  if  a  neutral  tries  to  introduce  them  into  the 
country  of  the  other  belligerent.  In  1861  General  B.  F.  Butler  attempted 
to  apply  this  distinction  and  regulation  to  the  slaves  of  Southerners,  when 
they  fell  into  his  hands. 

Contrecoeur,  born  about  1730;  French  soldier.  In  1754  he  conducted  a 
French  force  down  the  Allegheny  River  and  constructed  Fort  Duquesne,  in 
attempting  to  capture  which  Braddock  was  defeated  the  next  year. 

Contreras,  Mexico,  a  short  battle  between  Pillow's  and  Twiggs'  divis- 
ions of  General  Scott's  army  and  Valencia,  an  officer  of  General  Santa  Anna, 
on  August  19-20.  Pillow  and  Twiggs  had  been  left  by  Scott  upon  the  con- 
struction of  a  road  during  his  approach  to  the  city  of  Mexico.  August  19 
Valencia  made  an  attack,  but  was  repulsed  and  ordered  by  Santa  Anna  to 
retreat.  This  he  refused  to  do  and  the  next  day  his  camp  was  attacked  and 
his  forces  routed.  Americans  4000,  Mexicans  6000. 

Convention,  Constitutional.  In  almost  all  the  States,  the  new  Constitu- 
tions framed  at  the  beginning  of  the  Revolutionary  period  were  made  by  the 
Revolutionary  Conventions  which  were  managing  all  the  affairs  of  the  State, 
in  the  absence  of  any  constitutional  government  .But  soon  the  feeling  grew 
that  Constitutions  should  be  made  by  conventions  which  the  people  chose 
especially  for  that  purpose.  The  Massachusetts  Constitution  of  1780  was  so 
made,  and  was  submitted  to  the  people  afterward.  Since  then  this  has  been 
the  regular  practice,  both  in  the  case  of  old  States  making  new  Constitutions, 
and  in  that  of.  new  States  formed  out  of  territories  and  old  States;  and  also 
in  that  of  reconstructed  Southern  States.  For  the  convention  which  framed 
the  Constitution  of  the  United  States,  see  Convention  of  1787.  A  conven- 
tion held  at  Montgomeiy,  Ala.,  identical  with  the  Confederate  provisional 
Congress,  framed  the  Constitution  of  the  Confederate  States,  March,  1861. 

Convention,  Nominating.  In  the  first  stages  of  American  political  life, 
candidates  for  offices  within  the  gift  of  the  people  either  themselves  made 
public  announcement  of  their  candidacy  or  were  nominated  by  more  or  less 
private  or  informal  caucuses  of  party  leaders.  Next  came  the  legislative 
caucus  (which  see),  the  candidate  of  a  party  being  chosen  by  a  caucus  of 
the  members  of  the  Legislature  belonging  to  that  party.  Though  a  sporadic 
case  of  a  nominating  convention  (at  Harrisburg)  as  early  as  1788  is  men- 
tioned, yet  in  general  the  legislative  caucus  was  the  ordinary  practice  at  that 
time.  But  this  gave,  in  the  case  of  a  given  party,  no  representation  of  those 
districts  whose  legislative  delegates  were  not  of  that  party.  Hence  arose  a 
modification  of  the  caucus;  the  legislative  caucus  being  supplemented  by 
the  addition  of  delegates  specially  sent  up  from  those  unrepresented  districts. 
This  was  the  half-way  stage  to  the  nominating  convention  pure  and  simple, 
which  consisted  of  delegates  from  all  parts  of  the  State,  chosen  especially 
uid  solely  for  the  purpose  of  making  nominations.  This  institution,  which 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  161 

has  prevailed  universally  ever  since,  arose  soon,  as  improved  means  of  com- 
munication between  different  parts  of  a  State  made  it  easy  for  such  bodies 
to  be  convened.  In  Pennsylvania  the  fully  developed  nominating  conven- 
tion of  the  modern  type  appears  in  (1792)  1817,  in  New  Jersey  in  1812,  in 
Rhode  Island  and  New  York  in  1825.  After  becoming  fully  developed  in 
the  States,  the  system  was  applied  to  Federal  elections.  The  Presidential 
nominations  of  1824  (except  Crawford's  caucus  nomination)  had  been  made 
on  no  well-defined  plan,  those  of  1828  mostly  by  State  Legislatures.  The 
first  national  nominating  convention  was  that  held  by  the  Anti-Masons  at 
Baltimore  in  September,  1831,  by  which  Wirt  and  Ellmaker  were  nominated. 
The  National  Republican  Convention  at  Baltimore,  December,  1831,  followed. 
In  May,  1832,  a  Democratic  Convention  nominated  Van  Buren  for  Vice- 
President.  In  1835  the  Democrats  at  Baltimore  nominated  Van  Buren  and 
Johnson  in  National  Convention;  the  Whigs  held  none.  In  1840  both  parties 
adopted  this  practice,  which  has  since  been  followed  without  exception. 
Beginning  with  that  year,  the  principal  conventions  have  been  the  following: 
1839,  Whig,  at  Harrisburg,  nominating  Harrison  and  Tyler;  1840,  Demo- 
cratic, at  Baltimore,  nominating  Van  Buren  but  no  Vice-President;  Liberty 
party  at  Albany,  nominating  Birney  and  Earle;  1844,  Whig  at  Baltimore, 
Clay  and  Frelinghuysen;  Democratic  at  Baltimore,  Polk  and  Dallas;  Liberty 
party  at  Buffalo  (1843),  Birney  and  Morris;  1848,  Democratic  at  Baltimore, 
Cass  and  Butler;  Whig  at  Philadelphia,  Taylor  and  Fillmore;  Free-Soil  at 
Buffalo,  Van  Buren  and  Adams;  1852,  Democratic  at  Baltimore,  Pierce  and 
King;  Whig  at  Baltimore,  Scott  and  Graham;  Free-Soil  at  Pittsburgh,  Hale 
and  Julian;  1856,  American  ("  Know-Nothing  ")  at  Philadelphia,  Fillmore 
and  Donelson;  Democratic  at  Cincinnati,  Buchanan  and  Breckinridge;  Repub- 
lican at  Philadelphia,  Fremont  and  Dayton;  Whig  at  Baltimore,  ratified  the 
American  nominations;  1860,  Democratic  (Moderate)  at  Charleston  and  Bal- 
timore, Douglas  and  Johnson;  Democratic  (Extreme)  at  Charleston,  Rich- 
mond and  Baltimore,  Breckinridge  and  Lane;  Constitutional  Union  at  Balti- 
more, Bell  and  Everett;  Republican  at  Chicago,  Lincoln  and  Hamlin;  1864, 
Republican  (Radical)  at  Cleveland,  Fremont  and  Cochrane;  Republican 
(Regular)  at  Baltimore,  Lincoln  and  Johnson;  Democratic  at  Chicago, 
McClellan  and  Pendleton;  1868,  Republican  at  Chicago,  Grant  and  Colfax; 
Democratic  at  New  York,  Seymour  and  Blair;  1872,  Liberal  Republican  at 
Cincinnati,  Greeley  and  Brown;  Republican  at  Philadelphia,  Grant  and  Wil- 
son; Democratic  at  Baltimore,  ratified  the  Liberal  Republican  nominations; 
1876,  Greenback  at  Indianapolis,  Cooper  and  Carey;  Republican  at  Cincin- 
nati, Hayes  and  Wheeler;  Democratic  at  St.  Louis,  Tilden  and  Hendricks; 
1880,  Republican  at  Chicago,  Garfield  and  Arthur;  Greenback  at  Chicago, 
Weaver  and  Chambers;  Democratic  at  Cincinnati,  Hancock  and  English; 
1884,  Republican  at  Chicago,  Blaine  and  Logan;  Democratic  at  Chicago, 
Cleveland  and  Hendricks;  Prohibitionist  at  Pittsburgh,  St.  John  and  Daniel; 
Greenback  Labor  party,  Butler  and  West;  1888,  Prohibitionist  at  Indian- 
apolis, Fiske  and  Brooks;  Democratic  at  St.  Louis,  Cleveland  and  Thur- 
man;  Republican  at  Chicago,  Harrison  and  Morton;  1892,  Republican  at 
Minneapolis,  Harrison  and  Reid;  Democratic  at  Chicago,  Cleveland  and 
Stevenson;  Prohibitionist  at  Cincinnati,  Bidwell  and  Cranfell;  People's 
party  at  Omaha,  Weaver  and  Field.  (See  Elections.) 


1 63  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Convention  of  1787,  the  body  which  framed  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
States,  was  first  suggested  by  a  private  letter  of  Alexander  Hamilton  in  1780. 
The  State  Legislatures  were  slow  in  considering  the  matter.  The  convention 
was  really  brought  about  by  the  recommendation  of  a  previous  convention 
of  delegates  from  several  States,  who  had  assembled  at  Annapolis  in  Septem- 
ber, 1786,  to  consider  the  regulation  of  trade.  Virginia  taking  the  lead, 
delegates  were  chosen  to  a  convention  to  amend  the  faulty  Articles  of  Con- 
federation. By  June  2,  1787,  delegates  from  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  New 
Jersey,  Delaware,  Virginia,  North  Carolina,  South  Carolina,  Massachusetts, 
Connecticut,  Georgia  and  Maryland,  had  assembled  at  I  hiladelphia,  those 
from  the  first  seven  States  having  arrived  May  25.  On  May  29  Edmund 
Randolph,  of  Virginia,  presented  a  plan  for  "  a  moie  energetic  government," 
and  inclining  to  reduce  the  "  idea  of  States  "  to  a  minimum.  He  proposed 
a  correction  of  the  Articles  of  Confederation;  representation  by  population; 
two  branches  of  Congress,  the  first  chosen  by  the  reople,  the  second  by  the 
first  on  nomination  by  the  State  Legislatures;  that  Congress  should  legislate 
concerning  commerce  and  taxes  and  should  have  a  veto  power  over  State 
laws;  that  Congress  should  choose  the  executive,  who  should  have  veto  power, 
and  a  number  of  other  clauses.  Charles  Pinckney,  of  South  Carolina,  sub- 
mitted another  draft  of  a  Constitution.  These  were  considered  and  reported 
favorably.  After  much  dabate  it  was  decided  that  a  national  government 
ought  to  be  established.  June  15,  William  Paterson,  of  New  Jersey,  sub- 
mitted a  draft  which  was  in  nearly  every  respect  incompatible  with  Ran- 
dolph's, leaving  far  more  to  the  States,  that  the  small  States  might  be 
protected — On  the  motion  of  Ellsworth  a  compromise  was  effected  by  giving 
the  States  an  equal  represe  itation  in  the  Senate  and  a  representation  propor- 
tionate to  population  in  the  House.  A  compromise  was  also  effected  regard- 
ing the  regulation  of  commerce  and  the  taxation  of  exports.  The  third 
compromise  forbade  Congress  to  prohibit  the  slave  trade,  and  established  a 
fugitive  slave  law.  July  24  a  committee  of  detail  wss  appointed.  August  6 
this  committee  of  detail  reported  a  draft  strongly  resembling  the  Constitution. 
A  mouth  was  spent  in  debate,  and  on  September  12,  this  draft,  amended  by 
the  third  great  compromise,  was  given  to  a  committee  of  style,  consistirg  of 
Gouverneur  Morris,  Johnson,  Madison,  Hamilton  and  King.  September  13 
the  Constitution  was  reported  to  the  convention  Very  nearly  in  its  present 
form.  In  the  debates  the  leaders  of  the  nationalizing  party  were,  Hamilton, 
Madison,  King,  Wilson  and  Morris;  of  the  States'  rights,  Lansing,  Yates, 
Paterson,  Martin.  On  September  17,  1787,  the  convention  adjourned,  after 
sending  the  Constitution  to  Congress  for  transmission  to  the  States.  Its  pro- 
ceedings were  marked  by  great  moderation  and  wisdom.  It  consisted  mostly 
of  somewhat  conservative  men.  A  movement  toward  a  second  general  con- 
vention in  1788,  started  by  George  Clinton,  Patrick  Henry  and  other  Anti- 
Federalists,  proved  abortive. 

Convention  of  1787,  Members  of.  In  the  following  list  of  members 
elected,  those  who  signed  the  Constitution  are  designated  by  numbers;  those 
whose  names  are  written  in  italics  did  not  attend;  the  rest  attended,  but  did 
not 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 


163 


New  Hampshire. 

1.  John  Langdon, 
John  Pickering, 

2.  Nicholas  Gilman, 
Benjamin  West. 

Massachusetts. 

Francis  Dana, 
Elbridge  Gerry, 

3.  Nathaniel  Gorham, 

4.  Rufus  King, 
Caleb  Strong. 

Connecticut. 

5.  William  Samuel  Johnson, 

6.  Roger  Sherman, 
Oliver  Bllsworth. 

New  York. 

Robert  Yates, 

7.  Alexander  Hamilton, 
John  Lansing. 

New  Jersey. 

8.  David  Brearley, 

William  Churchill  Houston, 

9.  William  Paterson, 
John  Neilson, 

10.  William  Livingston, 
Abraham  Clark, 

11.  Jonathan  Dayton. 

Pennsylvania. 

12.  Thomas  Mifflin, 

13.  P.obert  Morris, 

14.  George  Clymer, 

15.  Jared  Ingersoll, 

1 6.  Thomas  Fitzsimons, 

17.  James  Wilson, 

1 8.  Gouverneur  Morris, 

19.  Benjamin  Franklin. 

Delaware. 

20.  George  Read, 

21.  Gunning  Bedford, 

22.  John  Dickinson, 

23.  Richard  Bassett, 

24.  Jacob  Broom. 


Maryland. 

Robert  Hanson  Harrison, 
Charles  Carroll,  of  Carrollton, 
Thomas  Stone, 

25.  James  McHenry, 
Thomas  Sim  Lee, 
Gabriel  Duvall, 

26.  Daniel  Jenifer,  of  St.  Thomas, 

27.  Daniel  Carroll, 
James  Francis  Mercer, 
Luther  Martin. 

Virginia. 

28.  George  Washington, 
Patrick  Henry, 
Edmund  Randolph, 

29.  John  Blair, 

30.  James  Madison, 
George  Mason, 
George  Wythe, 
Richard  Henry  Lee, 
Thomas  Nelson, 
James  McClurg. 

North  Carolina. 

Richard  Caswell, 
Alexander  Martin, 
William  Richardson  Davie, 

31.  Richard  Dobbs  Spaight, 
Willie  Jones, 

32.  William  Blount, 

33.  Hugh  Williamson. 

South  Carolina. 

34.  John,  Rutledge, 

35.  Charles  Cotesworth  Pinckney, 

36.  Charles  Pinckney, 

37.  Pierce  Butler, 
Henry  Laurens. 

Georgia. 

38.  William  Few, 

39.  Abraham  Baldwin, 
William  Pierce, 
George  Walton, 
William  Houston, 
Nathaniel  Pendleton. 


1 64  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Convention,  Revolutionary.  In  English  history,  conventions,  resembling 
Parliaments  in  everything  but  in  not  being  summoned  by  the  crown,  were 
held  in  1660  and  in  1689.  Thence  the  name  came  to  America  and  was 
similarly  applied,  as  in  Massachusetts  in  1689  and  in  South  Carolina  in 
1718,  to  irregular  meetings  of  the  popular  branch  of  the  Legislature,  sum- 
moned in  the  absence  of  executive  authority.  In  the  troubles  that  led  to 
the  Revolution,  when  royal  governors  dissolved  assemblies,  they  often  met 
again  at  once  in  "  conventions."  These  representative  bodies  soon  came  to 
have  all  authority,  to  the  exclusion  of  the  royal  government.  In  the  pro- 
visional governments  which  managed  the  Revolution  in  each  State,  the  con- 
trolling body,  up  to  the  time  when  the  first  Constitution  was  made  for  the 
State,  was  the  convention.  These  revolutionary  conventions  were  sovereign 
bodies,  and  most  commonly  they  made  the  State's  first  Constitution,  though 
soon  the  feeling  grew  that  this  should  be  done  by  a  special  convention 
elected  by  the  people  for  that  express  purpose.  Conventions,  supposed  to 
represent  the  sovereignty  of  the  State  in  a  more  complete  degree  than  Leg- 
islatures could,  controlled  the  nullification  proceedings  in  South  Carolina  in 
1832,  and  passed  the  ordinances  of  secession  on  behalf  of  the  Southern 
States  in  1860  and  1861. 

Convention  Troops.  On  October  14, 1777,  the  British  General  Burgoyne, 
finding  himself  surrounded  at  Saratoga,  proposed  to  surrender  to  General 
Gates.  Accordingly,  October  16,  a  convention  was  signed  fixing  the  terms 
of  capitulation.  It  was  decided  that  Burgoyne,  his  officers  and  troops  should 
march  out  of  camp  with  the  honors  of  war,  and  should  be  accorded  pass- 
ports to  England  upon  promising  to  abstain  from  war  against  the  States.  In 
obedience  to  these  terms  the  troops  were  marched  to  Boston,  there  to  await 
transports  from  Howe.  During  the  winter  the  troops  remained  quartered  on 
Prospect  Hill  and  Winter  Hill,  the  officers  being  placed  at  Cambridge. 
Numerous  delays  followed.  Congress  disliked  the  terms;  an  expression  of 
Burgoyne's  was  construed  as  a  repudiation  of  them.  Finally  General  Heath 
was  instructed  by  Congress  to  suspend  the  embarkation  indefinitely.  Bur- 
goyne and  his  staff  returned  to  England  on  parole.  The  troops  were  trans- 
ferred to  Rutland,  Vt,  and  afterward  to  Charlottesville,  Va.,  where  they 
remained  till  the  close  of  the  war. 

Conventionalists,  in  the  Pennsylvania  politics  of  1804-1808,  the  name 
assumed  by  those  extreme  Democrats  who  desired  to  see  a  new  convention 
called,  to  modify  the  Constitution  of  the  State  in  a  radically  democratic 
sense,  as  opposed  to  the  so-called  "  Constitutionalists."  Their  leaders  were 
Leib  and  Duane. 

Convicts.  In  1619,  by  order  of  King  James  L,  one  hundred  convicts 
were  sent  from  England  to  be  sold  as  servants.  For  more  than  a  century 
this  practice  was  from  time  to  time  followed  in  the  case  of  the  royal  colonies, 
in  spite  of  colonial  protests. 

Conway,  Thomas  (1733-1800?),  soldier,  came  to  the  United  States  in  1777 
and  was  made  brigadier-general,  and  was  present  at  Brandywine  and  Ger- 
mantown.  He  was  leader  of  the  conspiracy  against  Washington,  known  as 
the  "  Conway  Cabal,"  on  account  of  which  he  was  wounded  in  a  duel  with 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  165 

General  John  Cadwalader.     Soon  after  he  returned  to  France,  and  was  made 
Governor  of  Pondicherry. 

Conway  Cabal.  An  intrigue  by  Gates,  Lee,  Mifflin,  Wilkinson  and  others 
of  Washington's  officers,  in  1777,  for  the  promotion  of  Brigadier-General 
Conway,  contrary  to  Washington's  judgment.  Washington  was  accused  of 
incompetence  and  partiality,  and  finally  Congress  was  prevailed  upon  to 
promote  Conway  to  major-general  and  inspector-general.  In  1778  Conway 
was  wounded  in  a  duel  and  apologized  to  Washington,  confessing  his 
wrong. 

Goodies,  a  name  given  to  small  bodies  of  Federalists  who  became  promi- 
nent in  New  York  City  in  1812,  under  the  leadership  of  G.  C.  Verplanck 
("Abimalech  Coody").  They  opposed  DeWitt  Clinton  and  favored  war 
with  England. 

Cook,  F.  Joseph,  born  in  1838,  of  New  York,  author  and  lecturer;  has 
traveled  extensively,  but  is  best  known  as  a  lecturer  on  theological  subjects, 
and  especially  by  his  "  Boston  Monday  Lectures." 

Cook,  James  (1728-1779),  naval  captain,  commanded  a  frigate  at  the 
capture  of  Quebec  in  1759.  In  1768  he  made  an  expedition,  during  which 
he  sought  for  the  great  continent  supposed  to  exist  near  the  South  Pole. 
From  1772  to  1775  a  more  thorough  exploration  was  made.  In  1776  he 
conducted  an  expedition  to  discover  a  northwest  passage  by  way  of  Behring 
Strait.  He  discovered  the  Sandwich  Islands,  where  he  was  killed  by  the 
natives  of  Hawaii. 

Cooke,  Jay,  born  in  1821,  established  the  banking  firm  of  Jay  Cooke 
&  Co.,  at  Philadelphia,  in  1861,  which  was  the  agent  of  the  United  States 
for  the  war  loans  during  the  Civil  War.  Its  failure  on  September  19,  1873 
("  Black  Friday  "),  began  the  panic  of  that  year. 

Cooke,  John  Esten  (1830—1886),  of  Virginia,  author,  entered  the  Con- 
federate army,  his  experiences  in  which  furnish  the  materials  for  some  of 
his  writings.  He  also  wrote  on  Virginian  history. 

Cooley,  Thomas  M.,  born  in  1824,  of  Michigan,  jurist,  was  appointed  to 
compile  the  statutes  of  Michigan  in  1857,  and  was  reporter  of  the  Supreme 
Court  in  1858.  He  was  a  Justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Michigan  from 
1864  to  1885  and  Chief  Justice  in  1868-69.  He  was  chairman  of  the  Inter- 
state Commerce  Commission  from  its  beginning  in  1887  till  1891.  He  now 
holds  the  chair  of  American  History  in  the  University  of  Michigan  and  is 
lecturer  on  constitutional  law  and  political  science.  He  has  published  a 
"Digest  of  Michigan  Reports"  and  has  edited 'an  edition  of  Blackstone's 
"Commentaries,"  with  copious  notes.  Died  1898. 

Coons,  a  nickname  given  to  the  members  of  the  Whig  party,  who  had 
adopted  the  raccoon  as  an  emblem. 

Cooper,  Edward,  an  active  business  man,  son  of  Peter  Cooper,  was  born 
in  1824.  He  was  mayor  of  New  York  from  1879  to  J88i  anc^  1883,  and 
was  active  in  the  overthrow  of  the  Tweed  ring. 


x66  DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Cooper,  James  Fenimore  (1789-1851),  was  born  in  Burlington,  N.  J.  He 
entered  the  navy  in  1801,  but  resigned  in  iS.Ti.  In  1821  he  published  "  The 
Spy,"  the  first  of  his  historical  novels  and  one  of  the  first  of  American  his- 
torical novels.*  This  was  followed  by  "  The  Pioneers,"  "The  Last  of  the 
Mohicans,"  and  a  long  series  of  romantic  novels  dealing  with  the  Revolu- 
tion; frontier  life,  sea  life  and  the  American  Indian.  He  also  wrote  a  history 
of  the  American  navy. 

Cooper,  Myles  (1735-1785),  an  English  clergyman,  was  president  of 
King's  College,  New  York,  from  1763  to  1775,  in  which  year,  being  a  Tory, 
he  returned  to  England.  His  sermon  at  Oxford,  "  On  the  Causes  of  the 
Present  Rebellion  iii  America,"  aroused  much  controversy. 

Cooper,  Peter  (1791-1883),  philanthropist,  was  born  in  New  York  City. 
He  greatly  promoted  the  progress  of  industrial  improvement  in  the  United 
States,  and  in  1854-59  erected  the  "  Cooper  Union  for  the  advancement  of 
Science  and  Art,"  where  the  working  classes  may  receive  free  instruction. 
He  was  a  careful  thinker  on  questions  of  government  and  finance.  In  1876 
lie  was  the  Presidential  candidate  of  the  National  Independent  party. 

Cooper,  Samuel  (1798—1876),  from  1815  an  officer  in  the  U.  S.  army, 
was  adjutant-general  from  1852  to  1861.  Resigning  then,  he  became  adju- 
tant-general and  inspector-general  of  the  Confederate  army. 

Cooper,  Thomas  (1759-1840),  scientist.  An  English  democrat,  he  emi- 
grated to  the  United  States  in  1795.  He  was  one  of  those  tried  under  the 
Sedition  Act,  was  president  of  the  College  of  South  Carolina,  and  was  one 
of  the  founders  of  political  economy  in  America. 

Cope,  Edward  Drinker,  naturalist  and  comparative  anatomist,  was  born 
in  Philadelphia  in  1840.  He  has  contributed  extensively  to  the  develop- 
ment of  palaeontology,  and  has  been  honored  by  scientific  societies  at  home 
and  abroad.  Died  in  1897. 

Copley,  John  Singleton  (1737-1815),  an  eminent  portrait  painter,  was 
born  in  Boston.  In  1775,  after  a  year  spent  in  study  in  Italy,  he  established 
himself  in  London,  and  was  shortly  afterward  chosen  a  member  of  the  Royal 
Academy.  His  painting,  "  The  Death  of  Lord  Chatham,"  is  the  most  famous 
of  his  numerous  productions.  Lord  Lyndhurst,  Lord  Chancellor  of  England, 
was  his  son. 

Copper.  The  mining  of  copper  was  carried  on  to  a  limited  extent  in 
Connecticut,  New  Jersey  and  Pennsylvania,  in  colonial  times,  and  its  exist- 
ence was  known  of  as  early  as  1660  by  Jesuit  missionaries  about  Lake 
Superior  in  Michigan.  The  first  systematic  mining  for  copper  was  begun  in 
Michigan  in  1844.  From  1867  to  1881  about  ninety  per  cent  of  the  copper 
product  of  the  United  States  came  from  Lake  Superior.  Immense  copper 
fields  have  since  been  opened  in  Montana  and  Arizona. 

Copperhead,  the  name  applied  to  Northerners  who  sympathized  with  the 
South  in  the  Civil  War. 

Copyright.  Clause  8  of  the  Constitution  authorized  Congress  to  issue 
copyrights  to  authors  and  artists  and  patents  to  inventors.  Prior  to  the 


DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  167 

adoption  of  the  Constitution  the  States  issued  copyrights,  and  the  first  act  of 
Congress  recognized  the  rights  thus  granted.  The  first  law  was  enacted  in 
1790,  giving  to  authors  exclusive  right  to  their  works  for  fourteen  years,  with 
the  liberty  of  renewal  for  the  same  number  of  years.  In  1831  the  term  was 
made  twenty-eight  years,  with  the  right  of  renewal  for  fourteen  years.  A 
copy  of  the  title  of  the  book  or  a  description  of  the  article  must  be  sent  to  the 
Librarian  of  Congress,  and  not  later  than  the  day  of  publication  two  copies 
of  the  book  must  be  sent  to  the  librarian.  Copyrights  were  formerly  issued 
by  the  Clerks  of  the  District  Courts  of  the  United  States.  In  1891  Congress 
passed  an  act  granting  the  privileges  of  copyright  to  foreigners  of  nations 
whose  governments  give  American  citizens  similar  privileges.  This  recip- 
rocity was  to  be  determined  by  proclamation  of  the  President.  It  was  at 
once  extended  to  Great  Britain,  France,  Belgium  and  Switzerland,  and  sub- 
sequently to  Germany  and  Italy. 

Corcoran,  William  W.  (1798-1888),  a  banker  and  successful  financier 
during  the  Mexican  War,  was  noted  as  founder  of  the  Louise  Home  and  the 
Corcoran  Art  Gallery  at  Washington,  D.  C.,  and  for  liberality  toward  chari- 
table institutions. 

Corea.  The  United  States  concluded  a  commercial  treaty  with  Corea  in 
1882. 

Corinth,  Miss.,  fortified  and  occupied  by  General  Beauregard,  command- 
ing 53,000  effective  Confederate  troops,  and  captured  May  30,  1862,  by 
Generals  Halleck  and  Pope,  leading  an  army  of  over  100,000  Federals,  after 
some  twelve  days  spent  in  skirmish,  siege  and  bombardment.  Beauregard's 
lieutenants  were  Van  Dorn  and  Price.  Corinth  was  but  weakly  fortified, 
but  this  fact  was  unknown  to  the  Federal  generals,  strong  outposts  of  Con- 
federate troops  being  constantly  opposed  to  their  advancing  columns.  Pope 
sent  Elliot,  Hatch  and  Sheridan  with  strong  detachments  to  make  a  circuit 
of  forty  miles  around  the  town  and  strike  the  railroad.  Stanley's  division 
pushed  forward,  and,  after  a  sharp  skirmish  with  the  Confederate  outposts, 
secured  and  fortified  a  position  directly  opposite  the  Confederate  works. 
Paine,  Crittenden  and  Nelson  joined  him  there.  Sherman  had  meantime 
captured  a  loop-holed  log  house,  manned  by  Confederates  and  situated  south 
of  Corinth.  Sharp-shooters  annoyed  him  from  this  place.  The  house  was 
destroyed  and  Sherman  advanced  close  to  Beauregard's  earthworks.  Beau- 
regard,  seeing  himself  nearly  hemmed  in,  began  to  evacuate  on  the  night  of 
the  twenty-ninth,  destroying  as  much  as  he  could,  but  leaving  many  valuable 
stores,  nevertheless.  His  evacuation  was  concealed  by  the  shouting  of  his  men 
and  the  blowing  of  whistles,  which  the  Federals  mistook  for  reinforcements. 
Later,  the  place,  when  in  Federal  possession,  was  assaulted,  but  without  suc- 
cess, by  a  large  Confederate  force  commanded  by  Price  and  Van  Dorn,  Octo- 
ber 3-4,  1862.  Rosecrans  held  the  place  with  20,000  Federal  troops  posted 
behind  three  rows  of  earthworks.  Hamilton  held  the  right,  Davies  the  cen- 
tre and  McKean  the  left.  Price  advanced  from  the  left  and  Van  Dorn  from 
the  right.  The  assault  was  begun  by  an  impetuous  charge  by  the  latter 
general.  Little  was  done,  however,  the  first  day.  Early  October  4,  Price's 
column  advanced,  drawn  up  like  a  wedge.  The  charge  was  a  daring  one, 


1 68  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

but  the  Confederates  were  driven  back  and  literally  cut  to  pieces.  The 
Texan  and  Mississippi  troops  under  Rogers  fared  as  badly,  their  charge  end- 
ing the  assault.  They  fled  in  great  disorder  and  were  pursued  for  some  dis- 
tance by  an  Ohio  regiment. 

Cornbury,  Edward  Hyde,  Lord  (1661-1724)  cousin  of  Queen  Mary  and 
Queen  Anne,  was  made  Governor  of  New  York  by  William  III.  In  1708, 
after  six  years  of  severe  rule,  he  was  removed,  but  for  a  long  time  was  impris- 
oned for  debt. 

Cornell,  Alonzo  B.,  was  born  in  Ithaca,  N.  Y.,  in  1832.  In  1866-67  he 
was  a  member  of  the  Republican  State  Committee,  and  in  1868  was  nom- 
inated for  Lieutenant-Governor.  He  was  elected  to  the  State  Assembly  in 
1872  and  made  Speaker  in  1873.  He  received  important  appointments  from 
President  Grant,  and  was  Governor  of  New  York  from  1880  to  1883. 

Cornell,  Ezra  (1807-1874),  founder  of  Cornell  University,  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  first  Republican  National  Convention,  was  elected  to  the. New 
York  Assembly  in  1862-63,  and  served  in  the  State  Senate  from  1864  to 
1867. 

Cornell  University  was  chartered  in  1865  and  organized  in  1868. 

Cornstalk,  an  Indian  chief  who  led  a  clever  and  spirited  attack  upon 
General  Lewis  at  Point  Pleasant,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Great  Kanawha 
(1774).  Bach  side  lost  about  seventy-five  killed  and  one  hundred  and  forty 
wounded. 

Cornwallis,  Charles,  Earl  and  later  Marquis  Cornwallis  (1737-1805), 
served  in  the  Seven  Years'  War.  He  took  his  seat  in  Parliament  and 
favored  the  Americans  during  the  preliminary  troubles.  Having  been  made 
lieutenant-general  he  was  sent  to  America  in  1776,  fought  in  the  battle  of 
Long  Island,  and  pursued  Washington's  army  through  New  Jersey.  He  was 
defeated  at  Princeton,  decided  the  victory  of  Brandy  wine  in  1777,  and  served 
at  Germantown  and  Monmouth.  Having  been  appointed  to  the  command 
of  the  Southern  army  he  overwhelmed  Gates  at  Camden  in  1780,  but  in  his 
contest  with  Greene  he  was  worsted,  although  he  won  a  technical  victory  at 
Guilford  Court  House  in  1781.  Then  followed  his  campaign  in  Virginia 
against  Lafayette,  the  siege  of  his  army  in  Yorktown,  and  its  surrender  to 
the  Franco-American  troops  on  October  17,  1781.  He  was  the  ablest  of  the 
British  commanders  in  the  war.  As  Governor-General  of  India,  1786-93 
and  1805,  he  rendered  valuable  military  and  administrative  services.  He 
was  also  lord-lieutenant  of  Ireland,  1798-1801,  at  the  epoch  of  the  Union. 

Coronado,  Francisco  Vasquez  de  (1510—1542),  a  Spanish  explorer,  sent 
out  expeditions  in  1539  and  1540,  which  explored  the  regions  of  the  Gila, 
the  Little  Colorado  and  the  Rio  Grande. 

Corporal's  Guard,  the  term  applied  to  the  small  party  or  group  which  sup- 
ported Tyler's  administration  (1841—45). 

Corps,  in  the  Civil  War.  First  Corps  organized  March  13,  1862,  and  com- 
manded by  McDowell;  afterward  reorganize^  and  merged  in  the  Army  of 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  169 

the  Potomac  and  commanded  by  Wadsworth,  Newton  and  Hancock  in 
succession;  disbanded  in  1865.  Second  Corps  organized  August  12,  1862,  and 
at  first  commanded  by  Banks;  afterward  by  a  number  of  other  generals; 
disbanded  in  1865.  Third  Corps  organized  August  12,  1862,  and  com- 
manded by  Heintzelman;  disbanded  in  1864.  Fourth  Corps  organized 
August  i,  1863,  and  commanded  by  Keyes;  afterward  consolidated  with 
the  Twentieth  and  Twenty-first  Corps;  disbanded  in  1865.  Fifth  Corps 
organized  July  2,  1862,  and  commanded  by  Banks;  afterward  by  Porter 
in  the  Army  of  the  Potomac;  disbanded  in  1865;  many  successive  com- 
manders. Sixth  Corps  organized  July  22,  1862,  with  Franklin  in  com- 
mand; disbanded  in  1865.  Seventh  Corps  organized  July  22,  1862,  with 
Naglee  in  command;  merged  with  Eighteenth  Corps  in  1863.  Eighth 
Corps  organized  July  22,  1862,  and  commanded  by  Schenck  and  Lockwood; 
afterward  by  Lew  Wallace;  disbanded  in  1865.  Ninth  Corps  organized 
July  22,  1862,  and  commanded  by  Burnside  and  others  in  succession;  dis- 
banded in  1865.  Tenth  Corps  organized  September  3,  1862,  with  Mitchell 
in  command;  discontinued  in  1864,  but  reorganized  in  1865  and  continued 
till  the  close  of  the  war  under  various  generals.  Eleventh  Corps  originally 
organized  as  the  Second  Corps;  organized  as  the  Eleventh  September  12, 
1862,  and  commanded  by  Banks;  consolidated  with  the  Twelfth  in  1864, 
and  constituted  the  Twentieth;  disbanded  in  1865.  Twelfth  Corps  first 
organized  as  the  Third  Corps;  as  Twelfth  September  12,  1862;  after- 
ward merged  with  the  Eleventh  to  form  the  Twentieth,  with  Banks  in  com- 
mand; disbanded  in  1865.  Thirteenth  Corps  organized  October  24,  1862, 
with  McClernand  in  command;  reorganized  in  1865  and  commanded  by 
Granger.  Fourteenth  Corps  organized  October  24,  1862,  and  commanded 
by  Rosecrans;  disbanded  in  1865.  Fifteenth  Corps  organized  December 
18,  1862,  and  commanded  by  Sherman;  disbanded  in  1865.  Sixteenth 
Corps  organized  December  18,  1862,  and  commanded  by  Hurlbut;  dis- 
banded in  1865.  Seventeenth  Corps  organized  December  18,  1862,  with 
McPherson  in  command;  disbanded  in  1865.  Eighteenth  Corps  organized 
December  24,  1862,  and  commanded  by  Foster;  reorganized  in  1864,  and 
commanded  by  W.  F.  Smith;  disbanded  in  1865.  Nineteenth  Corps 
organized  January  5,  1863,  with  Banks  in  command;  organization  abol- 
ished in  1864,  and  entirely  disbanded  in  1865.  Twentieth  Corps  organized 
January  3,  1863,  and  commanded  by  McCook;  afterward  reformed  from 
Eleventh  and  Twelfth  in  1863;  disbanded  in  1865.  Twenty-first  Corps 
organized  January  9,  1863,  and  commanded  by  Crittenden;  consolidated 
with  the  original  Twentieth  in  1863  to  form  the  Fourth.  Twenty-second 
Corps  organized  February  2,  1863,  with  Heintzelman  in  command;  dis- 
banded in  a  few  months.  Twenty-third  Corps  organized  April  27,  1863, 
with  Hartsuff  in  command;  disbanded  in  1865.  Twenty-fourth  Corps 
organized  December  3,  1864,  and  commanded  by  Ord;  disbanded  in  1865. 
Twenty-fifth  Corps  organized  December  3,  1864,  of  colored  troops,  and  com- 
manded by  Weitzel  and  Heckman;  disbanded  in  1866.  Potomac  Cavalry 
Corps  organized  April  15,  1863,  and  commanded  by  Stoneman  and  after- 
ward by  Sheridan.  Wilson's  Cavalry  Corps  not  organized  under  Act  of 
Congress,  as  the  others  were.  Engineer  and  Signal  Service  Corps  organ- 
ized in  1864. 


170  DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Corrlgan,  Michael  Augustine,  Roman  Catholic  prelate,  born  in  Newark, 
N.  J.,  in  1839,  was  Bishop  of  Newark  1873-1880;  coadjutor  to  Cardinal 
McCloskey  1880-1885,  and  Archbishop  of  New  York  from  1885  to  the 
present  time  (1894). 

Cortereal,  Caspar,  born  in  Lisbon,  died  in  1501.  He  received  a  license 
from  the  King  of  Portugal  to  make  a  voyage  of  discovery  in  1500.  He  is 
reported  to  have  visited  a  country  far  to  the  North,  which  was  probably 
Greenland.  He  made  a  second  voyage  with  three  ships  in  1501,  during  which 
he  sailed  for  six  or  seven  hundred  miles  along  the  coast  of  America.  His 
vessel  was  never  heard  from. 

Corwin,  Thomas  (1794-1865),  statesman,  was  a  member  of  the  Ohio 
Legislature  1822-1829,  and  of  the  U.  S.  House  of  Representatives  in  1831, 
where  he  represented  the  Whig  party  until  1840,  when  he  was  elected  Gov- 
ernor of  Ohio.  He  was  elected  to  the  U.  S.  Senate  1844-1850  and  to  Con- 
gress in  1858  and  1860.  He  was  appointed  Minister  to  Mexico  by  President 
Lincoln,  serving  from  1861  to  1864. 

Costa  Rica.  The  United  States  concluded  a  commercial  treaty  with  Costa 
Rica  in  1851.  A  convention  relative  to  claims  of  United  States  citizens  was 
concluded  in  1860. 

Cotton,  John  (1585-1652),  clergyman,  fled  to  America  in  1633  to  escape  a 
charge  of  nonconformity  in  church  service,  and  was  established  in  the  first 
church  in  Boston,  where  he  remained  until  his  death.  In  controversies  with 
Roger  Williams  he  defended  the  interference  of  the  civil  power  in  religious 
matters.  He  was  a  scholar  of  profound  learning  and  a  voluminous  writer. 

Cotton.  The  cotton  plant  began  to  be  cultivated  in  Virginia  in  the  times 
of  the  earliest  colonists.  Small  patches  were  grown,  and  the  lint,  picked 
from  the  seed  by  hand,  was  woven  into  cloth  for  domestic  use.  The  develop- 
ment of  cotton  manufacture  was  gradual,  and  it  was  not  until  1750,  when 
the  fly  shuttle  was  invented,  that  the  industry  became  extensive  through  the 
Southern  States  of  the  Union.  The  spinning  jenny  was  invented  in  Eng- 
land in  1767  and  immediately  brought  into  use  in  this  country.  In  1769 
Arkwright  patented  a  spinning  frame,  or  "throstle,''  in  which  was  a  useful 
device  for  spinning  with  rollers.  Arkwright  adapted  to  this  machine  the 
principle  now  known  as  the  "  flyer."  Samuel  Crompton  combined  the  princi- 
ples of  the  fly  shuttle  and  the  "  throstle  "  in  1779,  and  Cartwright  invented 
the  power  loom  in  1785.  The  first  steam  engine  used  in  a  power  mill  was 
set  up  in  1785,  thus  supplying  the  mechanical  power  so  long  needed.  Eli 
Whitney's  cotton  gin,  invented  in  1792,  brought  about  an  enormous  increase 
in  the  cotton  industry.  The  first  successful  cotton  factory  in  the  United 
States  was  that  of  Samuel  Slater,  of  Pawtucket,  R.  I.,  established  in  1790. 
In  1810  the  whole  consumption  of  cotton  in  this  country  was  10,000  bales; 
in  1815  it  had  reached  90,000.  The  total  product  in  1890  was  14,188,103 
bales,  with  a  capital  of  $354,000,000  employed  in  the  industry. 

Cotton  Gin,  invented  by  Eli  Whitney,  of  Massachusetts,  in  1792.  With 
this  machine  the  preparation  of  cotton  for  market  was  enormously  facilitated 
and  the  cotton  industry  increased  proportionately.  The  price  of  slaves 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  171 

immediately  rose  and  the  faint  glimmerings  of  emancipation  sentiment  in 
the  South  were  quickly  extinguished,  slave  labor  being  invaluable  in  the 
cultivation  of  cotton. 

Cotton  Loans,  loans  negotiated  by  the  Confederate  Government.  It 
induced  the  planters  to  promise  that,  when  their  cotton  was  sold,  certain 
sums  or  a  certain  proportion  of  the  crop  should  be  paid  to  the  government 
for  the  management  of  the  war.  In  return,  and  on  this  basis,  the  govern- 
ment issued  eight  per  cent  bonds.  The  loan  proved  worthless  to  subscribers. 

"  Cotton  Whigs,"  a  name  given  in  the  decade  preceding  the  Civil  War 
to  those  Whigs  in  the  North  who  were  willing,  for  the  sake  of  conciliating 
the  Southern  Whigs,  to  make  as  little  opposition  as  possible  to  the  extension 
of  slavery. 

Couch,  Darius  N.,  general,  born  in  South  East,  N.  Y.,  in  1822.  He  was 
graduated  at  the  U.  S.  Military  Academy,  and  served  against  the  Seminoles 
in  1849-50.  During  the  Civil  War  he  served  as  colonel  and  brigadier- 
general,  and  commanded  the  Second  Army  Corps  at  Fredericksburg  and 
Chancellorsville.  He  was  quartermaster-general  of  Connecticut  in  1877-78, 
and  adjutant-general  in  1883-84.  Died  1897. 

Council.  Under  the  colonial  governments,  the  council,  legislative  coun- 
cil, or  executive  council,  was  a  body  partaking  of  the  nature  and  functions 
of  an  upper  House  of  the  Legislature,  and  of  a  privy  council.  The  name 
was  retained  for  the  upper  House  of  the  Legislature  by  Delaware  until  1792, 
by  Georgia  until  1798,  by  South  Carolina  until  1790  and  by  Vermont  until 
1836.  In  later  days  this  name  has  also  been  applied  to  the  upper  House  of 
the  Territorial  Legislatures.  In  a  few  States  the  Governor  has  an  executive 
council. 

Count  of  Presidential  Votes.  The  two  Houses  meet  in  the  House  of 
Representatives.  The  votes  are  opened  by  the  president  of  the  Senate  and 
handed  to  tellers,  who  count  the  votes  and  announce  the  results.  In  1876 
double  returns  were  received  from  certain  States.  In  1877  an  ac^  was  passed 
applicable  to  that  election  only,  that  no  vote  should  be  rejected  except  by 
concurrent  vote  of  both  Houses,  and  that  disputes  should  be  decided  by  a 
special  Electoral  Commission.  In  1887  an  act  was  passed  providing  that  the 
determination  by  the  States,  under  State  laws,  of  all  contests  as  to  the 
appointment  of  electors,  shall  be  final,  so  far  as  is  possible. 

County.  In  England  the  county  was  the  primary  subdivision  of  the 
kingdom.  In  the  sparsely  settled  Southern  colonies  it  was  natural  that  the 
county  institutions  of  England  should  be  kept  in  existence  rather  than  those 
of  the  smaller  areas.  Here,  therefore,  county  government  prevailed.  In 
1634  eight  shires  were  Erected  in  Virginia,  called  counties  in  1639;  in  1680 
there  were  twenty.  In  Maryland  the  term  county  first  appears  in  1638.  In 
South  Carolina  the  original  subdivision  of  the  colony  was  the  parish,  to 
which  afterward  was  added  the  district.  Except  for  the  years  1786-1790,  the 
county  did  not  come  into  existence  until  1868.  These  Southern  counties  had 
institutions  and  officers  resembling  those  of  English  counties — lieutenants, 
sheriffs,  justices  and  quarter  sessions.  In  Massachusetts  counties  were  first 


172  DICTIONARY  otf  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

incorporated  in  1643;  DUt  tne  life  of  local  government  was  mainly  in  the 
towns.  In  Rhode  Island  no  counties  were  erected  until  1703.  In  the  Middle 
colonies  the  county  came  into  existence  with  the  beginnings  of  English  rule 
or  soon  after. 

County  Democracy,  a  faction  of  the  Democratic  party  in  New  York  City, 
which  opposed  Tammany  Hall,  especially  before  1886,  since  which  time  it 
has  been  of  little  importance. 

"  Courant,  Connecticut,"  chief  among  the  earlier  newspapers  of  the  State. 
Its  publication  was  begun  at  Hartford  by  Thomas  Green  in  December,  1764, 
and  it  is  still  issued  as  a  daily  and  weekly. 

Court,  General,  the  proper' title  of  the  Legislature  of  Massachusetts.  Its 
origin  is  from  the  Massachusetts  Company.  In  the  seventeenth  century,  the 
general  stockholders''  meeting  of  a  corporation  was  called  its  general  court. 
Hence  the  primary  assembly  of  the  freemen  of  the  Massachusetts  Company 
was  from  the  first  called  the  general  court,  and  the  name  remained  when  the 
assembly  became  representative. 

Court  Leet.  In  old  English  manors  this  court,  consisting  of  the  tenants 
of  the  manor,  presided  over  by  the  lord's  steward,  judged  petty  criminal  cases, 
and  had  also  some  administrative  duties.  In  Maryland  courts  leet  were  held 
in  the  seventeenth  century,  and  their  records  have  been  preserved. 

Court  of  Appeals  in  Cases  of  Capture,  a  tribunal  which  constituted  the 
main  portion  of  the  Federal  judiciary  before  1789.  General  Washington 
made  the  first  suggestion  of  a  Federal  prize  court,  to  hear  appeals  from  State 
courts  in  cases  of  capture  of  prizes.  From  1776  to  1780  Congress  heard 
appeals  by  means  of  committees.  The  complications  arising  out  of  the  case 
of  the  sloop  "  Active,"  which  embroiled  the  Federal  Government  with  Penn- 
sylvania and  showed  the  weakness  of  the  former,  led  to  the  establishment  of 
a  permanent  Court  of  Appeals  in  Cases  of  Capture,  in  1780.  The  court  held 
sittings  from  that  time  to  1787,  and  consisted  of  three  judges.  The  court 
and  the  committees  which  preceded  it  took  cognizance  of  118  cases.  It  was 
a  precursor  of  the  U.  S.  Supreme  Court. 

Court  of  Claims.  This  court,  founded  in  1855,  hears  claims  against  the 
Government  on  any  regulation  of  an  executive  department  or  on  any  contract,, 
express  or  implied,  with  the  Government  of  the  United  States.  Before  the 
establishment  of  this  court,  those  having  just  claims  against  the  Government 
had  no  remedy  but  to  petition  Congress.  The  court  at  first  reported  its  pro- 
ceedings to  Congress,  and  that  body  acted  upon  the  reports.  Since  1863 
report  to  Congress  has  not  been  required. 

Courts.     (See  Judiciary.) 

Covode,  John  (1808-1871),  of  Dutch  descent,  was  elected  to  Congress  in 
1854  as  an  Anti-Masonic  Whig  from  Pennsylvania,  and  served  from  1855  to 
1863  as  a  Republican.  He  was  chairman  of  the  committee  to  investigate 
charges  against  President  Buchanan  in  1860. 

Covode  Investigation,  an  action  taken  by  the  Thirty-sixth  Congress  during 
President  Buchanan's  administration  in  inquiring  into  certain  charges  made 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  173 

by  two  Anti-L,ecompton  Democrats  of  the  House,  who  alleged  that  the  ad- 
ministration had  endeavored  to  influence  them  corruptly  to  vote  for  the 
Lecompton  Bill.  A  committee  of  five  investigated  the  charges,  the  Repub- 
lican majority  sustaining  them,  and  the  Democratic  minority  exonerating 
the  President.  No  action  was  taken. 

Cowboys,  the  name  given  to  British  camp-followers  and  marauders  who 
infested  the  neutral  ground  between  the  two  armies  in  New  York  State 
during  the  Revolution.  They  were  constantly  skirmishing  with  the  "  Skin- 
ners," the  Continental  marauders. 

Cowpens,  Battle  of  the,  January  17,  1781.  When  Cornwallis  marched 
into  North  Carolina  he  sent  Tarleton  with  iioo  men  against  Morgan.  On 
Tarleton's  approach  Morgan  took  his  position  at  the  Cowpens  upon  the  slope 
of  a  hill.  His  militia  was  in  front,  his  regulars  on  higher  ground  and  at  the 
top  of  the  slope  Colonel  Washington  with  the  cavalry.  As  the  British 
advanced  Pickens'  militia  delivered  a  number  of  deadly  volleys  and  retired 
behind  the  lines.  The  regulars  then  met  the  enemy  with  a  murderous  fire 
followed  by  a  bayonet  charge.  At  the  same  time  the  American  cavalry 
struck  their  right  flank  and  the  militia  formed  again  behind  the  lines  on  the 
left.  The  rout  was  complete.  The  British  loss  was  230  killed  and  wounded 
and  600  taken  prisoners,  a  number  equal  to  the  whole  American  force 
engaged.  In  point  of  tactics  this  was  one  of  the  most  brilliant  battles  of  the 
war. 

Cox,  Jacob  D.,  born  in  1828,  during  the  Civil  War  was  promoted  to  be 
major-general  and  commanded  at  the  battle  of  Kingston,  N.  C.  He  was 
Secretary  of  the  Interior  1869-70,  and  Representative  in  Congress  1877—79. 

Cox,  Samuel  S.,  (1824-1889),  was  editor  of  the  Columbus,  Ohio,  States- 
man, in  which  he  published  the  gorgeous  article  which  gave  him  the  sobri- 
quet of  "  Sunset "  Cox.  In  1855  he  was  Secretary  of  Legation  to  Peru,  and 
in  1885-86,  Minister  to  Turkey.  He  spent  twenty  years  in  Congress,  begin- 
ning in  1857,  and  was  an  effective  speaker,  lecturer  and  writer. 

Coxe,  Tench  (1756-1824),  successively  a  Royalist,  Whig,  Federalist 
and  Republican,  was  a  commissioner  to  the  Annapolis  Convention  in  1786, 
member  of  the  Continental  Congress  in  1788  and  Assistant  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury  from  1789  to  1792. 

Craft  Case,  an  important  fugitive  slave  case.  In  1848  William  Craft 
and  his  wife  Ellen,  who  was  nearly  white,  fled  from  Macon,  Ga.  Ellen 
impersonated  a  Southern  lady,  carried  her  right  arm  in  a  sling  that  she  might 
not  be  expected  to  write,  bandaged  her  face  and  wore  green  goggles. 
William  accompanied  her  as  her  servant.  The  couple  at  length  reached 
Boston,  and  here  engaged  the  attention  of  Theodore  Parker.  After  the 
passage  of  the  Fugitive  Slave  Law  of  1850  their  identity  was  discovered  and 
they  were' finally  obliged  to  leave  the  city.  They  reached  England,  where 
the  remainder  of  their  days  was  spent  in  peace. 

Cranch's  Reports,  law  reports  by  William  Cranch  of  cases  in  the  Supreme 
Court,  covering  the  period  from  1801  to  1815,  in  nine  volumes. 


174  DICTIONARY  OF  UXITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Craney  Island  (Chesapeake  Bay)  commanded  the  approach  to  Norfolk. 
1500  troops  were  sent  on  June  3,  1813,  from  the  British  fleet  under  Admiral 
Warren  to  capture  the  island,  which  was  defended  by  737  men  directed  by 
General  Robert  B.  Taylor.  The  American  artillery  opened  upon  them  with 
terrible  effect.  Five  of  the  transport  barges  were  sunk  and  the  rest  retreated. 
The  British  loss  was  eighty-one,  the  Americans  lost  none.  This  defeat 
frustrated  all  hope  of  capturing  Norfolk. 

Crawford,  Francis  Marion,  son  of  Thomas,  was  born  in  Italy  in  1845 
and  lived  mostly  abroad,  but  made  short  visits  to  the  United  States.  He 
has  been  very  successful  as  a  voluminous  writer  of  novels. 

Crawford,  George  W.,  born  in  1798,  was  Attorney-General  of  Georgia 
from  1827  to  1831.  He  was  a  Whig  member  of  Congress  in  1843.  He  was 
Governor  of  Georgia  from  1843  to  J845-  He  was  Secretary  of  War  in 
Taylor's  Cabinet  from  1849  to 


Crawford,  Thomas  (1814-1857),  an  American  sculptor,  worked  mostly  in 
Rome,  visiting  the  United  States  in  1844-49  and  1856.  He  was  famous 
chiefly  for  his  historical  and  allegorical  works  of  art 

Crawford,  William  (1732-1782),  participated  in  Braddock's  expedition 
against  Fort  DuqueSne,  fought  at  Long  Island,  Trenton  and  Princeton  during 
the  Revolutionary  War,  and  was  captured  and  put  to  death  in  an  expedition 
against  the  Wyandot  and  Delaware  Indians. 

Crawford,  William  Harris  (1772-1834),  served  in  the  Georgia  Legislature 
and  obtained  distinction  as  a  lawyer.  He  was  a  member  of  the  U.  S.  Senate 
in  1807—13,  being  president  pro  tern,  for  a  part  of  the  time.  His  career  in 
this  office,  followed  by  his  Ministry  to  France  in  1813-15,  and  his  long  service 
as  Secretary  of  War,  1815-16,  and  of  the  Treasury,  1816-25,  brought  him 
prominently  forward  as  a  candidate  for  Monroe's  successor  in  the  Presidency. 
He  was  one  of  the  four  candidates  voted  for  in  the  famous  election  of  1824, 
receiving  forty-one  electoral  votes,  and  with  Adams  and  Jackson  he  was, 
after  that  indecisive  contest,  brought  before  the  House  of  Representatives, 
and  like  Jackson  he  went  down  before  the  Adams  and  Clay  forces.  He  left 
the  reputation  less  of  a  statesman  than  of  a  political  manipulator. 

Crazy  Horse,  an  Indian  chief  of  the  Sioux  nation,  brother-in-law  of  Red 
Cloud.  With  Sitting  Bull  he  destroyed  General  Custer's  command  on  the 
Little  Big  Horn  in  1876,  but  surrendered  to  General  Crook  in  1877. 

Credit  Mobilier,  a  corporation  chartered  by  the  Pennsylvania  Legislature 
as  the  "  Pennsylvania  Fiscal  Agency,"  which  in  1864  became  a  company  to 
construct  the  Union  Pacific  Railroad.  In  the  Presidential  campaign  of  1872 
the  Democratic  leaders  charged  the  Vice-President,  the  Vice-President  elect, 
the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  Speaker  of  the  House  and  other  prominent 
men  with  accepting  Credit  Mobilier  stocks  in  return  for  political  influence. 
An  investigation  which  followed  resulted  in  the  censure  of  Representatives 
Oakes  Ames  and  James  Brooks. 

Creek  Indians  originally  lived  on  the  Flint,  Chattahoochee,  Coosa  and 
Alabama  Rivers,  and  in  the  peninsula  of  Florida.  It  was  not  until  the 


DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  175 

overthrow  of  the  French  power  that  they  came  completely  under  English  influ- 
ence. During  the  Revolution  the  Creeks  joined  the  British,  assisting  in  an 
attack  on  Wayne's  army  in  1782.  In  1790  they  made  a  friendly  treaty,  but 
renewed  hostilities  in  1792.  Another  treaty  was  made  in  1796,  and  in  1802 
and  1805  they  began  to  cede  lands.  Joining  the  English  in  the  War  of 
1812,  they  attacked  Fort  Mimms,  August  30,  1813,  and  massacred  400  people. 
They  suffered  repeated  defeats,  and  were  completely  overthrown  by  General 
Jackson  at  Horseshoe  Bend,  March  27,  1814.  A  treaty  of  peace  followed  in 
which  they  surrendered  large  tracts  of  land.  Early  in  the  century  a  part 
removed  to  Louisiana  and  later  to  Texas.  A  treaty  was  made  in  1825  ceding 
more  lands,  but  was  repudiated.  The  nation  then  divided,  one  party  favor- 
ing emigration,  the  other  opposing  it.  In  1836  a  part  aided  the  Government 
against  the  Seminoles,  but  the  remainder  attacked  the  frontier  towns  of 
Georgia  and  Alabama.  General  Scott  reduced  them,  and  the  tribe  was 
removed  to  a  reservation  between  the  Arkansas  and  the  Canadian.  The 
Civil  War  divided  the  tribe,  those  adhering  to  the  Union  being  finally 
defeated  by  the  Confederates.  In  1866  the  Creeks  ceded  a  large  tract  to 
the  Government. 

"  Creole  "  Case.  On  November  7,  1841,  seventeen  negroes  rose  against 
the  officers  of  the  brig  "  Creole,"  bound  from  Hampton  Roads  to  Ntw  Orleans 
with  a  cargo  of  slaves.  One  of  the  vessel's  owners  was  killed,  and  the  vessel 
was  captured  and  run  into  Nassau.  Here  all  were  set  at  liberty  except  those 
charged  with  murder.  The  demand  for  their  surrender,  made  by  the  admin- 
istration, was  refused  by  Great  Britain,  but  the  matter  was  finally  adjusted 
by  the  treaty  of  August  9,  1842.  During  the  progress  of  negotiations  J.  R. 
Giddings,  of  Ohio,  offered  a  series  of  resolutions  which  laid  down  the  funda- 
mental positions  of  the  anti-slavery  party. 

Creswell,  John  A.  J.  (1828-1891),  was  a  member  of  Congress  from  1863 
to  1865.  He  was  Postmaster-General  of  the  United  States  from  1869  to  1874. 

Cre'vecceur,  Hector  St.  John  de  (1731-1813),  an  Englishman  emigrating 
to  America  in  1754,  who,  during  the  Revolutionary  War,  was  made  prisoner 
and  exchanged  in  England.  In  1783  he  was  appointed  French  Consul  at 
New  York,  and  wrote  extensively  concerning  America. 

Crisp,  Charles  Frederick,  of  Americus,  Ga.,  was  born  in  Sheffield,  Eng- 
land, in  1845.  He  served  in  the  Confederate  army  from  1861  to  1864.  I*1 
1866  he. was  admitted  to  the  bar,  and  from  1872  to  1877  was  Solicitor-General 
of  Georgia.  He  served  as  Judge  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Georgia  from  1877 
to  1882,  when  he  resigned  and  accepted  a  nomination  to  Congress,  of  which 
he  was  chosen  Speaker  in  1891  and  again  in  1893.  Died  1896. 

Crittenden,  George  B.  (1812-1880),  son  of  J.  J.,  a  major  and  lieutenant- 
colonel  in  the  Texan  Revolution,  joined  the  Confederates  as  brigadier-gen- 
eral, and  as  major-general  was  defeated  in  a  rash  attack  upon  General  Thomas 
at  Fishing  Creek. 

Crittenden,  John  Jordan  (1787-1863),  was  in  early  life  a  lawyer,  Attor- 
ney-General of  Illinois  Territory,  and  a  soldier  in  the  War  of  1812.  Few 
Americans  have  been  U.  S.  Senators  at  such  different  periods.  Crittenden 


I76  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

was  in  the  Senate  from  Kentucky  in  1817-19,  and  again  in  1835-41, 
1842-49,  and  1855-61.  In  the  intervals  he  was  a  U.  S.  District  Attorney, 
was  Attorney-General  under  Harrison  in  1841,  and  again  under  Fillmore  in 
I85o_53.  He  was  a  prominent  Whig.  He  supported  Bell  and  Everett  in 
1860,  and  after  the  election  he  came  forward  with  the  "  Crittenden  Compro- 
mise'" in  the  vain  attempt  to  avert  the  impending  wai  He  sided  with  the 
North  and  in  1861-63  was  a  member  of  the  House  of  Representatives 
from  Kentucky. 

Crittenden,  Thomas  L.,  son  of  J.  J.,  born  in  1815,  a  lieutenant  and  aide 
to  General  Taylor  in  the  Mexican  War,  was  Consul  to  Liverpool  1849-53 
and  served  with  distinction  in  the  Civil  War,  commanding  a  division  at 
Shiloh  and  a  corps  at  Chickamauga. 

Crittenden  Compromise.  In  1860  Senator  John  J.  Crittenden  introduced 
a  proposition  for  a  constitutional  amendment  which  would  permanently 
divide  the  Union  into  a  free-state  and  a  slave-state  portion,  the  boundary 
being  the  line  of  36°  30'.  The  United  States  was  to  pay  the  owner  for  any 
fugitive  slave  rescued.  The  proposition  met  with  no  success  in  Congress. 

Crockett,  David  (1786—1836),  a  famous  frontiersman,  with  General  Jackson 
in  the  Creek  War,  was  a  member  of  Congress  from  1827  to  1831  and  from 
1833  to  1835.  He  was  one  of  the  six  survivors  at  Fort  Alamo  who  were 
massacred  by  Santa  Anna. 

Croghan,  George  (1791—1849),  serving  as  aide,  colonel  and  lieutenant- 
colonel  in  the  War  of  1812,  distinguished  himself  at  Fort  Meigs  and  at  Fort 
Stephenson.  In  1825  he  was  made  inspector-general  of  the  U.  S.  army.  - 

Croker,  Richard,  born  in  1843,  *n  Ireland.  He  became  leader  of  Tam- 
many in  1885,  and  has  since  been  a  great  force  in  New  York  city  and  State 
politics. 

Crompton,  William,  born  in  1806,  devised  a  loom  for  the  manufacture  of 
fancy  cotton  goods  in  1837,  which,  since  its  adaptation  to  woolens  in  1840, 
has  been  employed  almost  exclusively. 

Cromwell,  Oliver  (1599-1658),  Lord  Protector  of  England  from  1653  to 
1658,  was  appointed  in  1643  one  °f  a  board  of  commissioners  for  the  general 
management  of  all  the  English  colonies  in  America.  After  his  elevation  he 
proposed  to  the  colonists  of  Massachusetts  that  they  move  to  Jamaica,  then 
recently  conquered  (1656).  During  the  war  between  England  and  Holland 
he  sent  at  the  solicitation  of  Connecticut  a  fleet  with  a  land  force  on  board 
for  protection  against  the  Dutch  settlers,  and  to  take  summary  possession  of 
New  Netherland;  but  the  war  soon  ended. 

Crook,  George  (1828-1890),  commanded  the  Pitt  River  expedition  in  1857, 
and  during  service  in  the  Civil  War  was  brevetted  lieutenant-colonel  and 
commanded  the  second  cavalry  division  at  Chickamauga.  He  had  charge 
of  the  cavalry  of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac  from  March  26,  1865,  till  the  sur- 
render at  Appomattox,  and  from  1866  on  was  chiefly  occupied  in  quelling 
Indian  disturbances.  In  1888  he  was  appointed  a  major-general  of  the  U.  S. 
army. 

Cross  Keys,  Va.,  an  indecisive  action,  June  8,  1862,  between  12,750 
Federals  under  Fremont  and  E  well's  column  of  Jackson's  army  of  17,000 
Confederates.  Ewell  was  reinforced  by  Taylor  and  Patton  leading  a  Louisiana 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  177 

and  a  Virginia  brigade.  Fremont's  line  of  battle,  a  mile  and  a  half  long, 
was  advantageously  arranged.  The  Federals  began  the  battle,  advancing 
steadily  under  a  heavy  fire,  Stahl's  Pennsylvania  troops  faring  the  worst. 
He  was,  however,  supported  by  Bohlen,  Schenk  and  Milroy,  and  thus  was 
not  compelled  to  retreat.  Taking  a  strong  position  on  a  hill  he  was 
repeatedly  cannonaded  by  the  Confederates,  but  they  were  easily  driven  off 
by  his  superior  batteries. 

Crown  Lands.  After  the  treaty  of  Paris,  in  1763,  a  royal  proclamation 
from  Great  Britain  set  aside  all  lands  west  of  the  colonies  as  "  crown  lands," 
exclusively  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  home  government,  and  as  reserved 
for  the  use  of  the  Indians.  The  colonies  were  forbidden  to  make  pur- 
chase of,  or  settlement  in,  any  of  this  reserved  territory  without  the  royal 
permission.  After  the  Revolution  this  reserve  was  claimed  by  various 
States. 

Crown  Point,  was  fortified  by  the  French  in  1731,  and,  in  spite  of  expedi- 
tions against  it  in  1755  and  1756,  was  held  by  them  until  1759.  It  was  then 
abandoned  by  reason  of  the  fall  of  Ticonderoga.  In  1775,  at  the  beginning 
of  the  Revolutionary  War,  as  a  part  of  the  scheme  to  seize  the  route  to 
Canada,  and  capture  the  British  stores  at  Ticonderoga  (q.  v.)  and  Crown 
Point,  Seth  Warner  was  despatched  against  the  latter  place.  On  the  morning 
of  May  10,  while  Arnold  and  Allen  were  busy  at  Ticonderoga,  Warner  seized 
Crown  Point,  thus  gaining  possession  of  more  than  200  cannon,  and  a  great 
supply  of  powder  and  ball. 

Crowninshield,  Benjamin  W.  (1772-1851),  of  Massachusetts,  was  Secre- 
tary of  the  Navy  from  1814,  in  Madison's,  until  1818  in  Monroe's  Cabinet, 
was  a  Presidential  elector  in  1820,  and  a  Democratic  member  of  Congress 
from  1823  to 


Cuba.  In  1849—52  three  filibustering  expeditions  were  made  against  Cuba 
from  this  country.  They  were  incited  by  Narcisso  Lopez,  a  South  American 
military  adventurer,  who  persuaded  Governor  Quitman  and  other  Southern 
expansionists  that  the  island  was  ripe  for  revolt  from  Spain  and  annexation 
to  the  United  States.  These  expeditions  failed,  and  Lopez  was  executed  by  the 
Cuban  authorities.  Again,  in  1854,  Southern  annexationists  attempted  to  fit 
out  an  expedition  for  the  capture  of  Cuba,  but  were  prevented  by  a  timely 
warning  from  the  President.  In  that  year  an  American  steamer,  the  "  Black 
Warrior,"  was  seized  by  the  Cuban  authorities.  Indemnity  was  demanded 
from  Spain,  which  was  accorded  finally,  but  not  before  the  Ostend  Manifesto 
had  been  issued  by  a  conference  of  our  ministers  to  the  English,  French  and 
Spanish  courts,  demanding  the  sale  of  Cuba  by  Spain.  The  "Virginius" 
affair  (which  see)  occurred  in  1873,  during  one  of  the  attempts  of  Americans 
to  assist  revolting  Cubans.  In  1891  the  United  States  made  a  reciprocity 
treaty  with  Spain  respecting  trade  with  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico.  Spanish- 
American  War,  1898  (which  see),  was  begun  in  behalf  of  Cubans  in  revolt 
since  1895.  Matanzas  batteries  bombarded,  April  27,  1898.  June  24,  bat- 
tle Siboney.  July  i,  El  Caney  taken.  July  i  to  17,  battles  of  Santiago 
(which  see).  August  14,  Captain-General  Blanco  received  orders  to  suspend 
hostilities.  January  i,  military  occupation  by  American  forces. 


i78  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Cullom,  Shelby  M.,  born  in  1829,  chosen  Speaker  in  the  Illinois  Legis* 
lature  in  1860,  was  a  member  of  the  war  commission  at  Cairo  in  1862  and  a 
member  of  Congress  from  1865  to  1871.  As  chairman  of  the  Illinois  delegation 
at  the  Republican  convention  he  placed  General  Grant  in  nomination.in  1872 
and  General  Logan  in  1884;  and  from  1883  to  1897  was  U.  S.  Senator. 

Cullum,  George  W.,  born  in  1809,  a  graduate,  instructor  and  (1864-66) 
superintendent  of  the  U.  S.  Military  Academy;  was  from  1838  to  1874 
engaged  largely  in  Government  engineering  and  during  the  Civil  War  was 
bfevetted  major-general. 

Culpeper,  John,  leader  of  an  insurrection  in  the  Northern  colony  of  the 
Carolinas  in  favor  of  popular  liberty  in  1678.  While  in  England  negotiating 
for  the  new  government  he  was  indicted  for  high  treason,  but  was  acquitted. 

Culpeper,  Thomas,  Lord,  in  1673  received  an  exclusive  grant  from 
Charles  II.  for  thirty-one  years  of  the  territory  of  Virginia  and  in  1675  was 
proclaimed  Governor  for  life,  coming  to  this  country  in  1680.  He  -forfeited 
his  commission  in  1683  by  returning  to  England  without  royal  permission 
and  by  political  corruption.  Lord  Fairfax,  patron  of  Washington,  was  his 
heir. 

Cumberland,  Fort.  This  fort  wai  erected  in  Maryland  at  the  instance 
of  General  Braddock  in  1755  during  his  fatal  expedition  against  the  French 
Fort  Duquesne.  Colonel  James  Innes  was  left  in  command  with  a  small  force 
and  thither  Braddock's  forces  fled  after  their  defeat  by  the  French  and  Indians. 
Colonel  Washington  afterward  commanded  the  fort,  to  protect  the  settlers 
from  Indian  raids. — In  1755,  Fort  Beausejour  on  the  Maine  frontier,  which 
had  been  built  by  the  French  in  1754,  was  captured  by  English  troops  and 
the  name  changed  to  Fort  Cumberland. 

Cumberland  Gap,  Tenn. ,  captured  by  the  Nationals  under  Morgan  during 
the  battle  of  Chattanooga  and  afterward  abandoned.  It  was  occupied  by 
the  Confederates  in  1863,  and  from  it  General  Frazier  commanding  2000 
men  was  dislodged  by  8000  Federals  under  Burnside.  Frazier  held  out  for 
four  days,  but  his  provisions  gave  out  and  Burnside  was  reinforced  by 
Shackleford's  brigade.  Frazier  surrendered  September  9. 

Cumberland  Presbyterian  Church.  This  denomination  was  a  develop- 
ment of  the  "  Great  Western  Revival  of  1800."  The  Presbytery  in  Ken- 
tucky appointed  lay  preachers,  who  were  said  to  be  illiterate  and  unsound  in 
doctrine.  The  suspension  of  these  by  the  synod  resitlted  in  a  schism  in 
1811  and  the  formation  of  the  above  named  sect.  In  the  main  it  is  an 
attempt  to  steer  between  the  Calvinism  of  the  Presbyterians  and  the  Armin- 
ianism  of  the  Methodists.  They  now  number  over  165,000  members,  largely 
confined  to  the  South. 

Cumberland  Road.     (See  National  Roacl.) 

Curry,  George  L.  (1820-1878^,  in  1846  established  the  Oregon  Spectator^ 
the  first  paper  published  on  the  Pacific  coast,  and  in  1848  founded  the  Oregon 
Free  Press.  He  was  Governor  of  Oregon  from  1854  to  1859. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  179 

Curtin,  Andrew  G.,  born  in  Pennsylvania  in  1815,  a  Presidential  elector 
in  1848,  and  Governor  of  Pennsylvania  from  1861  to  1865.  He  was  one  of 
the  "  war  governors  "  who  supported  the  National  Government,  and  furnished 
25,000  men  known  as  the  "Pennsylvania  Reserve."  He  was  appointed 
Minister  to  Russia  in  1869  and  was  elected  to  Congress  by  the  Democratic 
party,  serving  from  1881  to  1887.  Died  1894. 

Curtin,  Jeremiah,  linguist,  born  in  Wisconsin  in  1835;  was  appointed 
Secretary  of  the  U.  S.  Legation  to  Russia  in  1864.  Since  1888  he  has  ren- 
dered valuable  assistance  to  the  Bureau  of  Ethnology  of  the  United  States. 
He  is  noted  as  a  translator  of  Polish  historical  novels. 

Curtis,  Benjamin  R.  (1809-1874),  appointed  to  the  U.  S.  Supreme  Court 
in  1851  by  President  Fillmore,  dissented  in  the  Dred  Scott  case  and  resigred 
in  1857.  He  was  one  of  the  counsel  for  President  Johnson  in  the  impeach- 
ment trial  of  1868. 

Curtis,  George  Ticknor  (1812-1894),  a  Boston  lawyer  from  1836  to  1862, 
when  he  removed  to  New  York,  was  largely  engaged  in  professional  and 
historical  investigations,  and  published  many  valuable  works,  among  them 
being  "  Commentaries  on  the  Jurisprudence,  Practice  and  Peculiar  Jurisdiction 
of  the  Courts  of  the  United  States  "  and  a  "  History  of  the  Origin,  Formation 
and  Adoption  of  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States,"  and  the  first  volume 
of  a  "  Constitutional  History  of  the  United  States." 

Curtis,  George  William  (1824—1892),  was  in  early  life  a  member  of  the 
famous  Brook  Farm  community,  a  European  traveling  correspondent  of  the 
New  York  Tribune,  and  an  editor  of  Putnam's  Monthly.  His  later  reputa- 
£ion  rests  on  four  forms  of  achievement:  as  an  eloquent  and  cultured  lyceum 
lecturer  and  platform  orator;  as  the  author  of  several  books,  including 
"Nile  Notes,"  "Lotus  Eating,"  "  Prue  and  I,"  "Trumps,"  "  Potiphar 
Papers,"  etc.;  as  an  editor  of  Harper1  s  Weekly  and  the  writer  of  "  Easy 
Chair  "  of  Harper's  Magazine,  and  as  a  politician.  He  was  a  noted  dele- 
gate in  the  Republican  National  Conventions  of  1860,  1880  and  1884.  He 
was  identified  with  civil  service  reform  from  the  start,  and  was  by  Presi- 
dent Grant  appointed  in  1871  a  commissioner  for  the  purpose  of  drawing  up 
rules.  The  National  Civil  Service  Reform  League  was  largely  his  work. 

Curtis,  Samuel  R.  (1807—1866),  an  Ohio  lawyer  from  1841  to  1846, 
became  adjutant-general  of  militia  in  1846,  and  in  the  Mexican  War  com- 
manded at  Camarago  against  General  Urrea.  He  was  a  Congressman  from 
Iowa  from  1857  to  1861,  when  he  was  commissioned  brigadier-general  and 
gained  a  great  victor/  at  Pea  Ridge,  Ark.  He  commanded  Fort  Leaven- 
worth  during  the  Price  raid  in  1864,  and  was  U.  S.  Commissioner  to  nego- 
tiate Indian  treaties. 

Gushing,  Caleb  (1800—1879),  graduated  at  Harvard  and  rose  to  eminence 
at  the  Massachusetts  bar.  He  was  a  Representative  from  Massachusetts  in 
Congress  in  1835-43,  having  been  a  Whig  and,  from  Tyler's  time,  a  Demo- 
crat. He  was  a  U.  S.  Commissioner  to  China,  a  brigadier-general  in  the 
Mexican  War,  and  an  unsuccessful  candidate  for  Governor  of  Massachusetts. 
In  1853-57  he  was  a  member  of  Pierce's  Cabinet  as  Attorney-General.  In 


i8o  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

1860  he  presided  over  the  Democratic  National  Convention  which  met  at 
Charleston.  His  high  reputation  as  a  lawyer  led  to  his  appointment  as  U.  S. 
counsel  before  the  Geneva  Tribunal  of  1872,  and  to  his  nomination  by 
Grant  as  Chief  Justice  of  the  Supreme  Court.  He  failed  of  confirmation  to 
the  latter  office,  and  was  sent  as  U.  S.  Minister  to  Spain  in  1874,  where  he 
remained  until  1877. 

Gushing,  Frank  H.,  born  in  1857,  was  chosen  curator  of  the  Ethnological 
Department  of  the  National  Museum  in  1876,  and  from  1879  to  1884  lived 
among  the  Zuni  Indians,  studying  their  language,  habits  and  history,  the 
results  of  which  he  has  published. 

Gushing,  Luther  S.  (1803-1856),  from  1832  to  1846  clerk  of  the  Massa- 
chusetts House  of  Representatives,  was  reporter  of  the  Massachusetts  Supreme 
Court  decisions  from  1850  to  1856.  He  was  author  of  "  Cushing's  Manual 
of  Parliamentary  Practice." 

Gushing,  Thomas  (1725-1788)  from  1766  to  1774  Speaker  of  the  Massa- 
chusetts Assembly,  was  elected  to  the  first  and  second  Continental  Con- 
gresses, and  was  a  member  of  the  convention  that  ratified  the  Federal 
Constitution  in  1788.  From  1783  to  1788  he  was  Lieutenant-Governor  of 
Massachusetts. 

Gushing,  William  (1732—1810),  Judge  of  the  Massachusetts  Superior  Court 
in  1772,  Chief  Justice  in  1777  and  the  first  Chief  Justice  under  the  State 
Constitution  in  1780,  was  Associate  Justice  of  the  U.  S.  Supreme  Court  from 
1789  to  1810. 

Gushing,  William  B.  (1842-1874),  in  1861  captured  the  first  prize  of  the 
war,  and  in  1864  by  extraordinary  boldness  destroyed  the  Confederate  iron- 
clad "  Albemarle."  He  was  promoted  lieutenant-colonel'  and  distinguished 
himself  at  Fort  Fisher. 

Cushman,  Charlotte  S.  (1816-1876),  a  noted  American  actress,  was  born  in 
Boston.  She  was  a  very  successful  actress  in  historical  plays  and  from  1870 
developed  marked  abilities  as  a  dramatic  reader. 

Cushman,  Robert  (1580—1625),  was  active  in  preparing  for  the  departure 
of  the  Pilgrims  and  acted  as  their  English  agent  till  1621,  when  he  came  to 
America  and  preached  the  first  sermon  in  America  which  was  ever  pub- 
lished. 

Custer,  George  Armstrong  (1839-1876),  born  in  Ohio,  served  throughout 
the  Civil  War  and  distinguished  himself  at  Gettysburg  as  commander  of  the 
Michigan  brigade,  also  winning  fame  at  Winchester,  Fisher's  Hill,  Cedar 
Creek,  Waynesboro,  Five  Forks  and  Dinwiddie  Court  House.  In  1876, 
being  then  a  general  in  the  regular  army,  he  was  overpowered  by  the  Sioux 
Indians  at  the  lyittle  Big  Horn  River,  and  his  entire  command  was  slain. 

Custis,  George  W.  P.  (1781-1857),  grandson  of  Mrs.  Washington,  until 
1802  a  member  of  Washington's  family,  erected  the  Arlington  House.  It  is 
now  national  property,  and  his  estate  is  the  site  of  a  soldiers'  cemetery. 

Customs  Revenue.  For  the  laws  relating  to  the  customs,  see  art.  Tariff. 
The  Continental  Congress  desired  to  have  a  revenue  from  customs,  but  the 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  181 

States  would  not  all  agree  to  this.  From  1789  on,  a  great  part  of  the  reve- 
nue of  the  Government  has  been  derived  from  this  source,  about  five-sixths 
from  1789  to  1830,  except  in  war-time,  sometimes  more  than  nine-tenths  in 
the  period  from  1837  to  1861,  and  from  one-half  to  three-fifths  in  the  period 
Since  1868.  At  first  amounting  to  about  $3,000,000  per  annum,  customs 
have  of  recent  years  averaged  about  $200,000,000. 

Cutler,  Manasseh  (1742-1823),  a  clergyman,  was  born  in  Connecticut. 
During  the  Revolutionary  War  he  served  as  chaplain,  and  in  1786  was  agent 
for  the  Ohio  company  which  founded  Marietta.  He  drafted  for  Nathan 
Dane  the  Ordinance  of  1787  which  excluded  slavery  from  the  Northwest 
Territory,  and  was  a  Massachusetts  Federal  Congressman  from  1801  to  1805. 

Cuttyhunk,  Mass.,  discovered  May  25,  1602,  by  Bartholomew  Gosnold, 
who  made  a  settlement  there  and  erected  a  house  and  palisades. 

"  Cyane,"  ship.     (See  "  Constitution.") 

Cynthiana,  Ky.,  burned  during  the  Civil  War  by  the  Confederate  guerrilla 
Morgan,  June  10,  1864.  Morgan  also,  with  2000  Confederates,  defeated  600 
Federals  under  Burbridge  and  Hobson,  but  was,  June  12,  defeated  in  return 
by  them  at  Cynthiana. 

D. 

Dabney's  Mills,  Va.  Here,  during  Grant's  and  Lee's  campaigns  about 
Richmond  and  Petersburg,  in  1865,  there  occurred,  February  6  and  7,  some 
severe  skirmishing  between  Crawford's  division  of  Warren's  Federal  corps 
and  a  Confederate  force  under  Pegram.  The  Federal  leaders  were  endeav- 
oring to  lengthen  their  line  toward  Hatcher's  Run  when  Pegram  fell  upon 
them.  The  Confederates  were  defeated  and  Pegram  was  killed. 

Dacres,  James  R.  (1788—1853),  British  naval  officer,  commanded  the 
"Guerriere"  when  it  was  beaten  by  the  "  Constitution,"  August  19,  1812. 
Later,  commanding  the  "  Tiber,"  he  captured  the  "  Leo"  in  March,  1815. 

Dade,  Francis  L.,  born  in  Virginia,  a  lieutenant,  captain  and,  in  1828,  a 
brevet-major  in  the  U.  S.  army,  was  killed  in  a  treacherous  attack  of  the 
Seininole  Indians,  in  1835,  near  Fort  King,  Florida. 

Dahlgren,  John  Adolph  (1809-1870),  entered  the  U.  S.  navy  at  an 
early  age.  He  became  noted  as  the  designer  of  the  improved  Dahlgren 
cannon.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  he  was  assigned  to  the  command 
of  the  Navy  Yard  at  Washington.  He  was  naturally  made  chief  of  the 
ordnance  bureau,  was  promoted  to  be  rear-admiral,  and  commanded  in  the 
attack  on  the  Charleston  defences  in  1863.  His  last  important  service  was 
in  co-operation  with  General  Sherman,  in  the  taking  of  Savannah,  in  1864, 

Dale,  Richard  (1756-1826),  was  first  lieutenant  on  the  "  Bon  Homme 
Richard,"  and  served  with  Paul  Jones  on  the  "Afliance  "  and  the  "Ariel." 
He  commanded  the  Mediterranean  Squadron  during  the  troubles  with  Tripoli. 

Dale,  Samuel  (1772-1841),  a  U.  S.  army  scout  in  1793,  commanded  a 
battalion  against  the  Creeks  in  1814.  He  was  appointed  with  Colonel  George 


1 8a  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

S.  Games  to    remove  the  Choctaw   Indians   to  their  reservation   on   the 
Arkansas  and  Red  Rivers. 

Dale,  Sir  Thomas,  died  in  1620.  He  was  sent  as  Governor  to  Virginia, 
and  established  there  a  military  government.  He  was  succeeded  by  Sir 
Thomas  Gates,  from  1611  to  1614^  when  he  resumed  the  government,  and 
held  it  till  1616. 

Dallas,  Alexander  James  (1759-1817)  born  in  Jamaica,  took  the  oath  of 
allegiance  to  Pennsylvania  in  1783,  and  was  U.  S.  District  Attorney  from 
1801  to  1814,  when  he  became  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  in  Madison's 
Cabinet.  On  his  suggestion  the  Second  National  Bank  was  incorporated  in 
1816,  and  to  his  efforts  is  largely  due  the  financial  success  of  the  U.  S. 
Government  from  1814  to  1817. 

Dallas,  George  Mifflin  (1792-1864),  Vice-President  of  the  United  States, 
had  a  training  in  diplomacy  and  law,  was  mayor  of  Philadelphia,  and  district 
attorney.  From  1831  to  1833  he  was  U.  S.  Senator  from  Pennsylvania,  and 
was  Attorney-General  of  the  State  in  the  two  succeeding  years.  In  1837-39 
he  was  U.  S.  Minister  to  Russia.  When  Polk  was  nominated  by  the  Demo- 
crats in  1844,  Dallas  received  the  second  honor,  as  a  kind  of  protectionist 
gift  to  hold  Pennsylvania.  They  were  elected,  and  Dallas  served  as  Vice- 
President  1845-49.  I*1  spite  of  his  supposed  protectionist  leanings  Dallas 
gave  the  casting  vote  in  the  Senate  in  favor  of  the  Walker  Tariff  of  1846. 
His  last  public  office  was  that  of  Minister  to  England  in  1856—61. 

Dallas-Clarendon  Treaty.  A  treaty  arranged  in  England  in  1856,  to 
adjust  difficulties  between  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States  respecting 
Central  America,  arising  under  the  Clayton-Bulwer  Treaty.  It  was  not 
ratified  by  the  Senate. 

Dallas'  Reports.  Law  reports  by  A.  J.  Dallas  of  cases  from  all  inferior 
State  Courts  and  all  United  States  Courts  sitting  in  Philadelphia  and  from 
the  Supreme  Court  of  Pennsylvania;  in  four  volumes,  covering  the  period 
from  1754  to  1806  (Supreme  Court,  1790-1800).  Also  cases  in  Federal  Court 
of  Appeals  1781-87.  The  series  of  reports  of  the  U.  S.  Supreme  Court 
begins  with  2  Dallas. 

Dallas  (Vicinity),  Ga.,  a  four  days'  fight  between  Johnston's  and  Sher- 
man's armies,  during  the  latter's  advance  upon  Atlanta  in  1864.  The 
fighting  took  place  May  25  to  29.  The  Confederates,  about  40,000  strong, 
were  under  the  immediate  command  of  Hardee,  and  lay  entrenched  about 
Dallas.  McPherson  attacked  them  with  20,000  Federals.  Schofield  was 
ordered  to  flank  the  Confederate  right,  but  as  he  made  this  attempt  Johnston 
himself  struck  heavily  upon  McPherson's  main  command.  However,  the 
Federals  moved  to  the  left  along  the  Confederate  front  and  gained  the  Alla- 
toona  Pass.  Johnston  was  thus  forced  to  leave  his  intrenchments  and  retire, 
May  29. 

Dana,  Charles  A.  (1819-1897),  from  1848  to  1862  managing  editor  of 
the  New  York  Tribune,  edited  by  Horace  Greeley;  was  appointed  Assistant 
Secretary  of  War  in  1863,  and  in  1867-1868  organized  and  became  editor  of 
the  New  York  Sun. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  183 

Dana,  Francis  (1743-1811),  a  Massachusetts  delegate  to  the  Continental 
Congress  in  1776,  was  Congressman  in  1778  and  secretary  to  the  embassy  of 
John  Adams  in  1779.  He  was  Minister  to  Russia  from  1780  to  1783.  In 
1785  he  was  made  Justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Massachusetts,  and  was 
a  delegate  to  the  Annapolis  Convention  in  1786,  and  Chief  Justice  of  Mas- 
sachusetts from  1791  to  1806. 

Dana,  James  Dwight,  professor  in  Yale  University,  born  in  1813,  made 
extensive  reports,  geological  and  other,  upon  material  collected  in  a  United 
States  expedition  to  the  Southern  and  Pacific  Oceans,  and  in  1850  became 
associate  editor  of  the  American  Journal  of  Science  and  Art,  of  which  he 
is  now  editor.  Died  in  1895. 

Dana,  Richard  H.  (1787-1879),  admitted  to  the  Massachusetts  bar  in 
1811,  was  one  of  the  projectors  of  the  North  American  Review  in  1815,  and 
associate  editor  till  1821;  he  wrote  poems,  of  which  "  The  Buccaneer  "is 
the  most  noted. 

Dana,  Richard  H.,  2d  (1815-1882),  contributed  largely  to  legal  publica- 
tions. He  was  author  of  "  Two  Years  Before  the  Mast,"  a  popular  book, 
and  revised  "  Wheaton's  International  Law,"  bringing  it  up  to  1866. 

Dane,  Nathan  (1752—1835),  a  delegate  to  the  Continental  Congresses  from 
1785  to  1788,  was  the  frainer  of  the  celebrated  Ordinance  of  1787  for  the 
government  of  the  Northwest  Territory.  In  1811  he  was  appointed  to 
revise  and  publish  the  charters  of  Massachusetts,  and  in  1812  to  publish  the 
statutes.  He  was  a  delegate  to  the  Hartford  Convention  in  1814. 

Daniel,  John  W.,  Senator  and  orator,  born  in  Virginia  in  1842,  a  Confed- 
erate adjutant-general,  was  Representative  from  Virginia  from  1885  to  1887, 
and  Senator  from  1887  to  the  present  time  (1897). 

Daniel,  Peter  V.  (1784-1860),  was  a  member  of  the  Virginia  Privy 
Council  from  1812  to  1835.  He  was  a  Justice  of  the  U.  S.  Supreme  Court 
from  1841  to  1860. 

Daniel,  William,  of  Maryland,  was  bora  in  1826.  He  was  prominent  in 
Maryland  prohibition  movements,  a  delegate  to  the  State  convention  for  the 
emancipation  of  slaves  in  1864,  and  a  candidate  for  Vice-President  on  the 
Prohibition  ticket  in  1884.  Died  1897. 

Darbytown  Road,  Va.  Along  this  highway  there  occurred,  during  the 
campaign  around  Richmond  and  Petersburg,  three  brief  fights  between  the 
Federals,  and  Confederates.  In  the  first,  July  29,  1864,  Hancock's  corps  of 
Grant's  army,  having  been  sent  to  co-operate  in  the  mine  explosion  of  Peters- 
burg, met  and  defeated  a  large  force  of  Confederates,  Gregg's  and  Kautz's 
cavalry  bearing  the  brunt  of  the  fight.  Again,  October  7,  Kautz's  cavalry 
was  defeated  with  heavy  loss  along  the  Darbytown  road;  many  Federals 
were  killed  and  wounded  and  nine  pieces  of  artillery  were  lost.  October  13 
Butler  endeavored  to  drive  the  Confederates  from  some  new  works  he  was 
constructing  along  this  road.  The  Tenth  Corps  took  the  chief  part  in  this 
engagement  and  were  badly  defeated,  so  Butler  desisted  from  the  work. 


1 84  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Dare,  Virginia,  born  in  1587  at  Roanoke,  Va.,  (N.  C.),  was  the  first  EnglisK 
child  born  in  the  New  World.  She  was  the  granddaughter  of  John  White, 
Governor  of  the  colony  sent  out  by  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  in  1587. 

Darling,  Fort.     (See  Drewry's  Bluff.)    ' 

Dartmoor  Massacre,  a  massacre  of  a  number  of  American  sailors  captured 
during  the  Revolution  and  confined  in  Dartmoor  Prison,  in  Devonshire, 
England.  It  occurred  April  6,  1815.  In  the  prison  were  6000  Americans 
and  10,000  Frenchmen.  The  former  becoming  impatient  for  their  liberty, 
since  the  war  was  then  long  ended,  attempted  to  escape.  They  were  set 
upon  by  the  guards  and  a  number  of  them  were  killed.  An  investigation  of 
the  matter  was  made  and  the  British  Government  offered  ample  satisfaction. 

Dartmouth  College,  Hanover,  N.  H.,  was  founded  by  Congregationalists, 
and  chartered  in  1769.  It  is  famous  in  constitutional  history  for  having  sup- 
plied the  test  case  as  to  whether  the  State  Legislature  had  the  power  to  dis- 
solve private  trusts.  It  originated  out  of  a  school  for  Indians  established  at 
Lebanon,  Conn.,  by  Rev.  Eleazar  Wheelock.  His  son,  John  Wheelock,  suc- 
ceeded him  in  the  presidency.  Daniel  Webster  was  graduated  here  in  1802. 
The  Medical  School  was  founded  in  1797,  the  Chandler  Scientific  School  in 
1852,  the  New  Hampshire  College  of  Agriculture  in  1868. 

Dartmouth  College  vs.  Woodward,  a  celebrated  case  brought  to  the 
Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States  upon  writ  of  error  from  the  Superior 
Court  of  the  State  of  New  Hampshire,  and  decided  in  1819.  William  Wood- 
ward had  been  appointed  secretary  and  treasurer  of  the  corporation  of  Dart- 
mouth College  by  the  trustees  of  the  college,  twelve  in  number,  as 
designated  by  the  ancient  charter  granted  by  George  III.  in  1769  to  Gov- 
ernor Wentworth,  Eleazar  Wheelock  and  ten  others.  Woodward  was 
removed  from  office  by  the  trustees  August  27,  1816,  and  refused  to  give 
up  certain  goods,  chattels  and  property  then  in  his  keeping,  but  belonging 
to  Dartmouth  College.  On  June  27,  1816,  the  New  Hampshire  Legislature, 
under  the  influence  of  the  Democrats,  had  passed  an  act  amending  the  char- 
ter and  enlarging  and  altering  the  (Federalist)  corporation  of  Dartmouth 
College;  that  is,  the  number  of  trustees  was  increased  to  twenty-one,  there 
were  twenty-five  special  overseers  appointed,  and  the  State  was  to  have  a 
general  supervision  of  the  affairs  of  t.he  college.  This  act,  and  a  similar  one, 
passed  December  26,  1816,  to  enforce  the  first,  were  wholly  repugnant  to 
the  trustees,  who  refused  to  obey  them.  William  Woodward  had  been 
appointed  secretary  and  treasurer  of  the  new  board  of  twenty-one  trustees 
selected  by  the  State.  Suit  was  brought  against  him  by  the  old  trustees  to 
recover  the  property  of  the  college  then  in  his  keeping.  The  Superior  Court 
of  New  Hampshire  gave  a  verdict  for  the  defendant.  The  U.  S.  Supreme 
Court  reversed  and  annulled  this  decision,  allowing  the  plaintiffs  $20,000 
damages.  It  was  decided  by  the  court  that  the  "  charter  of  Dartmouth  College 
is  a  contract  within  the  meaning  of  that  clause  of  the  Constitution  which 
prohibits  the  States  from  passing  any  law  impairing  the  obligation  of  con- 
tracts." Hence  the  New  Hampshire  law  was  declared  unconstitutional. 
Daniel  Webster  was  chief  counsel  for  the  plaintiff. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  185 

Daughters  of  Liberty,  a  society  of  women  formed  in  Boston  in  1769-70, 
who  pledged  themselves  not  to  buy  goods  from  British  importers  and  shop- 
keepers, and  to  help  on  the  cause  of  liberty. 

Daughters  of  the  American  Revolution,  a  society  of  the  female  descend- 
ants of  distinguished  soldiers,  sailors  and  patriots  of  the  Revolution,  organized 
at  Washington  October  1 1,  1890.  There  are  now  twenty-odd  State  branches. 

Davenport,  John  (1597-1670),  an  English  clergyman,  who  emigrated  to 
Boston  in  1637.  In  1638  he  founded  New  Haven,  of  which  colony  for  thirty 
years  he  was  minister,  and  a  chief  member  of  the  government.  Since  none 
except  members  of  the  church  were  burgesses,  he  had  great  power  and 
influence. 

Davie,  William  R.  (1756-1820),  born  in  England,  arrived  in  America  in 
1763.  He  commanded  at  Stono  Ferry  in  1779,  and  in  1781  was  appointed 
commissary-general  of  the  Southern  army.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Con- 
stitutional Convention  of  1787  from  North  Carolina,  and  of  the  special 
embassy  to  France  in  1799.  He  was  prominent  among  the  North  Carolina 
Federalists. 

Daviess,  Joseph  H.  (1774-1811),  was  killed  at  Tippecanoe.  While  U.  S. 
Attorney  for  Kentucky  he  advocated  the  trial  of  Aaron  Burr  in  1806  on  a 
charge  of  unauthorized  warfare  which  could  not  be  sustained  and  brought 
him  into  disfavor. 

Davis,  Charles  H.  (1807—1877),  founder  of  the  American  Nautical  Almanac, 
was  connected  with  the  U.  S.  navy  from  1823  to  1867.  In  1862  he  was  chief 
of  the  board  of  navigation,  and  commanded  the  Mississippi  flotilla,  and  was 
superintendent  of  the  naval  observatory  from  1865  to  1867  an^  fr°m  I^7° 
to  1877. 

Davis,  David  (1815-1886),  jurist,  graduated  at  Kenyon  College  in  Ohio, 
and  settled  to  the  practice  of  law  at  Bloomington,  111.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  Illinois  Legislature,  a  State  judge,  and  an  intimate  friend  of  Abraham 
Lincoln.  He  was  a  delegate  to  the  Republican  National  Convention  at 
Chicago  in  1860.  President  Lincoln  appointed  him  an  Associate  Justice  of 
the  Supreme  Court,  where  he  remained  from  1862  to  1877,  being  in  the 
latter  year  a  member  of  the  Electoral  Commission.  His  reform  tendencies 
had,  meanwhile,  made  him  the  candidate  for  President,  in  1872,  of  the 
Labor  Reform  party,  and  brought  him  some  votes  at  the  Liberal  Republican 
Convention  in  the  same  year.  In  1877-1883  he  was  U.  S.  Senator  from 
Illinois,  and  at  one  time  president  of  the  Senate.  While  in  that  body  he 
was  classed  as  an  Independent,  though  he  acted  frequently  with  the 
Democrats. 

Davis,  Edwin  H.  (1811-1888),  physician  from  1838  to  1850,  has  made 
extensive  exploration  r>f  ancient  mounds,  the  report  of  which  was  the  first 
scientific  publication  of  the  Smithsonian  Institute. 

Davis,  Henry  Winter  (1817-1865),  was  born  in  Maryland.  He  attained 
considerable  celebrity  as  a  lawyer,  and  was  elected  to  the  Congress  of  the 
Um'te4  States  as  a  Democrat,  serving  from  1855  to  1861,  and  decided  a  tie. 


1 86  DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

vote  for  Speaker,  in  1859,  by  voting  for  Mr.  Pennington,  the  Republican  candi- 
date. He  was  again  a  member  of  Congress  from  1863  to  1865,  and  served 
as  chairman  of  the  Committee  on  Foreign  Affairs.  Though  representing  a 
slave  State,  he  was  an  ardent  advocate  of  emancipation  and  negro  suffrage, 
but  opposed  the  assumption  of  extraordinary  powers  by  the  executive. 

Davis,  Jefferson  (June  3,  i8o8-December  6,  1889),  President  of  the 
Southern  Confederacy,  was  born  in  Kentucky,  and  graduated  at  West  Point 
in  1828.  He  saw  some  service  in  the  Black  Hawk  War,  but  resigned  from 
the  army  and  became  a  cotton  planter  in  Mississippi.  He  represented  that 
State  in  Congress  in  1845-46,  but  left  Congress  to  take  part  as  colonel  in  the 
Mexican  War.  In  the  storm  of  Monterey  and^the  battle  of  Buena  Vista  he 
distinguished  himself  and  was  straightway  chosen  to  the  U.  S.  Senate,  where 
he  served  1847-51  and  1857-61.  In  1851  he  ran  unsuccessfully  as  the  States- 
rights  candidate  for  Governor  of  Mississippi.  In  President  Pierce's  admin- 
istration Mr.  Davis  was  the  Secretary  of  War  1853—57.  He  nac^  become  one 
of  the  Southern  leaders,  received  some  votes  for  the  Democratic  nomination 
for  President  in  1860,  and  in  January,  1861,  he  left  the  U.  S.  Senate.  He  was 
thereupon  elected  provisional  President  of  the  Confederacy  February  9,  1861, 
and  was  inaugurated  February  18.  In  November  of  the  same  year  he  was 
elected  President  and  was  inaugurated  February  22,  1862.  From  the  second 
year  of  the  war  till  the  close  many  of  his  acts  were  severely  criticised  in  the 
South  itself.  Many  Southerners  admit  that  President  Davis'  actions,  espe- 
cially his  interference  in  military  matters,  impaired  the  prospects  of  success. 
An  instance  in  point  was  his  removal  of  General  J.  E.  Johnston  from  com- 
mand in  1864.  Early  in  1865  he  conducted  unsuccessful  negotiations  for 
peace.  On  the  second  of  April  the  successes  of  Grant's  army  obliged  Presi- 
dent Davis  to  leave  Richmond;  he  took  the  train  for  Danville,  and  after 
consultation  proceeded  southward  and  was  captured  by  the  Federals  near 
Irwinsville,  Ga.,  May  10,  1865.  Until  1867  he  was  confined  as  a  prisoner 
in  Fort  Monroe.  He  was  in  1866  indicted  for  treason,  released  on  bail 
the -following  year,  and  the  trial  was  dropped.  He  passed  the  remainder  of 
his  life  at  Memphis  and  later  in  Mississippi,  dying  in  New  Orleans.  He  is 
the  author  of  "  Rise  and  Fall  of  the  Confederate  Government,"  two  volumes. 
There  are  lives  by  Pollard  and  Alfriend. 

Davis,  Jefferson  C.  (1828-1879),  Federal  general,  after  serving  during  the 
Mexican  War,  was  in  Fort  Sumter  at  the  time  of  the  bombardment  in  1861, 
served  with  distinction  at  Pea  Ridge  and  Stone  River,  and  commanded  a  corps 
in  Sherman's  march  through  Georgia. 

Davis,  John  (1550-1605),  an  English  navigator,  in  1585,  1586  and  1587 
made  attempts  to  discover  a  northwest  passage,  penetrating  as  far  as  the  strait 
which  bears  his  name. 

Davis,  John  (1787-1854),  was  a  National  Republican  Congressman  from 
1825  to  *834i  when  he  became  Governor  of  Massachusetts.  From  1835 
to  1840  he  was  a  U.  S.  Senator,  and  opposed  the  administration^  of  Jackson 
and  Van  Buren.  After  again  serving  as  Governor  from  1840  to  1841,  he 
was  returned  to  the  Senate  from  1845  to  1853.  He  opposed  the  Mexican 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  187 

War  and  the  introduction  and  extension  of  slavery,  and  received  the  appel- 
lation of  "  Honest  John  Davis." 

Davis,  John  C.  Bancroft,  jurist,  was  born  in  Massachusetts  in  1822.  From 
1869  to  1871,  from  1873  to  1875,  and  in  1881  he  was  Assistant  Secretary  of 
State  of  the  United  States.  In  1871  he  represented  the  U.  S.  Government  in 
the  arbitration  of  the  "  Alabama  "  claims  at  Geneva,  having  been  secretary  of 
the  commission  concluding  the  Treaty  of  Washington.  From  1877  to  1881 
he  was  a  Judge  of  the  U.  S.  Court  of  Claims,  and  in  1883  became  reporter 
of  the  U.  S.  Supreme  Court. 

Davis,  John  W.  (1799-1859),  was  Speaker  of  the  Indiana  Legislature  in 
1832  and  a  Democratic  U.  S.  Congressman  from  1835  to  1837,  J^39  *° 

1841  and  from  1843  to  J^47-     He  was  Speaker  of  the  House  from  1845  to 
1847,  and  U.  S.  Commissioner  to  China  from  1848  to  1850. 

Davis,  Noah,  born  in  1818,  was  a  Judge  of  the  Supreme  Court  for  the 
Eighth  Judicial  District  from  1857  to  1868  and  a  U.  S.  Representative  from 
1869  to  1870,  when  he  became  U.  S.  Attorney  for  Southern  New  York. 
From  1872  to  1887  he  was  a  Justice  of  the  New  York  Supreme  Court, 
becoming  Presiding  Justice  in  1874. 

Dawes,  Henry  L.,  born  in  1816,  was  a  member  of  the  Massachusetts  Con- 
stitutional Convention  in  1853.  He  was  a  Representative  from  Massacjiu- 
setts  from  1857  to  1873,  and  succeeded  Charles  Sumner  in  the  Senate  in 
1875  and  served  till  1893.  He  was  for  a  time  chairman  of  the  Ways  and 
Means  Committee  in  the  House,  and  has  been  prominent  in  legislation  for 
the  tariff  and  for  Indian  education. 

Dawson,  Henry  B.,  born  in  England  in  1821,  arrived  in  America  in  1834 
and  from  1840  was  editor  and  publisher  of  many  historical  writings  and 
much  engaged  in  newspaper  work.  In  1863  he  published  his  edition  of  the 
Federalist.  For  many  years  he  edited  the  Historical  Magazine.  Died  1889. 

Day,  William  R.,  lawyer,  born  in  Ohio  in  1849.  Became  Assistant 
Secretary  of  State  in  McKinley's  Cabinet  i.i  1897,  and  succeeded  John 
Sherman  as  Secretary  of  State  in  1898.  President  of  the  Paris.  Peace  Com- 
mission. In  1899  U.  S.  Circuit  Judge. 

Dayton,  Jonathan  (1760-1824),  was  born  in  New  Jersey.  In  1776  he 
entered  the  Continental  army,  in  which  he  held  numerous  commissions,  and 
under  Lafayette  commanded  at  Yorktown.  In  1783  he  was  elected  to  the 
Legislature,  and  was  made  Speaker  in  1790.  In  1787  he  was  a  delegate  to 
the  convention  which  framed  the  Federal  Constitution.  He  was  elected 
U.  S.  Congressman  from  New  Jersey,  serving  from  1791  to  1799,  being  chosen 
Speaker  of  the  House  from  1795  to  1799,  and  was  a  U.  S.  Senator  from  1799 
to  1805.  A  friend  of  Burr,  he  had  a  part  in  Burr's  conspiracy  of  1807. 

Dayton,  William  L.  (1807-1864),  a  U.  S.  Senator  from  New  Jersey  from 

1842  to  1851,  was  candidate  for  Vice-President  in  1856  on  the  Republican 
ticket,  and  was  Attorney-General  for  New  Jersey  from  1857  to  1861,  when  he 
was  appointed  Minister  to  France,  where  he  served  during  the  Civil  War, 
till  his  death. 


1 88  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

•  Deane,  Charles  (1813-1889),  born  in  Maine,  the  author  of  many  historical 
writings  and  owner  of  a  very  valuable  library  on  early  New  England  history, 
was  eminent  for  his  learning  and  sagacity  in  that  field. 

Deane,  Silas  (1737-1789),  born  in  Groton,  Conn.,  died  in  Deal,  England. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Connecticut  Committee  of  Correspondence,  and 
afterward  a  Representative  in  the  Continental  Congress.  In  1776  he  was 
sent  to  France  to  purchase  supplies  for  the  Confederacy.  Vergennes,  the 
French  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs,  referred  him  to  Beaumarchais,  a  secret 
agent  of  the  French  Government,  and  with  him  Deane  negotiated.  He  was 
accused  of  extravagance  and  dishonesty,  chiefly  by  his  colleague,  Arthur 
Lee.  Deane,  Lee  and  Franklin  negotiated  treaties  of  amity  and  commerce 
with  France,  which  were  signed  February  6,  1778.  Deane  .was  recalled  the 
san;e  year  at  the  instigation  of  Lee.  Congress  refused  him  a  hearing  for 
some  time  and  finally  required  a  full  statement.  Returning  to  France  for 
the  necessary  papers,  he  found  himself  unpopular  there,  and  had  to  retire 
to  Holland.  He  died  just  as  he  was  re-embarking  from  England  for  America 
in  1789. 

Dearborn,  Henry  (1751-1829),  a  captain  at  Bunker  Hill,  distinguished 
himself  at  the  battles  of  Stillwater,  Saratoga  and  Monmouth.  He  became 
major-general  in  1795.  He  was  a  U.  S.  Congressman  from  1793  to  1797,  and 
Secretary  of  War  in  Jefferson's  Cabinet  from  1801  to  1809.  From  1822  to 
1824  he  was  Minister  to  Portugal. 

Dearborn,  Fort  (Chicago),  was  evacuated  August  15,  1812,  by  orders  of 
General  Hull;  burned  next  day.  The  Americans  while  retreating  were 
attacked  by  hostile  Indians,  and  two-thirds  of  their  number  massacred, 
including  twelve  children.  The  survivors  surrendered  on  promise  of  safety, 
were  taken  to  Fort  Mackinaw,  and  finally  were  sent  back  to  their  homes. 

Deatonsville,  Va.  Near  this  place  the  Confederate  army  under  Lee, 
while  in  full  retreat  from  Petersburg,  at  the  close  of  the  last  campaign  about 
that  city  and  Richmond,  was  struck  April  6,  1864,  by  Crook,  commanding 
the  left  of  Sheridan's  pursuing  forces.  Crook's  forces  were  repulsed  by 
superior  numbers,  but  his  assault  enabled  Custer  to  join  him  and  attack  Lee 
a  little  further  on  at  Sailor's  Creek.  EwelPs  forces  were  cut  off  and  com- 
pelled to  surrender. 

De  Bow,  James  D.  B.  (1820-1867),  of  South  Carolina,  statistician,  a 
voluminous  writer  of  magazine  articles  upon  economics  and  finance,  was 
appointed  Superintendent  of  the  Census  from  1853  to  1855. 

Debt.  At  the  installation  of  the  new  Government  in  1789,  the  foreign 
debt  amounted  to  $13,000,000,  the  domestic  debt  to  $42,000,000,  and  Ham- 
ilton also  persuaded  the  Congress  to  assume  State  debts  contracted  in  the 
Revolution  to  the  amount  of  $21,500,000  more.  It  was  then  funded.  In 
1796  it  amounted  in  the  total  to  $83,800,000.  It  then  began  to  be  reduced 
and,  though  raised  by  the  expenditures  for  the  Louisiana  purchase,  was 
brought  down  to  $45,200,000  in  1812  by  the  skillful  management  of  Ham- 
ilton and  Gallatin  successively.  The  War  of  1812  brought  it  up  to  $127,- 
000,000,  in  1816,  but  the  abounding  prosperity  of  the  country  enabled  the 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY,  189 

Government  to  pay  it  all  off,  virtually,  by  1835.  It  then  grew  again.  The 
Mexican  War  brought  it  up  from  $15,600,000  to  $68,300,000,  whence  it 
again  declined  to  $28,700,000  in  1857.  The  Civil  War  required  not  only 
heavy  and  almost  indiscriminate  taxation  but  enormous  loans,  so  that  the 
debt  on  the  thirty-first  of  August,  1865,  amounted  to  $2,845,000,000.  Suc- 
cessful efforts  to  refund  at  lower  rates  of  interest,  together  with  the  pros- 
perity of  the  country  and  the  great  revenue  from  customs,  enabled  the  debt 
to  be  reduced  to  $2,000,000,000  in  1878,  if  cash  in  the  Treasury  be  sub- 
tracted, to  $1,500,000,000  in  1883,  and  to  $1,000,000,000  in  1889.  On 
November  i,  1893,  the  total  debt,  less  cash  in  the  Treasury,  amounted  to 
$820,109,339. 

Debts,  British.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolution,  many  Americans 
owed  money  to  British  citizens,  merchants  and  others.  The  Treaty  of  1783 
provided  for  their  payment.  But  many  obstacles  were  thrown  in  the  way, 
State  governments  having  provided,  or  even  providing  after  the  ratification 
of  the  treaty,  that  they  might  be  paid  into  the  treasury  of  the  State,  which 
would  then  refuse  to  entertain  suits  on  the  part  of  the  creditors.  The  appre- 
hension that  a  Federal  judiciary  would  compel  these  debts  to  be  paid  was 
one  cause  of  opposition  to  the  Constitution  of  1787.  In  1796,  in  the  case 
of  Ware  vs.  Hylton,  the  Supreme  Court  decided  that  such  debts  must 
be  paid. 

Decatur,  Stephen  (1779—1820),  was  born  in  Maryland.  He  began  service 
in  the  U.  S.  navy  on  the  "United  States"  in  1798,  and  in  1803  commanded 
the  "  Argus,"  and  later  the  "  Enterprise."  In  1804  he  distinguished  himself 
by  successfully  destroying  the  "  Philadelphia,"  which  had  fallen  into  the 
possession  of  Tripoli.  In  1812,  on  the  "United  States,"  while  commanding 
an  Atlantic  squadron,  he  captured  the  British  ship  "  Macedonian,"  and  in 
1814,  after  a  stubborn  battle,  was  compelled  to  surrender  the  unseaworthy 
ship  "  President."  In  1815,  with  ten  vessels,  he  humbled  the  Barbary 
powers,  and  concluded  a  treaty  by  which  tribute  was  abolished  and  prisoners 
and  property  were  restored.  He  was  one  of  the  navy  commissioners  from 
1816  to  1820,  when  he  was  killed  by  Commodore  Barren  in  a  duel. 

Declaration  of  Independence.  Absolute  separation  from  Great  Britain 
was  not  at  first  contemplated  by  *the  colonies.  New  England  favored  it,  but 
the  Southern  States  were  opposed.  The  transfer  of  the  war  to  the  south- 
ward in  May  and  June,  1776,  brought  them  to  this  view.  The  North  Caro- 
lina Convention  took  the  first  step  toward  independence  by  a  resolution  "  to 
concur  with  those  in  the  other  colonies  in  declaring  independence,"  April 
22,  1776.  Virginia,  May  17,  1776,  prepared  the  title  of  the  document  by 
directing  her  Representatives  to  propose  in  Congress  a  "  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence." Such  a  resolution  was  offered  by  Richard  Henry  Lee,  June  7, 
1776.  This  resolution  was  adopted  July  2.  Thomas  Jefferson,  John  Adams, 
Benjamin  Franklin,  Roger  Sherman  and  Robert  R.  Livingston  were  the 
committee  appointed  to  draft  the  Declaration.  The  draft  was  formulated 
almost  entirely  by  Jefferson.  Before  July  I,  Pennsylvania,  Maryland  and 
New  Jersey  had  instructed  their  delegates  to  vote  against  the  Declaration. 
This  instruction  was  rescinded,  South  Carolina  came  over  to  the  majority, 


190 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 


and  Delaware's  vote,  at  first  divided,  was  in  the  affirmative.  The  Declara- 
tion was,  therefore,  adopted  by  the  unanimous  vote  of  twelve  States,  New 
York  alone  not  voting,  July  4,  1776.  The  New  York  Convention  afterward 
ratified  the  Declaration.  The  engrossed  copy  was  signed  on  August  2.  The 
Declaration  sets  forth  the  rights  of  man  and  of  the  colonists,  enumerates 
their  grievances  against  the  British  Government,  and  declares  "  that  these 
united  colonies  are,  and  of  right  ought  to  be,  free  and  independent  States." 


Declaration  of  Independence,  Signers  of. 


New  Hampshire. 

Josiah  Bartlett, 
William  Whipple, 
Matthew  Thornton. 

Massachusetts. 

John  Hancock, 
Samuel  Adams, 
John  Adams, 
Robert  Treat  Paine, 
Elbridge  Gerry. 

Rhode  Island. 

Stephen  Hopkins, 
William  Ellery. 

Connecticut. 

Roger  Sherman, 
Samuel  Huntingdon, 
William  Williams, 
Oliver  Wolcott. 

New  York. 
William  Floyd, 
Philip  Livingston, 
Francis  Lewis, 
Lewis  Morris. 

New  Jersey. 

Richard  Stockton, 
John  Witherspoon, 
Francis  Hopkinson, 
John  Hart, 
Abraham  Clark. 

Pennsylvania. 
Robert  Morris, 
Benjamin  Rush, 
Benjamin  Franklin, 
John  Morton, 


George  Clymer, 
James  Smith, 
George  Taylor, 
James  Wilson, 
George  Ross. 

Delaware. 

Caesar  Rodney, 
George  Read, 
Thomas  M'Kean. 

Maryland. 

Samuel  Chase, 

William  Paca, 

Thomas  Stone, 

Charles  Carroll,  of  Carrollton. 

Virginia. 

George  Wythe, 
Richard  Henry  Lee, 
Thomas  Jefferson, 
Benjamin  Harrison, 
Thomas  Nelson,  Jr., 
Francis  Lightfoot  Lee, 
Carter  Braxton. 

North  Carolina. 

i 

William  Hooper, 
Joseph  Hewes, 
John  Penn. 

South  Carolina. 

Edward  Rutledge, 
Thomas  Heyward,  Jr., 
Thomas  Lynch,  Jr., 
Arthur  Middleton. 

Georgia. 

Button  Gwinnett, 
Lyman  Hall, 
George  Walton. 


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DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  191 

Declaration  of  Rights.  In  1765,  the  Stamp  Act  Congress  published  a 
"Declaration  of  Rights  and  Grievances  of  the  Colonists  of  America,"  in 
which  they  protested  against  the  Stamp  Act  and  all  efforts  to  tax  them  in  a 
Parliament  in  which  they  could  not  be  represented,  and  claimed  for  them- 
selves all  the  rights  of  British  subjects.  A  similar  declaration  of  rights  was 
issued  by  the  Continental  Congress  of  1774,  adapted  to  meet  also  the  aggres- 
sive acts  which  had  more  recently  been  passed  by  Parliament.  Another 
such  was  included  in  the  Declaration  of  Independence.  For  the  statements 
of  the  rights  of  the  individual  as  over  against  his  government  which  accom- 
panied most  of  the  new  Constitutions  of  this  period,  see  Bills  of  Rights. 

Declaratory  Act,  ati  act  passed  by  Parliament,  March  7,  1766,  vindi- 
cating the  previous  enactments  affecting  the  colonies,  and  declaring  that  the 
king,  with  the  advice  of  Parliament,  had  full  power  to  make  laws  binding 
America  in  any  cases  whatsoever.  This  law  accompanied  the  repeal  of  the 
Stamp  Act. 

Decoration  Day,  known  as  "  Memorial  Day  "  in  the  Southern  States.  The 
custom  that  led  up  to  it  originated  in  the  South  before  the  close  of  the  Civil 
War.  Early  in  the  spring  of  each  year  the  Southern  women  were  in  the 
habit  of  decorating  the  graves  of,  their  dead  soldiers  with  flowers,  and  thus 
an  unwritten  law  fixed  May  30  as  the  day  of  observance.  Similar  observ- 
ances had  been  inaugurated  in  the  North  with  no  especial  unanimity.  May 
5,  1868,  General  John  A.  Logan,  then  commander-in-chief  of  the  Grand  Army 
of  the  Republic,  issued  an  order  fixing  May  30  of  that  year  for  strewing  witi- 
flowers  the  graves  of  dead  soldiers.  There  has  been  no  Federal  legislation 
regarding  Decoration  Day,  but  many  States  have  made  it  a  legal  holiday. 

Deep  Bottom,  Va.,  selected  by  Butler  during  the  campaigning  around  R\t\:- 
mond  and  Petersburg  in  1864  as  a  position  from  which  to  threaten  Lee.  A 
lodgment  was  effected  there  June  21,  and  Foster  was  there  posted  with  A 
strong  force.  Lee,  fearing  this  position,  made  several  ineffectual  attempts 
to  secure  it,  and  at  last  Grant  ordered  a  counter  attack  on  July  26  and  27. 
Hancock  turned  the  Confederates'  advance  position  while  Foster  feinted  an 
attack  upon  his  front.  The  plan  worked  so  successfully  that  Miles'  brigade 
outflanked  the  Confederates'  outpost  and  carried  away  four  guns.  Lee  fell 
back  to  Bailey's  Creek,  but  continued  to  hold  his  strong  defensive  work  at 
Chapin's  Bluff. 

Deerfield,  Mass.,  was  first  settled  in  1670.  During  King  Philip's  War 
a  company  under  Captain  Lothrop  was  attacked  at  Bloody  Brook,  in  Deer- 
field,  by  savages  in  ambush  and  almost  totally  destroyed.  Deerfield  was 
sacked  by  French  and  Indians  in  1704  and  many  of  the  inhabitants  killed. 

Delancey,  James  (1703-1760),  of  New  York,  member  of  the  council  of 
the  province  from  1729,  Chief  Justice  from  1733,  Lieutenant-Governor  from 
1753,  acted  as  Governor  from  1753  to  1755  and  from  1757  to  1760.  He  pre- 
sided over  the  Albany  Convention  of  1754. 

Delancey,  James  (1732-1800),  son  of  the  preceding,  served  in  the  French 
and  Indian  War,  and  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  Assembly  before  the  Revo- 
lution, but  on  its  outbreak  retired  to  England,  and  died  there.  His  estates 
were  confiscated. 


1 92  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Delancey,  James  (1750-1809),  cousin  of  the  preceding,  was  during  the 
Revolutionary  War  noted  as  a  bold  and  successful  commander  of  the  Tory 
light-horse,  known  as  "  Cowboys."  After  the  war,  his  estates  having  been 
confiscated,  he  retired  to  Nova  Scotia. 

Delancey,  Oliver  (1708-1785),  brother  of  Governor  James  Delancey,  com- 
manded the  New  York  troops  in  Abercrombie's  campaign  in  the  French  and 
Indian  War,  and  during  the  Revolutionary  War  was  commander  of  a  brigade 
o/  Tories.  At  the  close  of  the  war  he  retired  to  England. 

Delancey,  Oliver  (1752-1822),  son  of  the  preceding,  an  officer  in  the 
British  army,  served  with  distinction  throughout  the  American  war,  and 
finally  became  full  general  in  the  British  service. 

Delano,  Columbus,  born  1809,  member  of  Congress  from  Ohio,  was  Secre- 
tary of  the  Interior  in  Grant's  Cabinet  from  1870  to  1875. 

Delaware.  In  1631  the  Dutch  from  New  Netherland  founded  a  settle- 
ment in  what  is  now  Delaware,  but  it  proved  temporary.  In  1638  the 
Swedish  West  India  Company  settled  a  colony  on  the  site  of  Wilmington. 
The  colony  of  New  Sweden,  lying  along  the  snores  of  Delaware  River  and 
Bay,  became  involved  in  quarrels  with  the  neighboring  settlements  of  the 
Dutch,  who  claimed  the  region.  In  1655  Governor  Stuyvesant  conquered 
the  region  for  the  Dutch.  In  1664  it  fell,  with  all  New  Netherland,  into  the 
hands  of  the  English.  William  Penn  in  1682  obtained  possession  of  what  is 
now  Delaware,  and  for  twenty  years  it  was  governed  as  a  part  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, except  from  1691  to  1693.  In  1703  the  "  territories  "  or  "  three  lower 
counties  on  the  Delaware  "  obtained  recognition  as  a  separate  colony,  with 
an  assembly  of  its  own,  though  the  proprietary  always  appointed  the  same 
man  Governor  of  both  Pennsylvania  and  Delaware.  Delaware  framed  its 
first  Constitution  as  a  State  in  1776.  On  December  7,  1787,  Delaware  ratified 
the  Constitution  of  the  United  States,  and  was  the  first  State  to  do  so.  The 
vote  in  convention  was  unanimous.  In  1792  a  second  State  Constitution 
was  established.  That  of  1831,  the  last  made,  differs  little  from  this.  Up 
to  1850  the  State  was  usually  Federalist  and  Whig,  since  then  it  has  usually 
been  Democratic.  Though  a  slave  State  it  took  no  part  in  secession.  The 
population,  which  in  1790  was  59,096,  in  1890  was  168,493. 

Delaware,  Crossing  of  the.  On  Christmas  night,  1776,  after  a  period  of 
discouragement,  Washington  made  his  way  across  the  river  Delaware  through 
the  floating  ice,  and  on  the  next  day,  at  the  head  of  2400  men,  surprised, 
attacked  and  captured  a  force  of  1000  British  troops  (Hessian  mercenaries) 
under  Rahl. 

Delawares,  an  Indian  tribe,  a  branch  of  the  Algonquin  family,  who, 
when  the  whites  first  came  to  the  Delaware  River,  were  found  dwelling  near 
it.  Penn  bought  much  land  of  them.  At  first  a  peaceable  tribe,  they  were 
largely  under  the  control  of  the  Five  Nations.  Later,  they  became  warlike, 
and  had  a  part  in  the  war  with  Pontiac.  In  1774  they  received  a  signal 
defeat.  After  1768  there  were  none  east  of  the  Alleghanies.  The  Christian 
Delawares,  converts  of  the  Moravians,  were  largely  massacred  by  the  Ameri- 
cans at  Gnadenhiitten,  near  the  close  of  the  Revolutionary  War.  From 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  193 

Ohio  the  tribe  emigrated  to  Missouri  in  1818,  in  1829  into  Kansas,  and  in 
1868  into  the  Indian  Territory,  having  now  become  almost  completely 
civilized. 

Delawarr,  Thomas  West,  Lord,  a  man  of  noble  and  philanthropic 
character,  was  appointed  Governor  of  Virginia  in  1609,  and  administered 
the  colony  with  success  until  1611.  In  that  year  he  entered  the  river  that 
bears  his  name.  He  died  in  1618. 

Delfthaven,  a  small  town  in  South  Holland,  port  of  Delft,  is  famous  in 
American  history  as  the  place  at  which  the  Pilgrim  Fathers  embarked  on 
board  the  "Speedwell  "  for  Southampton,  July  22,  1620. 

De  Lome,  Dupuy,  Spanish  Minister  to  the  United  States  from  1893  to 
1898,  when  he  resigned  in  consequence  of  the  friction  caused  by  an  indis- 
creet letter  written  by  him  to  a  Spanish  agent. 

De  Long,  George  W.  (1844-1881),  a  lieutenant-commander  in  the  U.  S. 
navy,  commanded  the  "  Jeannette  "  in  her  Arctic  voyage  via  Behring  Strait. 
His  vessel  being  crushed  in  the  ice,  he  made  a  long  and  adventurous  journey 
to  the  Siberian  mainland  and  up  the  L,ena  delta,  but  died  of  exposure  and 
starvation  when  within  reach  of  help. 

Democracy.  Democracy,  though  one  of  the  foremost  elements  in  Ameri- 
can constitutional  life,  has  grown  up  entirely  outside  the  Constitution.  The 
Constitution  leaves  the  suffrage  to  be  prescribed  entirely  by  the  States.  For 
its  stages  of  advance,  see  art.  Suffrage.  An  important  landmark  in  its  his- 
tory, in  the  Federal  Government,  is  the  inauguration  of  Jackson  in  1829. 
He  was  felt  to  be  the  people's  candidate,  and  his  election  was  felt  to  be  their 
triumph.  From  this  time  on  American  Democracy  was  recognized  as  the 
permanent  and  characteristic  system  of  politics  in  the  United  States.  With 
this  has  gone  a  liberal  policy  in  regard  to  naturalization  and  immigration. 

Democratic  Party,  historically  the  most  important  of  American  political 
parties,  having  been  in  continuous  existence  for  a  hundred  years.  The  rise  of 
such  a  party,  as  soon  as  national  politics  began  under  the  new  Constitution, 
was  natural.  The  love  of  individual  liberty  rather  than  strong  government, 
was  native  in  the  minds  of  most  Americans.  Those  who  felt  this  most 
strongly  would  be  likely  to  look  with  apprehension  upon  the  Federal  Gov- 
ernment, and  the  possibility  of  its  encroaching  upon  the  States  under  cover 
of  the  new  Federal  Constitution.  They  were  therefore  likely  to  be  advo- 
cates of  strict  construction  of  the  Constitution  and  of  States'  rights.  To  these 
elements  of  party  feeling,  which  had  drawn  the  Anti-Federalists  together  in 
1788,  was  added  a  few  years  later  the  strong  sympathy  of  many  Americans 
with  the  French  Revolution,  and  the  desire  that  Government  should  aid 
France  in  her  contest  with  England.  Thomas  Jefferson  put  himself  at  the 
head  of  the  party  drawn  together  by  agreement  in  these  sentiments,  and  led 
them  in  opposition  to  the  Federalists.  The  party  took  the  name  of  Demo- 
cratic-Republican, still  its  official  title.  Before  Monroe's  administration  its 
members  were  more  commonly  called  Republicans,  since  then  most  commonly 
Democrats.  From  the  first  the  party  was  strongest  in  the  Southern  States. 
From  its  origin  in  1792  to  1801,  it  was  in  opposition.  In  1798  and  1799,  upon 
the  passage  of  the  Alien  and  Sedition  laws,  it  took  strong  ground  for  States' 
rights  in  the  Kentucky  and  Virginia  Resolutions.  The  election  of  Jefferson 
in  1801  brought  it  into  power.  The  chief  tenets  of  the  party  were,  belief  in 
13 


194  DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

freedom  of  religion,  of  politics,  of  speech  and  of  the  press,  in  popular  rule, 
in  peace,  in  economical  government,  in  the  utmost  possible  restriction  of  the 
sphere  of  government,  in  hospitality  to  immigrants,  and  in  the  avoidance  of 
foreign  complications.  Placed  in  control  of  the  government,  the  majority 
of  the  party  drifted  away  from  its  strict-construction ist  ground,  and  supported 
measures  of  a  nationalizing  character.  After  the  War  of  1812,  the  Federal- 
ist party  went  out  of  existence,  and  the  Democratic  party  had  complete 
possession  of  the  field.  In  1820,  Monroe  was  re-elected  without  opposition. 
But  opposing  tendencies  in  the  nation  and  in  the  party  were  already  show- 
ing themselves,  and  preparing  the  way  for  a  new  party  division,  between  the 
Whigs,  advocates  of  protection  and  other  nationalizing  measures,  and  those 
Democrats  who  held  to  the  old  programme  of  States'  rights  and  free  trade  and 
restricted  government.  With  the  accession  of  Jackson  in  1829,  new  social 
strata  came  into  power  in  the  Democratic  party,  the  widening  of  the  suffrage 
giving  it  a  more  popular  character.  Managed  by  skillful  politicians,  not 
without  the  aid  of  the  "  spoils  system,"  the  party  won  every  Presidential 
election  but  two  (1840,  1848)  from  this  time  to  1860,  destroyed  the  U.  S. 
bank,  annexed  Texas,  and  carried  the  country  through  the  war  with  Mexico. 
But  meanwhile  the  slavery  question,  coming  into  increasing  prominence, 
was  gradually  forcing  a  division  between  the  Democrats  of  the  South  and 
the  great  body  of  those  in  the  North,  who  were  unwilling  to  go  so  far  in  the 
protection  of  slavery  by  national  authority  as  was  desired  by  their  Southern 
allies.  The  final  split  came  in  the  nominating  convention  of  1860.  Two 
candidates  were  nominated,  Lincoln  and  the  Republicans  won  the  election, 
and  the  Civil  War  broke  out.  Though  many  "  War  Democrats  "  aided  the 
administration  in  preserving  the  Union,  the  party  was  discredited  in  the  eyes 
of  many  by  its  previous  connection  with  the  Southern  leaders  and  the  pro- 
slavery  cause,  and  won  no  Presidential  election  till  that  of  1884,  when  in  the 
minds  of  many  the  war  issues  were  extinct  and  economic  questions  had  taken 
their  place.  Defeated  in  1888,  it  was  again  successful  in  1892.  At  present 
the  party  is  hardly  more  strict-constructionist  than  the  Republican,  nor  more 
marked  by  devotion  to  States'  rights.  Since  the  Chicago  Convention  of 
1896,  the  party  has  been  chiefly  noted  as  the  advocate  of  free  silver,  although 
not  harmonious  on  this  issue. 

Democratic  Societies,  clubs  formed  in  many  American  towns  in  1793,  in 
imitation  of  the  Jacobin  and  other  political  clubs  of  France,  to  express 
sympathy  with  that  country  and  the  principles  of  the  French  Revolution, 
and  to  propagate  extreme  Democratic  views  on  American  politics.  They 
opposed  the  strongest  measures  of  Washington's  administration,  especially 
those  employed  in  the  suppression  of  the  Whisky  Insurrection  of  1794,  and 
were  vigorously  denounced  by  him.  Soon  after  this  they  declined  and  went 
out  of  existence. 

De  Monts,  Pierre  de  Guast,  Sieur,  a  Calvinist  gentleman  of  France,  was 
in  1603  given  by  Henry  IV.,  the  vice-royalty  of  Acadia,  from  latitude  40 
to  latitude  60,  and  the  monopoly  of  its  fur-trade.  In  1604  he  settled  a  colony 
in  Acadia,  near  the  present  borders  of  Maine  and  New  Brunswick,  which  he 
removed  in  1605  to  Port  Royal,  now  Annapolis,  Nova  Scotia.  In  1607  the 
colony  was  abandoned. 


.    DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  195 

Denio,  Hiram  (1799-1871),  an  eminent  jurist  of  New  York,  was  a  Judge 
of  the  Court  of  Appeals  from  1853  to  1866. 

Denmark.  A  commercial  treaty  was  concluded  between  the  United  States 
and  Denmark  in  1826.  By  treaty  in  1857  the  United  States  paid  Denmark 
$393,000  in  commutation  of  the  Sound  dues.  October  25,  1867,  a  treaty 
was  concluded  with  Denmark,  providing  for  the  cession  of  the  islands  of  St. 
Thomas  and  St.  John  for  $7,500,000.  Denmark  ratified  it,  but  the  U.  S. 
Senate,  at  the  instance  of  Senator  Sumner,  refused  to  do  so.  A  convention 
relative  to  naturalization  was  concluded  in  1872. 

Dennie,  Joseph  (1768-1812),  a  journalist,  was  one  of  the  first  Americans 
to  obtain  fame  in  light  literature.  Removing  from  New  England  to  Phila- 
delphia, he  was  editor,  from  1801  on,  of  the  Portfolio,  a  literary  magazine 
which  maintained  a  higher  standard  than  any  of  its  predecessors.  He  had 
also  a  reputation  as  a  graceful  and  humorous  essayist. 

Dennison,  William  (1815-1882),  "War  Governor"  of  Ohio,  was  elected 
Governor  in  1860.  An  ardent  Republican  and  anti-slavery  man,  he  with 
great  energy  and  ability  prepared  the  State  for  the  Civil  War  and  organized 
and  supplied  its  forces.  He  was  chairman  of  the  Republican  National  Nom- 
inating Convention  in  1864,  and  from  that  year  to  1866  was  Postmaster- 
General,  in  the  cabinets  of  Lincoln  and  Johnson. 

Denonville,  Marquis  de,  French  Governor  of  Canada  from  1685  to  1689, 
worked  zealously  against  the  British  settlements  and  Governor  Dongan,  but 
alienated  the  Indians  by  cruelty. 

Denver,  capital  of  Colorado,  was  settled  in  1858. 

Departments,  Executive.  Executive  departments  of  the  U.  S.  Govern- 
ment existed  before  1789.  The  Continental  Congress  at  first  transacted  all 
executive  business  through  committees;  then  through  commissions  composed 
partly  of  its  own  members,  partly  of  others.  In  1776  the  Treasury  Office 
of  Accounts  was  established,  and  a  comptroller,  auditor  and  treasurer  were 
added  two  years  later.  In  1781  four  executive  departments  were  organized, 
under  a  Superintendent  of  Finance  and  Secretaries  of  War,  Marine  and  Foreign 
Affairs,  respectively.  A  Postmaster-General  had  been  provided  in  1775.  In 
1784  the  Treasury  Department  was  put  in  the  charge  of  a  board  of  three,  but 
otherwise  the  system  continued  until  the  inauguration  of  the  new  govern- 
ment in  1789.  In  that  year  Congress  provided  for  Departments  of  State,  the 
Treasury  and  War,  and  instituted  the  office  of  Attorney-General.  The  first 
plan  contemplated  separate  departments  of  foreign  affairs  and  home  affairs, 
but  finally  these  were  united  in  the  Department  of  State.  The  Navy  Depart- 
ment was  established  in  1798,  the  Interior  Department  in  1849,  the  Depart- 
ment of  Justice  in  1870,  the  Department  of  Agriculture  in  1889.  For  details 
of  their  history,  see  articles  under  their  individual  names. 

Dependency  Act.     (See  Declaratory  Act,  of  March  17,  1766.) 

Depew,  Chauncey  M.,  president  of  the  New  York  Central  Railroad  and 
eminent  as  a  public  speaker,  was  born  in  Peekskill,  N.  Y.,  in  1834.  Since 
1860  he  has  had  an  active  part  in  politics.  He  was  Secretary  of  the  State 


196  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

of  New  York  from  1863  to  1866  and  has  had  an  important  influence  in 
Presidential  nominations.  He  was  elected  U.  S.  Senator  from  New  York  in 
1899. 

Deposits,  Removal  of  the.  President  Jackson,  on  being  successful  in  the 
election  of  1832,  believed  himself  authorized  by  the  popular  voice  to  pursue 
to  extremities  his  war  upon  the  Bank  of  the  United  States  (see  Bank).  By 
the  Act  of  1816  creating  the  bank,  the  funds  of  the  Federal  Government 
were  to  be  deposited  in  it,  subject  to  removal  by  the  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury,  who  should  state  to  Congress  the  reasons  for  so  doing.  Jackson, 
believing  that  the  bank  was  unsound,  and  that  its  influence  was  used  to 
corrupt  politics,  determined  that  the  deposits  should  be  removed.  McLane, 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  not  favoring  this  course,  was  transferred  to  the 
State  Department.  The  new  Secretary,  Duane,  refused  to  give  the  necessary 
order,  and  was  dismissed  by  Jackson.  Roger  B.  Taney  was  then  appointed, 
and  ordered  the  removal,  more  strictly  cessation,  of  deposits,  September  26, 
1833.  Jackson  set  forth  his  reasons  to  Congress,  on  its  assembling.  The 
Senate  replied  by  a  vote  of  censure.  Jackson  sent  in  a  protest,  declaring 
that  the  matter  rested  entirely  within  his  competence  as  head  of  the  Execu- 
tive Department.  In  1837  his  friends  succeeded  in  inducing  the  Senate  to 
expunge  its  resolution  of  censure. 

Derne  Expedition.  General  William  Eaton,  U.  S.  Consul  at  Tunis,  per- 
suading his  Government  to  lend  the  co-operation  of  its  naval  forces  in  the 
Mediterranean,  marched  from  Egypt  across  the  desert  with  Hamet,  rightful 
bashaw  of  Tripoli,  in  an  attack  upon  his  usurping  brother  Joseph.  On  April 
27,  1805,  he  took  Derne.  Upon  this  success  a  highly  favorable  treaty  was 
extorted  from  the  bashaw,  Hamet  being  induced  to  retire. 

De  Russy,  Fort,  La.,  wrested  from  Dick  Taylor,  commanding  about  12,- 
ooo  Confederates,  by  A.  J.  Smith,  leading  an  army  of  some  10,000  Federals. 
This  battle  is  to  be  remembered  in  connection  with  Banks'  Red  River 
expedition.  It  occurred  March  14,  1864.  Smith  had  been  ordered  to  join 
Banks.  Hearing  that  Taylor  was  at  Shreveport  he  followed  him  to  Fort 
de  Russy.  After  a  cannonade  of  two  hours  Smith  ordered  a  charge,  when 
suddenly  the  garrison  surrendered. 

De  Saussure,  Henry  William  (1763-1839),  of  South  Carolina,  was 
director  of  the  U.  S.  Mint,  1794-95,  and  coined  the  first  gold  pieces  issued 
from  that  mint.  From  1809  to  1837  he  was  a  chancellor  of  South  Carolina, 
and  was  eminent  as  a  jurist. 

Deseret,  said  to  mean  "  the  land  of  the  honey-bee,"  the  name  given  by 
the  Mormons  to  their  settlement  ("  State  ")  in  Utah  at  the  time  of  its  settle- 
ment in  1848. 

Desert  Land  Act,  an  Act  of  Congress,  March  3,  1877,  allowing,  on  credit 
for  three  years,  a  entry  of  640  acres  of  desert  land  for  purposes  of  irrigation 
and  improvement. 

Des  Moines,  la.,  laid  out  in  1846  and  incorporated  as  Fort  Des  Moines  in 
1851.  In  1857  it  became  a  city  and  the  capital  of  the  State. 

De  Smet,  Peter  John  (1801-1872),  a  Belgian  Jesuit,  was  a  professor  in  the 
University  of  St.  Louis  from  1828  to  1838.  From  1838  he  was  a  missionary- 


DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  197 

among  the  Pottawatomies;  from  1840  on,  a  missionary  of  remarkable  zeal 
and  success  among  the  Flatheads  and  other  tribes  of  the  Northwest.  In 
the  first  fifteen  years  of  his  mission  he  estimated  that  he  had  traveled  120,- 
•ooo  miles.  His  influence  over  the  Indian  tribes  was  immense. 

De  Soto,  Fernando  (?i496-i5i2),  a  Spanish  noble,  came  to  America  in 
1519  in  the  service  of  Pedrarias  Davila,  and  accompanied  Pizarro  in  the 
conquest  of  Peru.  In  April,  1538,  he  set  out  from  Spain  with  600  men, 
commissioned  to  undertake  the  conquest  of  Florida,  reputed  to  be  a  land  of 
great  wealth.  His  well-appointed  expedition  landed  in  Tampa  Bay  in  May, 
1539.  During  the  next  three  years  he  wandered  over  large  parts  of  what 
are  now  Alabama  and  Mississippi.  In  the  spring  of  1541  he  discovered  the 
Mississippi  River.  Crossing  it,  he  penetrated  as  far  westward  as  to  the 
highlands  of  the  White  River.  Returning,  he  died  on  the  banks  of  the 
Mississippi  in  the  spring  of  1542.  Some  of  his  followers  escaped  to  Mexico. 

Detroit,  Mich.  The  site  was  visited  by  the  French  in  1669.  Detroit  was 
settled  in  1701  by  a  party  under  Antoine  de  la  Mothe  Cadillac.  It  fell  to 
the  British  in  1763,  and  was  besieged  by  Pontiac;  to  the  United  States  in 
1783.  On  August  1 6,  1812,  General  Hull,  with  2000  men,  made  an  inglor- 
ious surrender  of  Detroit  to  the  British  and  Indians  under  General  Brock 
and  Tecumseh.  Hull  was  cashiered.  Harrison  retook  the  town  in  October, 
1813,  after  Perry's  victory  on  L,ake  Brie.  From  1805  to  1847  Detroit  was 
the  capital  of  Michigan  Territory  and  State. 

Devens,  Charles  (1820-1891),  an  eminent  lawyer  in  Massachusetts  at  the 
time  of  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War,  entered  the  army  as  a  major  and, 
after  a  brilliant  military  service,  became  a  brevet  major-general.  From  1873 
to  1877,  and  again  from  1881  to  his  death,  he  was  a  Judge  of  the  Supreme 
Court  of  Massachusetts.  From  1877  to  1881  he  was  Attorney-General  in 
the  Cabinet  of  President  Hayes. 

Dewey,  George,  born  1837,  Montpelier,  Vt.  He  graduated  from  Annapolis 
Naval  Academy  1858.  He  served  in  Civil  War  under  Admirals  Farragut 
and  Porter.  For  bravery  at  Manila,  May  i,  1898,  he  was  promoted  to  rear 
admiral;  in  1899  he  was  made  admiral  by  act  of  Congress. 

Dexter,  Henry  M.  (1821-1890),  Congregationalist  clergyman  and  editor, 
of  Massachusetts,  was  the  author  of  many  learned  writings  on  the  early  his- 
tory of  Congregationalism  and  of  the  Pilgrim  Fathers. 

Dexter,  Samuel  (1761-1816),  a  noted  lawyer  of  Massachusetts,  was  suc- 
cessively, for  short  periods  in  1800  and  1801,  Secretary  of  War  and  of  the 
Treasury  in  the  Cabinet  of  President  John  Adams. 

Dickerson,  Mahlon  (1770—1853),  a  New  Jersey  and  Pennsylvania  lawyer, 
was  Governor  of  New  Jersey  from  1815  to  1817,  and  a  Senator  from  that 
State  from  that  time  to  1833.  From  1834  to  1838  he  was  Secretary  of  the 
Navy,  serving  under  Jackson  and  Van  Buren. 

Dickinson,  Daniel  S.  (1800-1866),  was  Lieutenant-governor  of  New 
York  from  1842  to  1844,  and  Senator  from  New  York  from  1844  to  1851. 
He  was  noted  as  an  orator,  and  was  a  "  War  Democrat" 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Dickinson,  Don  M.,  born  in  1846,  was  Postmaster-General  in  Cleveland's 
Cabinet  from  1888  to  1889. 

Dickinson,  John  (1732-1808),  a  Philadelphia  lawyer,  was  in  1765  elected 
to  the  Colonial  Congress,  and  in  1768  distinguished  himself  by  writing 
"  Letters  from  a  Pennsylvania  Fanner "  in  defence  of  the  liberties  of 
America.  Elected  to  the  Continental  Congress  in  1774,  he  wrote  its 
"  Address  to  the  Inhabitants  of  Quebec,"  its  "  Declaration  to  the  Armies," 
its  "  Address  to  the  States,"  and  its  two  petitions  to  the  king.  He  opposed 
the  Declaration  of  Independence  as  premature,  but  served  loyally  in  the 
army.  Again  a  member  of  Congress,  he  was  chosen  president  of  Delaware 
in  1781,  at>d  was  president  of  Pennsylvania  from  1782  to  1785.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  Federal  Convention  of  1787,  and  advocated  the  adoption  of 
the  Constitution.  He  was  a  man  of  high  character  and  cultivation. 

Dickinson  College,  one  of  the  older  American  colleges,  was  founded  at 
Carlisle,  Pa.,  in  1783,  and  named  in  honor  of  John  Dickinson,  then  president 
of  the  vState,  who  gave  it  valuable  gifts.  A  Presbyterian  institution  from  its 
foundation  to  1833,  it  was  then  transferred  to  the  Methodists.  President 
Buchanan  and  Chief  Justice  Taney  were  among  its  alumni. 

Dieskau,  Ludwig  August  von  (1701-1767),  a  soldier  of  Saxon  birth,  who 
had  served  under  Marshal  Saxe  in  the  French  service,  was  sent  to  Canada 
as  major-general  in  1755,  and  commanded  an  expedition  against  the  Eng- 
lish colonies  by  way  of  Lake  Champlain.  At  first  victorious  in  the  fight 
near  Fort  Edward,  he  was  finally  defeated. 

Dighton  Rock,  a  rock  lying  in  the  tide  on  the  side  of  Taunton  River,  in 
Berkeley,  Mass.,  formerly  in  Dighton,  and  marked  with  a  curious  inscription, 
attracted  early  attention  on  the  part  of  antiquaries.  Rafn,  1837,  declared 
that  its  markings  were  a  runic  inscription  of  the  Northmen,  relating  to  the 
expedition  of  Thorfinn  Karlsefne,  but  this  view  has  now  been  generally 
abandoned,  though  the  central  portion  may  be  Norse. 

Dime,  from  the  French  word  dixtime,  a  tenth,  expressive  of  a  tenth  part 
of  the  standard  silver  dollar.  It  was  at  first  spelled  "  disme,"  and  thus 
appeared  on  some  trial  pieces  struck  by  the  United  States  Mint  in  1792. 
The  coin  is  of  silver,  having  been  authorized  in  1792  (with  a  weight  of  41.6 
grains).  Coinage  was  begun  in  1796.  Its  weight  was  in  1853  reduced  to 
38.4  grains.  There  were  no  issues  of  dimes  during  the  years  1/99,  1806, 
1808,  1812,  1813,  1815  to  1819  inclusive,  1824  and  l826. 

Dingley,  Nelson,  lawyer  and  journalist,  born  1832  in  Maine.  He  was 
speaker  of  Maine  Legislature  1863  to  l864-  Governor  1874  to  1875.  Elected 
to  Congress  1881,  and  has  served  continuously  to  date,  1897.  Author  of  the 
Dingley  Tariff  Bill.  Died  1899. 

Dinwiddie,  Robert  (?  1690-1770),  a  Scotchman,  was  Governor  of  Vir- 
ginia Jfrom  1752  to  1758.  His  chief  merit  was  his  perception  of  the  military 
abilities  of  Washington,  whom  he  sent  upon  the  mission  to  the  French  com- 
mander on  the  Ohio,  and  then  upon  the  military  expedition  which  opened 
the  French  and  Indian  War.  In  the  conduct  of  the  war,  he  quarreled  with 
the  Virginian  Assembly,  and  suggested  taxation  of  the  colonies. 


DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  199 

Direct  Taxes.  Congress  has  levied  direct  taxes  on  but  five  occasions. 
In  1798,  1813,  1815  and  1816,  a  direct  tax  was  levied  by  Federal  authority 
on  lands,  houses  and  slaves.  In  August,  1861,  to  meet  expenses  of  the  Civil 
War,  a  direct  tax  of  $20,000,000  was  levied  on  all  lots  of  ground  with  their 
improvements  and  dwelling-houses.  The  operation  of  the  act  was  suspended 
on  July  i,  1862.  By  Act  of  March  2,  1891,  $15,000,000,  collected  under  this 
act,  were  refunded  to  the  States. 

Directories.  The  first  city  directory  issued  in  the  United  States  was  pub 
lished  in  New  York  as  early  as  1786.  It  was  a  small  volume  of  eighty-two 
pages  and  contained  only  some  nine  hundred  names.  Since  that  time  annual 
directories  have  appeared  in  New  York.  Nearly  every  town  of  importance 
in  the  Union  now  has  its  directory.  In  several  States  there  have  also  been 
published  State  directories. 

Directory.  The  French  Directory  of  five  members  was  established  as 
the  Executive  Government  of  France  in  1795,  and  was  suppre>>xl  by  Bona- 
parte in  1799  (November  9).  It  came  into  collision  with  the  Government  of 
the  United  States  because  of  the  action  of  France  in  seizing  American 
provision-ships  and  permitting  illegal  captures  of  American  vessels  by  her 
privateers.  Our  Government  recalling  Monroe  in  1796,  the  Directory  refused 
to  recognize  his  successor,  C.  C.  Pinckney,  and  complained  of  the  failure  of 
the  United  States  to  stand  by  the  treaty  of  alliance  of  1778.  New  envoys 
were  sent  out  by  President  Adams, — Pinckney,  Marshall  and  Gerry, — but 
were  dismissed  without  satisfaction,  after  attempts  made  to  bribe  the  U.  S. 
Government  (see  X.  Y.  Z.  Mission).  A  virtual  state  of  war  ensued  (1798), 
but  in  1799  Adams,  on  a  more  favorable  turn  of  affairs,  sent  a  new  embassy, 
Murray,  Ellsworth  and  Davie.  When  they  arrived  Bonaparte  had  already 
overthrown  the  Directory.  With  his  government  the  treaty  of  Morfontaine 
(September  30,  1800)  was  concluded. 

Disciples,  Church  of  the,  also  called  "Christians"  and  "  Campbellites,"  a 
religious  body  founded  in  1809  by  Thomas  and  Alexander  Campbell.  Taking 
the  express  teachings  of  the  Bible  as  the  only  authoritative  guide  in  religious 
matters,  their  purpose  was  to  bring  about  Christian  unity.  Their  first  stage 
consisted  in  the  uniting  in  one  body  of  various  Protestants  of  Western  Penn- 
sylvania, chiefly  Presbyterians  and  Baptists.  Thence  they  spread  westward. 
In  1831  they  were  joined  by  another  body  which  had  grown  up  upon  similar 
principles  in  Kentucky  and  neighboring  States.  In  1867  the  number  of 
Disciples  in  the  United  States  was  estimated  at  425,000.  The  census  of  1890 
ascribed  to  them  7246  organizations  and  641,000  members. 

"  Discovery,"  a  vessel  dispatched  on  a  voyage  of  discovery  toward 
Greenland  in  1602  by  the  East  India  Company,  and  in  1606  to  Virginia  by 
the  Virginia  Company,  accompanied  by  the  "God-Speed"  and  the  "Susan 
Constant." 

District.  The  name  District  has  been  given  in  American  history  to 
divisions  of  the  country  resembling  territories  in  organization,  but  without 
representative  or  elective  institutions.  Existing  instances  are  the  District 
of  Columbia  and  that  of  Alaska.  An  early  instance  was  the  District  of 


2oo  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Louisiana,  which  from  1804  to  1812  comprised  all  that  portion  of  the 
Louisiana  Purchase  which  lay  north  of  the  northern  boundary  of  the  present 
State  of  Louisiana.  In  South  Carolina  the  counties  were  at  one  time  called 
districts. 

District  Courts.  The  Judiciary  Act  of  1789  provided  for  two  classes  of 
U.  S.  Courts  inferior  to  the  Supreme  Court,  —  Circuit  Courts  and  District 
Courts.  Each  district  consisted  of  one  State,  and  had  its  district  judge. 
Since  then,  some  States  have  been  divided,  and  these  Federal  courts  of  the 
lowest  grade  now  number  more  than  sixty.  In  1891  an  act  was  passed 
fixing  the  judges'  salaries  at  $5000. 

District  of  Columbia.  The  Constitution  of  1787  gave  Congress  power 
"  to  exercise  exclusive  legislation  in  all  cases  whatsoever  over  such  district 
(not  exceeding  ten  miles  square)  as  may,  by  cession  of  particular  States  and 
the  acceptance  of  Congress,  become  the  seat  of  government  of  the  United 
States."  In  1790,  after  warm  discussions,  the  present  site  was  selected.  A 
ten-mile  square  was  laid  out  on  the  Potomac.  Maryland  ceded  sixty-four 
square  miles  on  the  north  bank  of  the  river,  Virginia  thirty-six  square  miles 
on  the  south.  In  1791  this  area  received  the  official  name  of  the  Territory 
of  Columbia.  The  seat  of  government  was  removed  thither  in  1800.  In 
1846  the  portion  south  of  the  Potomac  was  retroceded  to  Virginia.  The  laws 
of  Maryland  and  Virginia  were  in  force  in  the  district,  unless  repealed  by 
Congress;  e.g.,  their  slave  laws.  From  1871  to  1874  the  district  had  a  Terri- 
torial government,  with  elective  institutions.  This  proved  extravagant,  and 
government  by  commissioners  under  the  authority  of  Congress  was  substituted. 

Dix,  John  A.  (1798-1879),  born  in  New  Hampshire,  was  in  the  army 
from  1812  to  1828.  From  1833  to  1840  he  was  Secretary  of  the  State  of 
New  York,  and  became  a  member  of  the  "Albany  Regency."  From  1845 
to  1849  he  was  a  Democratic  Senator.  In  the  last  months  of  Buchanan's 
administration  he  was  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  and  aided  to  restore  confi- 
dence in  the  Federal  Government.  An  ardent  "  War  Democrat,"  he  sewed 
through  the  war  as  a  major-general  of  volunteers.  From  1872  to  1874  he 
was  Governor  of  New  York. 

"  Dixie."  This  favorite  song  of  the  Confederate  armies  was  originally  a 
negro  melody,  and  is  said  to  have  originated  in  New  York. 

Dixon,  Jeremiah,  English  mathematician,  with  Charles  Mason,  ran  "  Mason 
and  Dixon's  Line,"  beginning  in  1766. 

Dobbin,  James  C.  (1814-1857),  represented  North  Carolina  in  the  U.  S. 
Congress  as  a  Democrat  from  1845  to  1847.  He  was  Secretary  of  the  Navy 
in  Pierce's  Cabinet  from  1853  to 


Dollar.  The  Spanish  milled  dollar  was  the  type  of  the  American  silver 
dollar.  By  Act  of  1792,  371  ^  grains  of  pure  silver  and  24^  grains  of  pure 
gold  were  declared  to  be  equivalent  to  each  other  and  to  the  dollar  of  account. 
The  silver  dollar  was  first  coined  in  1794,  weighing  416  grains  (371^  plus 
alloy).  In  1837  the  weight  of  alloy  was  so  reduced  that  the  weight  of  the 
should  be  412^  grains,  The  gold  dollar  was  first  coined  in  1849.  In. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 


201 


1873  provision  was  made  for  a  trade  dollar  of  420  grains,  for  use  in  the  trade 
with  China  and  Japan.  From  1873  to  1878  the  issue  of  the  old  silver  dollar 
was  suspended.  The  gold  half-dollar  and  quarter-dollar  were  never  coined 
by  the  U.  S.  Government.  The  silver  half-dollar  has  been  coined  since  1794. 
Its  weight,  at  first  208  grains,  was  subsequently  reduced  to  206.25  in  1837, 
to  192  in  1853,  and  raised  to  192.9  in  1873.  The  quarter-dollar,  coinage  of 
which  began  in  1796,  has  undergone  corresponding  changes  of  weight. 

Dominican  Republic.  The  United  States  concluded  with  the  Dominican 
Republic  a  convention  relative  to  commerce  and  extradition  in  1867.  In 
1871  a  movement  was  made  to  annex  the  Dominican  Republic  to  the  United 
States.  (See  San  Domingo  Question.) 

Donaldson,  Edward  (1816-1889),  rear-admiral,  served  in  the  U.  S.  navy 
from  1835  to  1876.  In  the  Civil  War  he  took  part  in  the  capture  of  New 
Orleans  and  in  the  passage  of  Vicksburg,  and  at  the  battle  of  Mobile  Bay 
commanded  the  "  Seminole. " 

Donaldsonville,  La.,  occupied  in  1863  ^Y  a  Dan(l  of  Confederate  guerrillas 
and  bombarded,  June  28,  by  Admiral  Farragut  during  his  operations  along 
the  Mississippi  River  in  command  of  the  Union  fleet. 

Donation  Lands.  August  4,  1842,  Congress  passed  a  donation  act  for  the 
Territory  of  East  Florida.  Persons  who  could  bear  arms  were  allowed  one 
quarter  section  of  land  upon  which  to  settle.  September  27,  1850,  a  dona- 
tion act  was  passed  for  Oregon,  granting  settlers  from  160  to  640  acres. 

Donelson,  Andrew  Jackson  (1800-1871),  nephew  of  General  Jackson, 
was  private  secretary  to  his  uncle  during  the  latter's  Presidency,  Minister 
to  Prussia  and  the  German  Confederation  from  1846  to  1849,  and  in  1856 
was  nominated  for  the.  Vice-Presidency  by  the  American  party  on  the  ticket 
with  Fillmore. 

Donelson,  Fort,  Tenn.,  an  important  Confederate  fortification  on  the 
Cumberland.  After  the  capture  of  Fort  Henry,  on  the  Tennessee,  February 
6,  1862,  General  Grant  moved  his  forces  over  to  the  Cumberland  and 
attacked  Fort  Donelson.  The  Federal  gunboats  were  driven  off  at  first, 
but  Grant's  land  forces  attacked  the  fort  in  such  numbers  and  with  such 
vigor  that  surrender  became  necessary.  Grant,  in  a  memorable  letter, 
demanded  its  unconditional  surrender  of  General  Buckner,  who  commanded 
it  after  the  flight  of  Floyd  and  Pillow.  15,000  Confederates  were  made 
prisoners  by  this  victory,  and  the  fall  of  Nashville  and  Columbus  became 
inevitable.  An  attempt  to  recapture  this  place  from  the  Federals  was  made 
February  15,  1863,  by  Wheeler,  leading  4500  of  Bragg's  Confederate  army. 
The  garrison  of  the  fort  was  600  Federals  under  Harding.  Wheeler 
demanded  a  surrender,  but  Harding  replied  by  sending  out  skirmishers  to 
delay  an  attack  while  he  sent  for  aid  to  Fort  Henry.  In  the  evening  the 
gunboat  "  Fair  Play,"  Lieutenant  Fitch,  came  up  the  river,  and  the  Confed- 
erates withdrew. 

Doniphan,  Alexander  W.  (1808-1887),  colonel  in  the  Mexican  War, 
accomplished  amid  many  hardships  a  difficult  march  from  New  Mexico  to 


202  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Chihuahua,  and  near  the  latter  place  defeated  a  Mexican  force  more  than 
four  times  as  numerous  as  his  own. 

Donop,  Count  (1740-1777),  commander  of  Hessians  in  the  Revolutionary 
War,  was  mortally  wounded  in  an  attempt  to  take  by  assault  Fort  Mercer, 
near  Red  Bank,  N.  J.,  October  22,  1777. 

Doolittle,  James  R.,  born  in  New  York  in  1815,  from  1853  to  1856  was 
Judge  of  the  Wisconsin  Supreme  Court,  was  U.  S.  Senator  Irom  1857  to 
1869,  and  a  delegate  to  the  Peace  .Convention  of  1861.  Died  1897. 

Dorchester  Company.  In  1623,  under  the  lead  of  Rev.  John  White, 
certain  English  Puritans,  wearied  of  King  Charles'  persecutions,  formed  the 
Dorchester  Company,  for  trading  and  fishing,  and  established  a  settlement  at 
Cape  Ann.  The  company  was  dissolved  in  1626,  but  was  revived  in  1628 
by  a  number  of  wealthy  Englishmen,  and  John  Endicott  assumed  the 
government  at  Naumkeag,  now  Salem,  whither  the  first  settlers  had  removed. 
In  1629  the  company  was  enlarged  and,  obtaining  a  royal  charter,  formed 
the  Massachusetts  Bay  colony. 

Dorchester  Heights  were,  at  Washington's  command,  occupied  and  forti- 
fied by  General  Thomas  with  2500  of  Washington's  troops  March  4  and  5, 
1776.  This  proved  so  dangerous  to  Howe  that  he  was  obliged  to  evacuate 
Boston  with  all  speed. 

Dorchester,  Lord.     (See  Carleton,  Sir  Guy.) 

Dorr,  Thomas  W.  (1805-1854),  was  born  in  Providence.  He  was  graduated 
at  Harvard  in  1823,  studied  in  New  York  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  Rhode  Island  Assembly  from  1833  to  1837,  wheii  he 
agitated  governmental  reform.  See  "  Dorr  War."  He  died  in  1854. 

Dorr  Rebellion,  an  effort  made  in  1840-42  to  overturn  the  State  govern- 
ment of  Rhode  Island  by  revolutionary  means.  After  the  Declaration  of 
Independence,  Rhode  Island  retained  her  charter  government.  Many  of  the 
citizens,  headed  by  Thomas  W.  Dorr,  of  Providence,  became  discontented 
with  the  existing  government  and  its  limited  suffrage.  Mass  meetings  were 
held,  and  in  October,  1841,  a  convention  of  delegates  prepared  a  Consti- 
tution, which  was  submitted  to  a  popular  vote,  and  was  claimed  to  have 
received  a  majority  of  the  votes  of  the  State.  The  legitimate  government 
treated  these  proceedings  as  nugatory,  and,  in  a  measure,  criminal.  May  3, 
1842,  the  "suffrage  legislature''  assembled  at  Newport,  with  Dorr  as  Gover- 
nor. King,  the  legitimate  Governor,  proclaimed  martial  law.  The  suf- 
frage party  appealed  to  arms.  Their  troops  were  dispersed  and  Dorr  fled. 
He  was  afterward  captured  and  convicted  of  treason,  but  was  pardoned  in 
1852. 

Dorsey,  Stephen  W.,  was  born  in  Vermont  in  1842.  He  served  in  the 
Civil  War,  was  a  member  of  the  Arkansas  Republican  State  Committee,  a 
U.  S.  Senator  from  1873  to  1879,  and  in  1880  Secretary  of  the  Republican 
National  Committee.  He  was  connected  with  the  "Star  route"  frauds 
exposed  in  1881. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  303 

Double  Eagle,  or  twenty-dollar  gold  piece,  coinage  authorized  by  Con- 
gress March,  1849,  coinage  begun  in  1850.  Legal  tender  to  an  unlimited 
amount.  So  called  from  the  figure  of  the  national  bird  stamped  on  reverse. 

Doubleday,  Abner  (1819-1893),  general,  born  in  New  York,  aimed  the 
first  gun  in  the  defense  of  Fort  Sumter,  and  served  with  distinction  at  Antie- 
tam,  Fredericksburg,  Chancellorsville  and  Gettysburg.  He  retired  from  the 
army  in  1873. 

Doughface,  a  Northern  politician  over-anxious  to  please  the  Soujfch.  The 
term  is  said  to  have  been  invented  by  John  Randolph,  of  Roanoke,  and  was 
much  used  during  the  heat  of  the  slavery  conflict. 

Douglas,  Stephen  Arnold  (April  23,  i8i3~June  3,  1861),  was  born  at 
Brandon,  Vt.  He  worked  on  a  farm,  taught  school,  and  at  the  age  of 
twentv-one  began  the  practice  of  law  in  Illinois.  Soon  afterward  he  was 
Attorney-General  of  the  State,  member  of  the  Legislature,  and  an  unsuccess- 
ful Democratic  candidate  for  Congress.  In  1840  he  became  Secretary  of 
State  of  Illinois,  and  in  1841,  Judge  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  State. 
Judge  Douglas  was  in  the  House  of  Representatives  from  1843  to  1847,  and 
in  the  Senate  from  1847  to  1861.  During  this  period,  when  the  slavery 
issue  came  to  overshadow  all  other  questions,  the  "  Little  Giant,"  as  Douglas 
was  affectionately  styled,  became  one  of  the  leaders  of  his  party.  In  Con- 
gress lie  favored  the  acquisition  of  the  whole  of  Oregon,  and  was  chairman 
of  the  important  Committee  on  Territories.  He  advocated  the  compromise 
of  1850,  and  formulated  the  doctrine  of  Popular  Sovereignty  (which  see). 
In  accordance  with  the  latter  idea  he  reported  in  December,  1853,  the/ famous 
Kansas-Nebraska  Bill  (which  see).  His  name  was  presented  to  the  Demo- 
cratic National  Conventions  in  1852  and  1856.  While  running  for  re-elec- 
tion to  the  Senate  in  1858,  he  carried  on  a  joint  debate  with  Lincoln,  which 
brought  the  latter  into  national  prominence.  Douglas  was  nominated  for 
President  by  the  Northern  wing  of  the  Democratic  party  in  1860,  but 
received  only  twelve  electoral  votes  although  a  large  popular  vote  was 
thrown  for  him.  He  survived  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  but  a  few 
months,  supporting  to  the  end  the  cause  of  the  Union.  Life  by  Sheahan. 

Douglass,  Frederick,  the  most  eminent  of  American  negroes,  was  born  in 
Maryland  in  1817.  He  escaped  from  slavery  in  1838,  and  was  educated  by 
William  Lloyd  Garrison.'  He  lectured  for  the  Massachusetts  Anti-Slavery 
Society  from  1841  to  1845,  an(l  tnen  labored  in  Europe  till  1847.  In  1871 
he  was  commissioner  for  the  District  of  Columbia,  and  in  1872  was  Presi- 
dential elector-at-large  for  New  York.  He  was  U.  S.  Marshal  for  the  Dis- 
trict of  Columbia  from  1876  to  1881,  and  Recorder  of  Deeds  from  1881  till 
1886.  From  1889  to  1891  he  was  U.  S.  Minister  to  Hayti.  Died  1895. 

"  Dove,"  a  small  vessel,  which  accompanied  the  "Ark"  in  1633  on  Lord 
Baltimore's  colonizing  expedition  to  Maryland. 

Dover,  Del.,  was  settled  in  1687  and  incorporated  in  1720.  Dover  was 
made  the  capital  of  the  State  at  the  opening  of  the  Revolution. 

Dover,  N.  H.,  one  of  the  oldest  towns  in  the  State,  was  settled  in  1^23. 
On  the  night  of  June  27,  1689,  the  town  was  attacked  by  Indians,  and 


304  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

twenty-three  of  the  inhabitants  were   killed.      Dover    became   a   city  in 


Dow,  Neal,  temperance  reformer,  was  born  in  Maine  in  1804.  He  secured 
the  passage  of  the  Maine  liquor  law  in  1851,  and  was  a  member  of  the 
Legislature  from  1858  to  1859.  He  served  during  the  Civil  War,  lectured 
in  England  in  1857,  1866  and  1874,  and  in  1880  was  the  Presidential  candi- 
date of  the  Prohibition  party.  Died  October  2,  1897. 

Downes,  John  (1786—1855),  entered  the  navy  in  1802,  commanded  the 
"  Essex  "  and  captured  the  "  Georgiana,"  which,  named  "  Essex  Junior,"  he 
afterward  commanded  till  1814,  and  from  1819-1821  commanded  the 
"  Macedonia,"  from  1828  to  1829  the  "Java,"  and  from  1832  to  1834  the 
Pacific  squadron. 

Downie,  George,  born  in  Ireland,  died  in  1814.  He  was  a  British  naval 
officer,  who  in  1812  commanded  the  Canadian  squadron,  and  was  killed  in 
the  battle  of  Plattsburg,  fighting  against  Commodore  Macdonough. 

Downing,  Sir  George  (1623  ?—  1684),  of  the  class  of  1642  of  Harvard  Col- 
lege, went  to  England  in  1645,  an(^  was  envoy  of  Cromwell  and  of  Charles 
II.  to  the  Netherlands,  1657-1663  and  in  1671.  He  is  said  to  have  insti- 
gated the  conquest  of  New  Netherland. 

Drafts,  methods  employed  twice  by  the  United  States  Government  and 
twice  by  the  Confederacy  for  raising  and  increasing  the  armies.  The  first 
measure,  introduced  into  Congress  in  1814,  during  the  war  with  Great 
Britain,  was  due  to  a  proposal  by  New  York  and  Virginia  of  a  Federal  classi- 
fication and  draft  from  the  State  militia.  This  bill  was  prepared  largely  by 
James  Monroe,  but  was  highly  unacceptable  to  the  Federalists  and  proved  a 
failure,  though  the  army  was  much  in  need  of  men.  In  1863  a  somewhat 
similar  plan  was  introduced  in  Congress,  but  was  objected  to  by  the  Democrats 
on  the  grounds  of  unconstitutionality  and  failed.  Accordingly  May  3,  1863, 
another  bill  passed  both  Houses,  which  had  no  reference  to  the  militia,  but 
called  every  able-bodied  citizen  of  military  age  into  the  Federal  service.  A 
commutation  of  $300  for  exemption  was  permitted,  and  persons  refusing 
obedience  were  treated  as  deserters.  April  16,  1862,  and  July  18,  1863,  ^e 
Confederate  Congress  passed  conscription  laws  levying  on  all  persons  between 
the  ages  of  eighteen  and  forty-five  years.  The  unpopularity  of  the  conscrip- 
tion caused  the  "draft  riots"  in  New  York  City  July  13-16,  1863,  when  the 
city  was  for  four  days  in  the  possession  of  the  mob. 

Drake,  Sir  Francis  (1546-1596),  an  Elizabethan  navigator,  made  an  expe- 
dition to  Mexico  in  1567,  and  to  South  America  in  1572.  He  explored  the 
Pacific  coast  from  1577  to  1579,  landed  on  the  coast  of  California  and  returned 
to  England  by  the  Pacific  and  Indian  Oceans,  making  a  successful  circum- 
navigation of  the  globe. 

Drake,  Joseph  Rodman  (1795-1820),  poet,  was  born  in  New  York  City, 
was  author  of  the  "  Culprit  Fay,"  written  in  1816,  and  a  life-long  friend  of 
Fitz-Greene  Halleck,  with  whom  he  wrote  the  "  Croakers." 

Dranesville,  or  Drainsville,  Va.  Here  December  20,  1861,  J.  E.  B.  Stuart, 
commanding  2500  Confederates,  attacked  4500  Federals  under  Ord,  who  was 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  205 

engaged  in  loading  his  forage  wagons.      The  fight  was  short,  but  severe. 
The  Confederates  were  greatly  outnumbered  and  were  defeated. 

Draper,  John  W.  (1811—1882),  born  in  England,  came  to  America  in  1832. 
He  made  extensive  contributions  to  science,  particularly  in  the  line  of  chem- 
istry and  the  action  of  light.  During  the  Civil  War  he  was  inspector  of 
hospitals.  He  wrote  an  excellent  "  History  of  the  Civil  War,"  3  vols. 

Draper,  Lyman  C.  (1815-1891),  made  thorough  and  valuable  investi- 
gations regarding  Western  history  and  biography.  He  published  "  Collec- 
tions of  the  Wisconsin  Historical  Society,"  from  1853  to  1887. 

Draper,  William  F.,  manufacturer,  born  in  Massachusetts,  1842.  Served  in 
Union  Army  from  1861  to  1864,  rising  to  rank  of  general.  Served  in  Fifty 
third  and  Fifty-fourth  Congresses.  Became  Ambassador  to  Italy  May,  1897. 

Drayton,  William  H.  (1742-1779),  born  in  South  Carolina,  went  to  Eng- 
land, and  in  1771  was  appointed  a  privy  councillor  of  South  Carolina.  He 
was  deprived  of  his  crown  offices  on  account  of  sympathy  with  the  colonies, 
and  was  made  president  of  the  Provincial  Congress  in  1775.  In  1776  he 
became  Chief  Justice  of  South  Carolina  and  in  1777  president,  and  in  1778 
was  a  member  of  the  Continental  Congress. 

Drayton  and  Sayres'  Case  (1848),  a  fugitive  slave  case  which  resulted 
from  Captain  Drayton,  of  the  schooner  "  Pearl,"  carrying  seventy-five  escaped 
negroes  up  the  Potomac  on  his  vessel.  An  armed  steamer  captured  the  vessel 
and  brought  those  on  board  back.  The  captain  and  another  of  the  vessel's 
officers  were  put  in  prison,  where  they  remained  till  1852,  when  they  were 
released  through  the  instrumentality  of  Charles  Sumner. 

Dred  Scott  vs.  Sanford.  In  1834  Dred  Scott,  a  negro  slave  of  Missouri, 
was  taken  by  his  master,  who  was  a  surgeon  in  the  regular  army,  first  into 
Illinois  and  then  into  Minnesota,  a  region  from  which  slavery  was  expressly 
excluded  by  the  celebrated  Missouri  Compromise  of  1820.  While  in  Minne- 
sota Scott  was  married  with  his  master's  consent,  but  on  being  brought  back 
to  Missouri  in  1838,  he  and  his  wife  and  children  were  sold  to  another  master. 
Scott  brought  action  for  trespass  in  a  St.  Louis  court,  and  a  decision  was 
made  in  his  favor  on  the  ground  that,  under  the  provisions  of  the  Missouri 
Compromise,  the  negro  was  free.  The  Supreme  Court  of  Missouri  reversed 
this  decision,  and  the  case  came  before  the  Federal  Circuit  Court  in  1854. 
The  defendant  slave-holder  pleaded  that  Scott  was  not  a  citizen  entitled  to 
sue  and  be  sued  in  the  U.  S.  Courts.  The  court  held  the  contrary,  but  the 
jury's  verdict  decided  the  plaintiff  still  a  slave.  The  case  came  before  the 
Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States  in  1857.  Here  the  judgment  of  the 
Circuit  Court  was  reversed,  and  the  case  dismissed  on  the  ground  that  no 
negro,  bond  or  free,  could  plead  in  the  U.  S.  Courts  as  a  "  citizen."  The 
court  then,  though  denying  its  jurisdiction  over  the  dispute,  discussed  the 
constitutional  points.  Scott's  status  in  Illinois  was  declared  determined  by 
his  Missouri  domicile.  As  regarded  the  Minnesota  Territory  the  court 
declared  the  Missouri  Compromise  unconstitutional  and  void,  it  being  held 
that  States  alone  could  prohibit  slavery  from  their  boundaries.  Chief  Justice 


206  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Taney  read  the  opinion  of  a  majority  of  the  court,  all  slave-holders,  declaring 
"  negroes  so  inferior  that  they  had  no  rights  which  the  white  man  was 
bound  to  respect. "  Justices  Curtis  and  McLean  dissented.  Scott  was  afterward 
freed  by  his  master.  The  decision  aroused  great  excitement  in  the  North. 

Drewry's  Bluff,  or  Fort  Darling,  on  James  River,  Va.,  attacked  May  15, 
1862,  by  five  Federal  war-ships,  including  the  "  Monitor."  Captain  Farrand 
held  the  fort  with  20,000  Confederates.  The  Federal  fleet  was  badly  disabled 
and  had  to  retire.  Again,  May  13—16,  1864,  during  Butler's  operations  with 
the  Army  of  the  James  around  Bermuda  Hundred,  Fort  Darling,  or  Drewry's 
Bluff,  was  the  scene  of  some  sharp  fighting.  It  was  held  at  that  time  by 
Beauregard,  who  had  about  20,000  men.  Butler  made  an  attack  the  morning 
of  the  fourteenth  and  succeeded  in  carrying  some  of  the  Confederate  lines. 
Beauregard  hastened  to  strengthen  his  position  with  reinforcements,  which 
opportunely  arrived.  On  the  sixteenth  Beauregard  made  a  return  attack 
with  a  strong  force  and  compelled  Butler  to  retire.  Butler's  army  was  also 
about  20,000  strong. 

Drummond,  Sir  George  Gordon  (1771-1854),  a  British  soldier,  served  in 
Canada  from  1808  to  1811  and  from  1813  to  1816.  He  stormed  Niagara, 
captured  Oswego,  commanded  at  Lundy's  Lane,  and  from  1814  to  1816 
administered  the  government  of  Canada. 

Drummond,  William,  died  in  1677.  He  was  appointed  Governor  of 
Albemarle  (i.  e..  North  Carolina)  by  Governor  Berkeley,  of  Virginia  (1663—67). 
Afterward  he  was  prominent  as  a  leader  in  the  Bacon  Rebellion  of  1676,  and 
was  executed  by  Berkeley. 

Duane,  James  (1733—1797),  first  prominent  as  a  New  York  advocate  for 
the  New  Hampshire  land  grants,  was  a  member  of  the  first  Continental 
Congress,  where  he  championed  the  British  navigation  acts  and  a  colonial 
union  subordinate  to  Parliament.  In  1776  he  opposed  the  Declaration  of 
Independence  as  hasty.  He  was  a  member  of  the  New  York  Provincial 
Congress  from  1775  to  1777  and  one  of  the  committee  to  draft  the  State 
Constitution.  He  was  a  member  of  the  convention  that  adopted  the  Federal 
Constitution  in  1788,  and  from  1789  to  1794  was  District  Judge  for  New 
York. 

Duane,  William  (1760—1835),  born  in  New  York,  was  abroad  from  1771 
to  1795,  when  he  returned  to  Philadelphia,  and  till  1822  edited  the  Aurora, 
the  leading  Democratic  paper.  He  served  as  adjutant-general  from  1813  to 
1815,  and  was  an  important  figure  in  anti-Jeffersonian  Democratic  politics 
in  Pennsylvania. 

Duane,  William  J.  (1780-1865),  a  distinguished  lawyer,  became  Secretary 
of  the  U.  S.  Treasury  in  1833,  an^  was  removed  by  President  Jackson  for 
refusing  to  withdraw  the  deposits  from  the  U.  S.  bank. 

"  Dubuque  Visitor,"  established  at  Dubuque  Lead  Mines,  Wisconsin  Ter- 
ritory (now  Dubuque,  Iowa),  May,  1836,  by  John  King.  It  was  the  first  of 
the  early  news  publications  in  Iowa.  It  is  now  published  as  the  Dubuque 
Herald. 


DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  207 

Duche,  Jacob  (1737-1798),  Episcopal  clergyman  in  Philadelphia,  espoused 
the  patriot  cause  at  the  beginning  of  the  Revolution.  He  was  the  first  chap- 
lain of  the  Congress  in  1774.  He  despaired  of  success  for  the  colonies,  and 
in  1777  advised  Washington  by  letter  to  abandon  the  attempt  This  made 
him  so  unpopular  that  he  went  to  England. 

Dudley,  Joseph  (1647-1720),  of  Massachusetts,  was  one  of  the  Commis- 
sioners for  New  England  from  1677  to  1681,  and  in  1682  went  to  England 
on  behalf  of  the  Massachusetts  colony.  He  was  appointed  president  of  New 
England  by  James  II.  in  1685,  and  Chief  Justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  in 
1687.  From  1690  to  1693  he  was  Chief  Justice  of  New  York,  and  from  1702 
to  1715  was  Governor  of  Massachusetts.  He  was  always  friendly  to  the  royal 
interests. 

Dudley,  Thomas  (1576-1652),  born  in  England,  came  to  Massachusetts 
in  1630  as  Deputy-Governor.  He  was  Governor  from  1634  to  1635,  from 
1640  to  1641,  from  1645  to  1646,  and  from  1650  to  1651.  During  most  other 
years  from  1630  to  1652,  he  was  Deputy-Governor.  He  was  at  times  an 
opponent  of  Winthrop. 

Duer,  William  (1747—1799),  arrived  in  New  York  from  England  in  1768. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  committee  that  drafted  the  first  Constitution  of 
New  York  in  1777,  was  a  delegate  to  the  Continental  Congress  in  1777  and 
1778,  and  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  Board  in  -1789. 

Duer,  William  A.  (1780-1858),  prominent  in  the  New  York  Assembly  in 
1814,  was  Judge  of  the  New  York  Supreme  Court  from  1822  to  1829,  when 
he  became  president  of  Columbia  College,  resigning  in  1842,  and  published 
some  historical  works. 

Dug  Spring,  Mo.,  a  sharp  skirmish,  August  i,  1861,  between  General 
Nathaniel  Lyon's  Federal  force  of  5500  and  McCulloch's  Confederate  volun- 
teers numbering  12,000.  McCulloch  was  worsted. 

"  Duke's  Laws."  A  code  of  laws  drawn  up  in  1664  by  Colonel  Nicolls, 
then  governing  the  colonies  of  the  Duke  of  York's  patent.  They  were  first 
arranged  for  the  government  of  the  Dutch  settlers  of  Long  Island.  They 
prohibited  the  election  of  magistrates,  but  provided  for  trial  by  jury,  equal  tax- 
ation, tenure  of  lands  from  the  Duke  of  York,  freedom  of  religion,  liability 
to  military  duty,  and  recognition  of  negro  slavery  under  certain  restrictions. 

Du  Lhut,  Daniel  G.,  died  in  1709,  was  engaged  as  fur-trader  and  explorer 
on  the  frontier,  and  was  of  much  service  to  the  French  colonists  in  aiding 
them  against  Indian  attacks.  Duluth  is  named  for  him. 

Dummer,  Jeremiah  (16807-1739),  was  London  agent  of  the  Massachusetts 
colony  from  1710  to  1721.  He  wrote  "Defence  of  the  New  England  Char- 
ters," declaring  that  the  charters  were  compacts,  and  that  the  land-titles 
were  not  derived  from  the  crown. 

Dummer's  War,  a  war  during  1724-25  between  the  border  settlers  of  Ver- 
mont and  Maine,  and  the  Indian  tribes  incited  by  the  French  of  Canada. 
William  Dummer  was  then  acting  Governor  of  Massachusetts,  and  it  was 
through  his  efforts  that  the  trouble  was  terminated  by  a  treaty  with  th$ 


ao£  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Indians  in  1725.  Fort  Dummer  was  erected  at  the  present  site  of  Brattle- 
boro'  in  1724.  May  9,  1725,  Captain  John  Lovewell  defeated  the  Indians  in 
a  bloody  battle  at  Fryeburg,  Maine.  Four  sagamores  signed  the  treaty  with 
Dummer  at  Boston  in  November  of  the  same  year. 

Dunbar,  Thomas,  died  in  1767.  He  was  a  British  colonel  who  was  left 
at  Little  Meadows  in  Braddock's  expedition  against  Fort  Duquesne,  and  after 
Braddock's  defeat,  destroyed  the  munitions  of  war  and  retreated. 

Bunkers  (Dunkards  or  Brethren),  a  denomination  of  American  Baptists 
who  originated  in  Germany  in  1708,  but  were  driven  by  persecution  to  this 
country  between  1719  and  1729.  They  are  now  most  numerous  in  Ohio. 
In  1790  a  number  who  held  Universalist  views  seceded  and  still  remain  apart. 
They  strive  to  reproduce  the  exact  order  of  the  apostolic  church,  dress  plainly, 
refuse  to  go  to  law  or  to  engage  in  war,  take  no  interest  on  money  lent  to  the 
brethren,  and  take  especial  care  of  the  poor.  Their  membership  is  estimated 
at  about  10,000,  but  they  themselves  keep  no  statistics. 

Dunmore,  John  Murray,  Earl  of  (1732-1809),  a  descendant  of  the  Stuarts, 
succeeded  to  the  peerage  in  1766  and  became  Governor  of  New  York  in  1770 
and  of  Virginia  in  1771.  In  1774  the  Virginians  under  Patrick  Henry  took 
up  arms  against  his  government.  He  fled  in  1775  and  during  the  first  year 
of  the  Revolution  conducted  petty  warfare  and  led  plundering  expeditions 
on  the  coast,  burning  Norfolk,  but  was  dislodged  in  1776. 

Du  Pont,  de  Nemours,  Pierre  S.  (1739-1817),  celebrated  French  econo- 
mist, twice  president  of  the  National  Assembly,  resided  in  America  from  1798 
to  1802  and  in  1815  settled  in  Delaware. 

Dupont,  or  Du  Pont,  Samuel  Francis  (1803—1865),  entered  the  navy  in 
his  youth,  but  had  no  opportunities  for  distinction  until  the  Mexican  War, 
when  he  took  San  Diego.  His  great  naval  feat  was  in  the  first  year  of  the 
Civil  War;  he  captured  the  fortifications  of  Port  Royal  harbor  on  November 
7,  1861,  and  followed  up  this  success  by  seizing  Tybee  and  reducing  many 
points  on  the  coast  of  Georgia  and  Florida.  For  these  successes  he  was 
made  rear-admiral.  The  unsuccessful  attacks  on  the  defences  of  Charleston, 
under  his  lead,  in  1863,  were  made  against  his  better  judgment. 

Duquesne  de  Menneville,  Marquis,  was  born  in  France  early  in  the 
eighteenth  century.  He  was  Governor  of  New  France  from  1752  to  1755, 
and  was  active  in  extending  the  interests  of  France  and  resisting  the 
encroachments  of  the  English  colonies.  Fort  Duquesne  was  named  for 
him. 

Duquesne,  Fort,  erected  at  the  junction  of  the  Allegheny  and  Monon- 
gahela  rivers  in  Pennsylvania  by  the  French  under  Captain  Contrecoeur  in 
1754.  It  became  at  once  the  centre  of  French  military  operations  in  that 
section.  In  1755  Braddock  was  sent  to  capture  it.  He  was  defeated  July  9 
by  the  French  and  Indians.  Major  Grant  and  800  men  were  defeated  and 
cut  to  pieces  in  a  second  expedition  against  the  fort  October  15,  1757.  In 
the  summer  of  1758  General  Forbes  with  6000  men  moved  against  it.  His 
march  was  slow.  The  rains  ruined  roads  as  soon  as  constructed.  A  recon- 
noitring party  under  Grant  was  cut  off.  At  length  the  whole  force 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTOR\  209 

advanced.  On  the  evening  of  September  24  the  fort  was  evacuated  and 
blown  up.  By  Forbes'  slow  advance  the  patience  of  the  Indians  in  alliance 
with  the  French  had  been  exhausted  and  the  garrison  reduced  to  less  than 
1000.  The  place  was  named  Fort  Pitt  (Pittsburg)  in  honor  of  the  English 
Minister,  and  a  strong  fort  erected  there  the  next  year. 

Durell,  Edward  H.  (1810-1887),  drafted  the  bureau  system  of  govern- 
ment for  New  Orleans  in  1862,  was  a  U.  S.  Judge  in  Louisiana  from  1863  to 
1874,  and  from  1875  to  1887  published  a  considerable  amount  of  historical 
literature. 

Dustin,  Hannah,  of  Massachusetts,  born  about  1660,  was  taken  prisoner 
by  the  Indians  in  1697  and,  aided  by  a  boy,  Samuel  Leonard,  killed  ten  of 
her  captors  in  carnp  and  escaped  to  her  home  in  Haverhill,  after  notable 
adventures. 

Dutch.  The  chief  settlements  of  the  Dutch  in  the  American  colonies 
were  in  New  Netherland,  now  New  York  and  the  adjoining  part  of  New 
Jersey.  They  were  successful  in  commerce  and  industrious  in  agriculture, 
but  indifferent  to  politics.  Probably  at  the  time  of  the  Revolution  more 
than  half  of  the  population  of  the  State  were  of  Dutch  descent,  and  Dutch 
was  still  spoken  in  the  villages  along  the  Hudson  in  the  earlier  years  of  this 
century.  Of  late,  efforts  have  been  made  to  prove  that  the  chief  influence 
in  the  formation  of  American  institutions  was  Dutch  rather  than  English, 
that  for  instance  the  ideas  of  a  written  constitution,  the  ballot,  freedom  of 
religion,  democracy,  equal  partition  of  the  goods  of  an  intestate,  the  record- 
ing of  deeds  by  the  State,  and  free  schools,  were  derived  from  Dutch  example. 
In  the  case  of  most  of  these  claims,  it  must  be  said  that  they  are  still  quite 
unproved.  It  is  true  that  the  Netherland  Republic  was  in  1620  far  in 
advance  of  England  in  respect  to  freedom,  institutional  development  and 
general  civilization,  and  that  it  was  then  in  close  association  with  England, 
and  that  the  Pilgrim  Fathers  and  some  other  colonists  were  well  acquainted 
with  the  life  of  the  Dutch.  In  the  case  of  free  schools,  registration  of  deeds 
and  the  laws  of  succession,  and  a  few  other  particulars,  a  probability  of  Dutch 
influence  has  been  shown.  But  in  the  case  of  the  fundamentals  of  American 
constitutional  life,  the  new  theory  not  only  has  not  been  proved,  but  is  in 
most  respects,  highly  improbable. 

Duval,  Gabriel  (1752-1844),  represented  Maryland  in  the  U.  S.  Congress 
as  a  Democrat  from  1794  to  1796!  He  was  a  Justice  of  the  U.  S.  Supreme 
Court  from  1811  to  1836. 

Duxbury,  Mass.,  was  founded  by  Miles  Standish  about  1630,  and  incor- 
porated as  a  town  in  1637. 

Duyckinck,  Evert  A.  (1816-1878),  admitted  to  the  New  York  bar  in  1837, 
was  editor  of  the  Literary  World  from  1847  to  I^53)  and  wrote  exten- 
sively upon  American  biography,  history  and  literature.  His  chief  work  was 
a  "  Cyclopaedia  of  American  Literature,"  1856. 

Duzine,  the  twelve  patentees  of  the  settlement  of  New  Paltz,  made  some 
miles  west  of  what  is  now  Kingston  on  the  Hudson,  in  1677,  by  Louis  Dubois 
14 


210  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

and  others.  The  "  Duzine  "  were  elected  as  the  legislative  and  judicial 
body  of  the  colony,  and  they  and  later  Duzines  maintained  control  during 
loo  years. 

Dwight,  Theodore  (1764-1 846),  edited  the  Connecticut  Mirror,  the  official 
organ  of  the  Federalists,  was  secretary  of  the  Hartford  Convention,  and 
founded  the  New  York  Daily  Advertiser,  editing  it  from  1817  to  1836. 

Dwight,  Theodore  W.  (1822-1892),  from  1858  to  1891  professor  of  law 
in  Columbia  College,  was  a  member  of  the  New  York  Constitutional  Con- 
vention of  1867,  and  from  1874  to  1875  a  member  of  the  Commission  of 
Appeals.  He  was  one  of  the  most  famous  of  American  teachers  of  law. 

Dwight,  Timothy  (1752-1817),  of  Connecticut,  divine,  poet  and  teacher, 
while  chaplain  in  the  Continental  army  composed  his  poem  "  Columbia." 
From  1795  to  1817,  he  was  president  of  Yale  College  and  did  much  to 
broaden  and  advance  higher  education.  His  "  Travels  in  New  England  and 
New  York  "  are  noteworthy. 

Dwight,  Timothy,  born  in  1828,  an  editor  of  the  New  Englander  from 
1856,  was  a  member  of  the  committee  to  revise  the  English  version  of  the 
Bible,  from  1878  to  1885,  and  in  1886  was  chosen  president  of  Yale 
University.  Resigned  1899. 

Dyer,  Eliphalet  (1721-1807),  was  Connecticut  Commissioner  to  the  Stamp- 
Act  Congress  in  1765,  Judge  of  the  Superior  Court  from  1766  to  1793,  a 
delegate  to  the  Continental  Congresses  of  1774,  1775  and  1778,  and  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Connecticut  Committee  of  Safety  in  1775. 


E  Pluribus  Unum.  First  suggested  as  the  motto  of  the  United  States  by 
Franklin,  John  Adams  and  Jefferson,  August  10,  1776,  they  having  been 
appointed  the  committee  to  choose  a  design  for  the  Great  Seal.  It  was  prob- 
ably suggested  by  the  similar  motto  of  the  Gentleman }s  Magazine,  which  had 
a  popular  circulation  in  the  colonies  at  that  time.  It  occurs  in  a  Latin  poem 
ascribed  to  Virgil  and  called  "  Moretum."  It  first  appeared  on  coin  in  New 
Jersey  in  1786,  when  copper  coins  were  issued  in  that  State. 

Eads,  James  B.  (1820-1887),  was  noted  for  his  achievements  in  engineering, 
among  them  being  the  construction  of  the  St.  Louis  bridge,  with  a  central 
span  of  520  feet,  and  the  jetties  of  the  Mississippi  River. 

Eagan,  Charles  P.,  born  in  1841,  Commissary-General  during  the  war  with 
Spain.  His  reputation  was  involved  in  the  charges  made  by  General  Miles 
relative  to  "  embalmed  beef,"  he  made  counter-accusations,  and  was  relieved 
from  duty  by  McKinley  in  1899. 

Eagle,  a  gold  coin  of  the  value  of  ten  dollars.  So  called  because  of  the 
figure  of  the  national  bird,  which  is  stamped  on  the  reverse.  It  was  author- 
ized in  1792  and  coinage  was  begun  in  1794.  It  has  always  been  legal  tender 
to  an  unlimited  amount.  The  first  delivery  of  eagles  was  made  September 
22,  1795,  400  in  number.  It  was  not  coined  from  1805  to  1837.  By  Act  of 
1834  its  weight  was  slightly  reduced. 

Earle,  Thomas  (1796-1849),  was  active  in  calling  the  Pennsylvania  Con- 
stitutional  Convention  of  1837,  and  is  supposed  to  have  drafted  the  new 


Patrick   Henry. 

Robert  Morris, 
Robert   R.    Livingston. 


STATESMEN  OF  THE  REVOLUTION. 

John    Hancock. 
John   Dickinson. 

James  Otis. 
Samuel    Adams. 


Benjamin   Franklin 
Richard  Henry   Lee. 

Roger  Sherman. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  211 

Constitution.    In  1840  he  was  the  candidate  of  the  Liberty  party  for  Vice- 
President. 

Early,  Jubal  Anderson  (1815-1894),  Confederate  general,  was  attorney 
for  Virginia  from  1842  to  1844  and  iroin  1848  to  1852,  and  served  as  major 
in  the  Mexican  War  from  1847  to  l848-  In  1861  he  became  a  colonel  in  the 
Confederate  army  and  fought  at  Bull  Run  and  Williamsburg.  Promoted  to 
brigadier-general  in  1863  he  was  a  commander  at  Fredericksburg  and  Gettys- 
burg. Successful  at  first  in  his  Shenandoah  campaign  he  was  defeated  by 
Sheridan  on  the  Opequan,  at  Fisher's  Hill  and  at  Cedar  Creek,  and  by  General 
Custer  at  Waynesboro.  For  these  defeats  he  was  retired.  He  was  president 
of  the  Southern  Historical  Society. 

East  India  Company,  the  Dutch  trading  company  under  whose  auspices 
Henry  Hudson  in  his  vessel,  the  "  Half  Moon,"  sailed  up  the  Hudson  River 
and  established  three  trading  posts.  The  object  of  the  company  was  not 
colonization,  but  a  monopoly  of  the  fur  trade.  In  1621  a  similar  monopoly 
was  granted  by  the  States  General  to  the  newly  formed  West  India  Company. 

East  Jersey.     (See  New  Jersey.) 

Eaton,  Dorman  B.,  was  born  in  Vermont  in  1823.  Prominent  in  pro- 
moting civil  service  reform,  he  was  appointed  a  member  of  the  Civil  Service 
Commission  by  President  Grant  in  1873  and  in  1883  by  President  Arthur, 
serving  till  1886.  He  drafted  the  national  civil  service  act  of  1883,  and  has 
written  extensively  upon  the  subject. 

Eaton,  John,  born  in  New  Hampshire  in  1829,  served  during  the  Civil 
War,  and  was  appointed  U.  S.  Commissioner  of  Education,  serving  from  1870 
to  1886.  He  was  president  of  the  international  congress  of  education  at 
New  Orleans,  and  vice-president  of  the  congress  at  Havre,  France. 

Eaton,  John  H.  (1790—1856)  was  a  U.  S.  Senator  from  Tennessee  from 
1818  to  1829,  was  Secretary  of  War  in  Jackson's  Cabinet  from  1829  *°  l83T» 
and  Minister  to  Spain  from  1836  to  1840.  He  was  one  of  Jackson's  closest 
friends  and  political  advisers. 

Eaton,  Margaret  L.  (1796-1879)  ("Peggy  O'Neill"),  a  woman  of  great 
beauty  and  of  fascinating  manner,  but  of  low  social  position,  married  John 
H.  Eaton  in  1828.  When  he  became  Secretary  of  War  she  was  refused 
recognition  by  the  families  of  the  Cabinet  members.  Her  cause  was  sup- 
ported by  President  Jackson,  who  attempted  to  enforce  her  recognition, 
which  led  to  the  disruption  of  the  Cabinet  in  1831. 

Eaton,  Theophilus  (1591-1658),  a  prosperous  English  merchant,  came 
to  Massachusetts  in  1637,  explored  the  Connecticut  coast,  and  in  1638  planted 
a  colony  at  New  Haven,  of  which  he  became  one  of  the  "Seven  Pillars" 
who  formed  the  government,  and  was  made  the  first  Governor.  He  was  one 
of  the  commissioners  who  formed  the  "  United  Colonies  of  New  England  " 
in  1643. 

Eaton,  William  (1764-1811),  born  in  Connecticut,  served  in  the  Revolu- 
tionary War  from  1780  to  1783,  and  was  Clerk  of  the  Connecticut  House  of 
Representatives  from  1791  to  1797.  He  was  Consul  at  Tunis,  where  he 


212  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

conducted  important  negotiations  from  1799  to  1803,  and  was  U.  S.  Naval 
Agent  to  the  Barbary  States  from  1804  to  1805.  In  1805  he  conducted  the 
celebrated  Derne  expedition.  (See  Derne.) 

Ebenezer,  the  chief  settlement  of  the  Salzburger  colonists  of  Georgia. 
It  was  founded  near  the  confluence  of  the  Savannah  River  and  Ebenezer 
Creek  in  1734.  Its  Salzburger  inhabitants  were  mainly  farmers  and  Indian 
traders. 

Economy.     (See  Harmonists.) 

Ecuador.  In  1839  a  commercial  treaty  was  concluded  between  the  United 
States  and  Ecuador.  Conventions  were  concluded  in  1862  for  the  settlement 
of  claims,  and  in  1872  relative  to  naturalization  and  extradition. 

Eden,  Sir  Robert,  born  in  England,  died  in  1786.  He  was  made  Gov- 
ernor of  Maryland  in  1768,  and  ruled  with  moderation,  causing  the  Mary- 
land colonists  to  hope  for  reconciliation  with  Great  Britain  at  the  outbreak 
of  the  Revolution.  In  1776  he  was  obliged  to  depart. 

Edenton,  N.  C.,  was  founded  in  1715,  named  for  Governor  Charles  Eden, 
and  for  a  time  was  the  place  of  meeting  of  the  Legislature  of  the  colony. 

Edes,  Benjamin  (1732—1803),  from  1755  to  1798  was  editor  of  the  Boston 
Gazette  and  Country  Journal,  which  became  very  influential  during  the 
Revolutionary  period.  He  materially  aided  the  members  of  the  "  Boston 
Tea  Party  "  in  1773. 

Edison,  Thomas  A.,  was  born  in  Ohio  in  1847.  One  of  the  most  suc- 
cessful of  inventors,  he  accomplishes  his  great  achievements  empirically  by 
almost  incessant  labor.  Among  his  inventions  are  the  carbon  telephone,  the 
phonograph,  the  microtasimeter,  by  which  has  been  measured  the  heat  of 
the  sun's  corona,  and  a  quadruplex  system  of  telegraphy. 

Edmunds,  George  Franklin,  Senator,  was  born  in  Vermont  in  1828.  He 
was  a  Representative  in  the  Vermont  Legislature  from  1854  to  1859  (except 
one  year),  serving  as  Speaker  for  three  years,  and  was  president  pro  tempore 
of  the  State  Senate  from  1861  to  1862.  He  drew  up  the  resolutions  adopted 
at  the  convention  for  uniting  the  Republicans  and  the  War  Democrats.  In 
1866  he  was  appointed  to  succeed  Solomon  Foote,  deceased,  in  the  U.  S. 
Senate,  and  held  office  till  his  resignation  in  1891.  In  1877  he  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Electoral  Commission.  While  in  the  Senate  he  served  as  chair- 
man of  the  Judiciary  Committee,  and  had  the  drafting  of  many  important 
bills.  His  services  in  the  Senate  were  marked  by  uprightness  of  character, 
ability  to  detect  imperfections  in  pending  legislation,  and  hostility  to  irregu- 
lar procedure. 

Edmunds  Act,  a  bill  submitted  by  Senator  Edmunds,  of  Vermont,  and 
passed  by  Congress  March  22,  1882,  to  regulate  and  restrict  the  polygamous 
institutions  of  the  Mormons  in  Utah.  Under  its  provisions  Mormons  were 
in  a  great  measure  excluded  from  local  offices,  which  they  had  hitherto 
wholly  controlled.  Many  persons  were  indicted  and  punished  for  polygamy 
also. 


DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  213 

Education.     (See  Schools,  Academies,  Colleges,  Universities.) 

Education,  Bureau  of.  This  office  was  established  in  1867  for  the  pur- 
pose of  collecting  statistics  showing  the  condition  and  progress  of  education 
in  the  States  and  Territories,  and  of  diffusing  such  information  as  might 
promote  the  cause  of  education  throughout  the  country.  At  first  an  inde- 
pendent office,  it  was  in  1868  made  a  bureau  of  the  Department  of  the 
Interior. 

Educational  Land-grants.  In  the  disposal  of  the  lands  of  the  North- 
west Territory  large  tracts  were,  in  some  instances,  granted  to  the  States 
formed  therefrom,  to  be  sold  by  the  State  Legislatures  for  an  educational 
endowment;  or  else  the  lands  were  sold  by  the  Federal  Government,  and  a 
percentage  of  the  proceeds  bestowed  upon  the  State  for  the  erection  of 
schools  and  colleges.  When  Illinois  became  a  State  three  per  cent  of  the 
proceeds  of  the  sales  of  public  lands  was  granted  for  this  purpose,  to  be  paid 
as  fast  as  the  sales  were  made.  In  1829  the  Legislature  borrowed  the  school 
fund  for  State  purposes,  and  failed  to  pay  interest  thereon,  hence  the  Federal 
grant  was  withheld  for  some  years.  The  total  amount  received  was  $712,- 
745.24.  In  Michigan,  the  charge  of  the  public  lands  was  intrusted  first  to 
the  Territorial,  and  then,  in  1835,  to  the  State  Legislature.  In  general,  these 
grants  were  mismanaged  by  the  States.  History  by  Knight. 

Edward,  Fort,  erected  on  the  Hudson  River  in  1755,  and  at  first  called 
Fort  Lyman  after  the  builder;  an  important  post  during  the  French  and 
Indian  War.  It  was  garrisoned,  in  1755,  by  the  Earl  of  Loudoun  and  2500 
men,  and  afterward  by  General  Webb.  From  this  fort  there  were  frequent 
expeditions  against  the  French  along  the  Canadian  border.  After  the  mas- 
sacre at  Fort  William  Henry,  in  1757,  the  remnant  of  the  latter's  garrison 
took  refuge  in  Fort  Edward.  The  French  General  Montcalm  proposed  to 
attack  Fort  Edward,  but  failed  to  do  so.  During  the  winter  of  1757  the 
troops  under  General  Webb,  tired  of  inaction,  mutinied  and  caused  serious 
trouble.  Captain  Haviland  then  assumed  command,  and  despatched  a 
scouting  expedition  under  Rogers  against  the  French  border  in  1758.  This 
party  was  defeated  near  Lake  George. 

Edwards,  Jonathan  (1703-1758),  born  in  Connecticut,  was  the  most  emi- 
nent metaphysician  America  has  ever  produced.  In  1727  he  was  ordained 
pastor  at  Northampton,  Mass.,  where  he  remained  until  1750.  From  1751 
to  1758  he  preached  to  the  Indians  at  Stockbridge.  He  was  a  most  prolific 
writer  upon  religion  and  metaphysics,  and  in  1754  published  his  famous 
"Inquiry  into  the  Freedom  of  the  Will." 

Edwards,  Ninian  (1775-1833),  a  prominent  lawyer,  was  Governor  of  the 
Territory  of  Illinois  from  1809  to  1818,  was  U.  S.  Senator  from  1818  to  1824 
and  was,  by  election,  Governor  from  1826  to  1830. 

Eggleston,  Edward,  was  born  in  1837.  He  is  a  popular  novelist  and  the 
author  of  a  series  of  biographies  of  American  Indians  and  a  history  of  social 
life  in  the  colonies. 

Egypt.  A  commercial  agreement  was  made  in  1884  between  the  United 
States  and  Egypt. 


2X4  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Eight-Hour  Law.  The  Act  of  August  I,  1892,  restricts  to  eight  hours 
the  working  day  of  all  laborers  and  mechanics  employed  by  the  United  States 
Government,  by  the  District  of  Columbia,  or  by  any  contractor  upon  any  of 
the  public  works.  Violation  of  this  law  is  punishable  by  fine  and  imprison- 
ment. 

El  Bracito,  N.  M.,  a  short,  but  hotly  contested  battle  between  Colonel 
Doniphan's  army  of  900  men  and  a  force  of  iioo  Mexicans,  under  an  officer 
named  Ponce  de  Leon,  December  24,  1846.  These  troops 'charged  upon  the 
Americans,  but  were  easily  repulsed  by  a  volley  from  rilies.  This  occurred 
during  Doniphan's  celebrated  expedition  against  Chihuahua  to  join  and 
relieve  General  Wool. 

El  Dorado,  meaning  "The  Gilded  Man."  Among  the  Muysca  Indians  of 
Bogota  it  was  customary,  at  the  time  of  the  Spanish  explorations  of  the  six- 
teenth century,  for  each  new  chief,  with  his  naked  body  anointed  with  resinous 
gums  and  covered  with  gold  dust,  to  head  a  solemn  procession  to  the  Lake 
of  Govita,  and  to  wash  himself  therein  after  much  impressive  ceremony. 
At  the  same  time  the  assembled  savages  cast  into  the  lake  gold  trinkets  and 
precious  stones,  as  offerings  to  the  goddess  of  the  lake,  the  drowned  wife  of 
a  former  chieftain.  Hence  the  term  el  dorado  came  to  be  applied  to  any 
place  where  gold  was  reported  to  exist.  Many  expeditions  were  undertaken 
in  search  of  the  mythical  el  dorado  by  the  Spaniards.  South  America, 
Mexico  and  Florida  were  all,  at  different  times,  supposed  to  be  the  country 
of  the  long  sought  el  dorado. 

Election  Laws.  Each  colony  and  State  has  had  its  own  laws  for  local 
elections.  The  Constitution  gives  the  Congress  power  to  regulate  Federal 
elections.  Elections  to  the  Senate  were  first  put  upon  a  uniform  plan  by 
Federal  legislation  in  i856,  and  elections  to  the  House  by  Act  of  1875. 
For  the  recent  attempt  to  carry  still  further  the  policy  of  Federal  control  of 
Federal  elections,  see  art.  "  Force  Bill."  History  of  colonial  elections  by 
Bishop. 

Elections.  In  -the  colonial  period  only  Massachusetts  (till  1691),  Con- 
necticut and  Rhode  Island  elected  their  Governors.  But  in  all  the  people 
elected  their  Representatives  in  the  Assembly,  and  this  was  done  either  by 
ballot  or,  as  in  Virginia,  after  the  English  manner,  viva  voce.  Election 
disturbances  were  common  in  the  Southern  colonies,  though  laws  against 
violence  and  treating  prevailed.  Under  the  Constitution  of  1787  the  Federal 
Congress  did  not  pass  laws  controlling  the  election  of  Senators  until  1866, 
when  the  present  system  was  introduced,  nor  of  Representatives,  completely, 
until  1875.  The  first  Presidential  election  was  held  in  January  and  February 
of  1789.  The  times  of  election  formerly  varied  much  in  different  States, 
but  now  nearly  all  elect  their  Congressmen  in  November. 

Elections,  Presidential.  The  following  table  gives  the  electoral  and 
popular  votes  for  President  and  Vice-President  at  each  election.  It  is  to  be 
remembered  that  in  the  elections  preceding  that  of  1804  the  electors  did  not 
vote  for  President  and  Vice-President  separately;  he  who  had  most  votes  was 
made  President,  he  who  stood  second  Vice-President.  Up  to  1824  electors 
were  largely  chosen  by  State  Legislatures  without  popular  voting : 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 


215 


si 

> 

No.  of  Electors. 

Party. 

PRESIDENT. 

VICE-PRESIDENT. 

Candidate. 

Popular 
Vote. 

I 

Candidate. 

Electors. 

1789 

1792 
1796 

1800 

1804 
1808 

1812 
1816 

73 

135 
138 

138 

176 
176 

218 

221 

George  Washington   . 
John  Adams  

69 

34 

t 

6 
4 
3 

2 
2 
I 

I 

4 

77 
50 
4 

3 

68 
59 
3<> 
15 
ii 

7 
5 
3 

2 
2 
2 

I 

1 

162 
'  H 
»3 

47 
9 

3 
3 

i 

131 
86 

i 
183 

22 
5 
4 
3 
4 

Federalist  . 
Federalist  . 
Republican 
Republican 

Federalist  . 
Republican 
Federalist  . 
Republican 

Republican 
Republican 
Federalist 
Federalist  . 

Republican 
Federalist  . 
Republican 
Federalist  . 

Republican 
Federalist  . 

Republican 
Federalist  . 

John  Jay  

R.  H.  Harrison    .    .    . 

John  Rutledge  .... 

John  Hancock  .... 

George  Clinton    .    .    . 

Samuel  Huntington  . 
John  Milton  

James  Armstrong    .    . 

Henjamin  Lincoln 

Edward  Telfair 

Vacancies 

4 

George  Washington   . 
John  Adams 

132 

George  Clinton 

7i 

Thomas  Jefferson    .    . 
Thomas  Pinckney  .   . 

John  Jav 

George  Washington   . 

Charles  C.  Pinckney  . 
Thomas  Jefferson* 

73 

Aaron  Kurr   
John  Arlams  
Charles  C.  Pinckney  . 
John  Jay     
Thomas  Jefferson    .    . 
Charles  C.  Pinckney  . 
James  Mad  :  son     .    .    . 
Charles  C.  Pinckney  . 

162 

M 
122 

4l 

I 
I2S 
89 

183 

34 
4 

George  Clinton     .    . 
Rufus  King    .... 
George  Clinton     .    . 
Rufus  King    .... 
John  Langdon  .    .    . 
James  Madison      .    . 
James  Monroe  .    .    . 

F.lbridge  Gerry     .    . 
Jared  Ingersoll  .   .    . 

D.  D.  Tompkins  .    . 
Jo''n  E.  Howard  .    . 
James  Ross     .... 
John  Marshall    .    .    . 
Robert  G.  Harper     . 





Vacancy        .    .    . 

Vacancies  . 

•Jefferson  was  chosen  President  by  the  House  of  Representath 


216 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 


1 

No.  of  Electors. 

Party. 

PRESIDENT. 

VICE-PRESIDENT. 

Candidate. 

Popular 
Vote. 

Electors. 

Candidate. 

218 

8 

4 
i 

J 

30 
24 
13 
9 

2 

I 
171 

83 

189 

49 
ii 

7 
30 

2 

147 

77 
47 
23 

234 
48 

II 

i 
170 
105 

163 
127 

254 
42 

174 
114 
8 
180 
72 
39 

12 
212 
21 

81 
214 
80 
23 

1820 
1824 

1828 
1832 

1836 
1840 
1844 

1848 

1852 
1856 

1860 

1864 
1868 

235 
261 

261 
288 

294 
294 

275 
290 
296 
296 
303 

3H 
317 

Republican 
Republican 

Republican 
Republican 
Republican 
Republican 

Democratic 
Nat.  Repub. 

Democratic 
Nat.  Repub. 

Anti-Mason 

Democratic 
Whig  .    .    . 
Whig  .    .    . 
Whig  .    .    . 
Whig  .    .    . 

James  Monroe  .... 

231 
i 

3 
99 

84 
4i 
37 

178 
83 

219 

49 

I" 

2 

D.  D.  Tompkins   .    . 
Richard  Stockton     . 
Daniel  Rodney      .    . 
Robert  G.  Harper    . 
Richard  Rush    .    .    . 

John  C.  Calhoun  .    . 
Nathan  San  ford    .    . 
Nathaniel  Macon 
Andrew  Jackson    .    . 
Martin  Van  Buren    . 
Henry  Clay    .... 

John  C.  Calhoun  .    . 
Richard  Rush    .    .    . 
William  Smith  (S.  C.) 
Martin  Van  Buren   . 
John  Sergeant   .    .    . 
Henry  Lee  .    .    .   ^  . 
Amos  Ellmaker     .    . 
William  Wilkins  .    . 

John  Q.  Adams    .    .    . 
Vacancies 

Andrew  Jackson  .    .    . 
John  Q.  Adams*  .    .    . 
William  H.  Crawford 
Henry  Clay 

153,544 
108,740 
46,618 
47,136 

Vacancy        

Andrew  Jackson  .    .    . 
John  Q.  Adams    .    .    . 

Andrew  Jackson  .    .    . 
Henry  Clay 

647,276 
508,064 

687,502 
530,189 

33,io8 

John  Floyd       \ 
William  Wirt  (  ' 

Vacancies      .    . 

Martin  Van  Buren  . 
Wm.  H.  Harrison  1 
Hugh  L.  White 
Daniel  Webster 
W.  P.  Mangum       J 

762,678 
735,651 

1,275,017 
1,128,102 
7,069 

1,337.243 
1,299,062 

170 

III 

u 

234 

60 

170 
105 

'  163 

127 

254 
42 

174 

114 
8 
180 
72 
39 

12 
212 
21 

81 
214 
80 
23 

R.  M.  Johnsonf    .    . 
Francis  Granger   .    . 
John  Tyler  
William  Smith  (Ala.) 

John  Tyler 

Whig  .    .    . 
Democratic 
Liberty  .    . 

Democratic 
Whig.    .    . 
Liberty  .    . 
Whig.    .    . 
Democratic 
Free-Soil    . 
Democratic 
Whig  .    .    . 
Free  Dem. 
Democratic 
Republican 
American  . 
Republican 
Democratic 
Cons.  Union 
Ind.  Dem. 
Republican 
Democratic 

Republican 
Democratic 

William  H.  Harrison 
Martin  Van  Buren  .    . 
James  G.  Birney  .    .    . 

James  K.  Polk  .... 
Henry  Clay  .        ... 

R.  M.  Johnson  .    .    . 
Francis  J.  Lemoyne. 
L.  W.  Tazewell  .    .    . 
James  K.  Polk  .    .    . 
George  M.  Dallas  .    . 
T.  Frelinghuysen  .    . 
Thomas  Morris. 
Millard  Fillmore  .    . 
William  O.  Butler    . 
Charles  F.  Adams. 
William  R.  King  .    . 
William  A.  Graham 
George  W.  Julian. 
J.  C.  Breckinridge    . 
William  L.  Dayton 
A.  J.  Donelson  .    .    . 
Hannibal  Hamlin     . 
Joseph  Lane   .... 
Edward  Everett    .    . 
H.  V.  Johnson  .    .    . 
Andrew  Johnson    .    . 
G.  H.  Pendleton    .    . 

Schuyler  Colfax    .    . 
F.  P.  Blair,  Jr.   ... 

James  G.  Birney  .    .    . 
Zachary  Taylor    .    .    . 
Lewis  Cass     
Martin  Van  Buren  .    . 
Franklin  Pierce    .    .    . 
Winfield  Scott  .... 
John  P.  Hale    .... 
James  Buchanan  .    .    . 
John  C.  Fremont     .    . 
Millard  Fillmore  .    .    . 
Abraham  Lincoln   .    . 
J.  C.  Breckinridge  .    . 
John  Bell   
S.  A.  Douglas  .... 
Abraham  Lincoln    .    . 
Geo.  B.  McClellan  .    . 
States  not  voting'.   .    . 
Ulysses  S.  Grant  .    .    . 
Horatio  Seymour    .    . 
States  not  voting     .    . 

62,300 
1,360,101 

1,220,544 
291,263 
1,601,274 
1,386.578 
156,825 
1,838,169 
1,341,264 
874,534 
1,866,452 

845,953 
590,631 
1,375,157 
2,213,667 
1,802,237 

3,012,833 
2,703,249 

•Adams  was  elected  President  by  the  House  of  Representatives, 
t  Johnson  was  chosen  Vice-President  by  t*,»  Senate. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 


217 


1 

No.  of 
Elec- 
tors. 

Party. 

PRESIDENT. 

VICE-PRESIDENT. 

Candidate. 

Popular 
Vote. 

Elec- 
tors. 

Candidate. 

Elec- 
tors. 

1872 

366    Republican 

Ulysses  S.  Grant     .    . 

3,597,070 

286 

lenry  Wilson     .    .    . 

286 

Dem.  &  Lib. 

Horace  Greeley  .    .    . 

2,834,079 

3.  Gratz  Brown   .    .    . 

47 

Democratic 

Charles  O'Conor     .    . 

29,489 

George  W.  Julian  .    . 

5 

Temperance 

James  Black    .... 

5,6o8 

A.  H.  Colquitt    .    .    . 

5 

Thos.  A.  Hendricks  . 

42 

John  M.  Palmer    .    . 

3 

B.  Gratz  Brown  .    .    . 

18 

T.  E.  Bramlette  .    .    . 

Charles  J.  Jenkins  .    . 

.... 

2 

W.  S.  Groesbeck    .    . 

i 

David  Davis     .... 

I 

Willis  B.  Machen   .    . 

i 

N.  P.  Banks      .... 

Not  counted     .... 

J7 



14 

1876 

369 

Republican 
Democratic 

Rutherford  B.  Hayes 
Samuel  J.  Tilden     .    . 

4,033-950 
4,300,590 

185 

184 

William  A.  Wheeler  . 
T.  A.  Hendricks     .    . 

185 
184 

Greenback 

Peter  Cooper    .... 

81,740 

Samuel  Cary. 

Prohibition 

Green  Clay  Smith  .    . 

9522 

G.  T.  Stewart. 

Scattering     

2,636 

1880 

369 

Republican 

James  A.  Garfield  .    . 

4,454,416 

214 

Chester  A.  Arthur  .    . 

214 

Democratic 

Winfield  S.  Hancock 

4,444,952 

155 

William  H.  English  . 

J55 

Greenback 

James  B.  Weaver  .    . 

308,578 

B.  J.  Chambers. 

Prohibition 

Neal  Dow      

10,305 

H.  A.  Thompson. 

American 

John  W.  Phelps     .    . 

707 

Samuel  C.  Pomeroy. 

Scattering     

989 

1884 

401 

Democratic 

Grover  Cleveland   .    . 

4,874,986 

219 

T.  A.  Hendricks      .    . 

219 

Republican 
Prohibition 

James  G.  Elaine     .    . 
John  P.  St.  John    .    . 

4,851,981 
1  50>369 

182 

John  A.  Logan   .    .    . 
William  Daniel. 

182 

Greenback 

Benjamin  F.  Butler  . 

175,370 

A.  M.  West. 

Scattering     

11,362 

1888  ;    401 

Republican 

Benjamin  Harrison    . 

5,440,551 

233 

Levi  P.  Morton  .   .    . 

233 

Democratic 

Grover  Cleveland   .    . 

5,538,434 

168 

A.  G.  Thurman  .   .    . 

168 

Prohibition 

Clinton  B.  Fisk   .    .    . 

250,290 

John  A.  Brooks. 

Union  Lab. 

Alonzo  J.  Streeter  .    . 

147,045 

.   .    . 

C.  E.  Cunningham. 

Scattering 

10,312 

1892 

444 

Democratic 

Grover  Cleveland    . 

5-553,142 

276 

Adlai  E.  Stevenson    . 

276 

Republican 

Benjamin  Harrison 

5-186,931 

J45 

Whitelaw  Reid    .    .    . 

145 

People's 
Prohibition 

James  B.  Weaver   . 
John  Bidwell      .    . 

1,030,128 
268,361 

23 

James  G.  Field  .    .    . 
J.  B.  Cranfell. 

23 

1896 

447 

Republican 
Democrat  \ 
Populist      J 

William  McKinley 
William  J.  Bryan    .   . 

7,105,959 
6,454,943 

271 
176 

Garret  A.  Hobart  .    . 
f  Arthur  Sewell  .    .   . 
1  Thomas  E.  Watson 

271 
176 

Prohibition 

Joshua  Levering     .    . 

131,748 

Hale  Johnson. 

Gold  Dem. 

John  M.  Palmer     .    . 

132.870 

rimon  Buckner. 

Scattering     .... 

50,133 

Electoral  Commission,  a  commission  appointed  by  an  Act  of  Congress, 
January  29,  1877,  to  investigate  certain  charges  of  fraudulent  return  of 
electoral  votes  frotn  Florida,  Louisiana,  Oregon  and  South  Carolina,  during 
the  Presidential  election  of  1876.  Hayes  and  Tilden  were  the  respective 
Republican  and  Democratic  candidates  for  that  term.  The  commission 
numbered  fifteen  :  three  Republican  Senators,  two  Democratic  Senators, 
three  Democratic  Representatives,  two  Republican  Representatives,  and  five 
Associate  Justices  of  the  Supreme  Court.  Bradley,  the  fifth  Justice  selected, 
had  the  casting  vote.  February  9,  the  commission  sustained  the  validity  of 
the  Hayes,  electoral  ticket  in  Florida,  and  later  gave  similar  decisions  regard- 
ing the  ether  States.  The  appointment  of  a  commission  of  this  sort  was 
hitherto  an  unheard-of  step  and  has  by  some  been  deemed  unconstitutional. 

Electors.  The  Constitution  provides  that  a  number  of  electors  for  choo?- 
ing  the  President  an4  Vics-President  shall  be  appointed  by  each  State,  equal 


218  DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

to  the  number  of  Senators  and  Representatives  from  that  State,  no  one  of 
them  holding  a  public  national  office.  Electors  have  been  chosen  in  four 
different  ways:  by  joint  ballot  of  the  State  Legislatures,  by  a  concurrent 
vote  of  the  two  branches  of  the  Legislature,  by  a  general  vote  and  by  a  dis- 
trict vote.  By  1072,  the  general  ticket  method  was  adopted  in  every  State. 
An  elector  is  chosen  from  each  Congressional  district.  Originally  the  electors 
voted  for  two  persons  without  designating  either  as  President  or  Vice-Presi- 
dent The  one  receiving  the  greatest  number  of  votes  was  President.  If  no 
one  had  a  majority  the  House  was  to  choose  from  the  five  highest.  Under 
the  Twelfth  Amendment  the  electors  vote  for  President  and  Vice-President 
as  such,  and  if  the  election  goes  to  the  House  of  Representatives  the  choice 
is  from  the  three  highest  instead  of  from  the  five  highest,  as  originally 
provided. 

Elevator  Cases.     (See  art.  Munn  vs.  Illinois.) 

Eliot,  Charles  W.,  was  born  in  Massachusetts  in  1834.  He  was  elected 
president  of  Harvard  College  in  1869.  His  administration  has  been  marked 
by  great  advancement.  He  has  written  various  works  upon  chemical  and 
educational  topics. 

Eliot,  John  (1604-1690),  "the  Apostle  of  the  Indians,"  emigrated  to 
Boston  from  England  in  1631.  Soon  after  his  arrival  he  began  studying  the 
Indian  language  and  translated  portions  of  the  Gospel,  and  in  1646  began  to 
preach  to  the  Indians  without  the  aid  of  an  interpreter.  In  1660  he  founded 
an  Indian  church  at  Natick,  and  in  1663  a  catechism  was  published,  the  first 
publication  ever  made  in  the  Indian  language.  The  same  year  he  completed 
a  translation  of  both  the  Old  and  New  Testaments.  Eliot's  Indian  Bible  is 
now  a  very  rare  book,  commanding  a  very  high  price. 

Elizabeth  (1533-1603),  Queen  of  England  from  1558  to  1603,  granted  in 
1578  to  Sir  Humphrey  Gilbert  letters  patent  to  conquer  and  possess  any 
heathen  lands  not  already  in  the  hands  of  Christians.  Gilbert's  expedition 
failed.  In  1584  Elizabeth  granted  a  similar  charter  to  Raleigh.  In  1585, 
with  the  Queen's  assistance,  Raleigh  sent  seven  vessels  and  100  colonists  to 
settle  in  Virginia,  which  had  been  taken  in  the  Queen's  name  under  the 
charter  of  1584  and  named  by  Elizabeth.  In  1602  Gosnold  named  (one  of) 
the  Elizabeth  Islands  for  her. 

Elizabethtown  (Brockville,  near  the  Thousand  Islands).  Here,  in  the 
War  of  1812,  were  confined  some  American  prisoners.  February  7,  1813, 
Major  Forsyth  crossed  the  river,  released  the  captives,  seized  some  military 
stores  and  a  number  of  British,  and  returned  without  the  loss  of  a  man. 

Elk  Creek,  Ind.  Terr.  Here  General  Blunt,  leading  2400  National  soldiers 
toward  Pert  Blunt,  encountered  ttie  Confederate  General  Cooper  at  the  head 
of  5000  men.  A  brief  fight  took  place  in  which  Cooper  was  worsted. 

Elkins,  Stephen  B.,  born  in  1841,  was  a  delegate  in  Congress  from  Ne\r 
Mexico  irom  1873  to  1877,  and  was  Secretary  of  War  from  1801  to  1893,  in 
the  Cabinet  cf  President  Benjamin  Harrison.  Elected  to  United  States 
Senate  1895. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 


219 


Ellery,  William  (1727-1820),  born  in  Rhode  Island,  was  chosen  a  delegate 
to  the  Continental  Congress  in  1776,  and  served  on  the  board  of  admiralty, 
and  the  treasury  and  marine  committees.  He  was  one  of  the  signers  of  the 
Declaration  of  Independence,  and  continued,  except  in  1780  and  1782,  a 
member  of  the  Congress  till  1786. 

Ellicott,  Andrew  (1754-1820),  of  Pennsylvania,  surveyed  and  laid  out  the 
city  of  Washington  in  1790,  and  was  surveyor-general  of  the  United  States 
in  1792.  In  1796  he  was  appointed  a  commissioner  to  determine  the  bound- 
ary between  the  United  States  and  the  Spanish  possessions  on  the  south. 

Elliot,  Jonathan  (1784-1846),  came  to  New  York  from  England  about 
1802,  served  in  the  navy  in  1812;  was  editor  of  the  collection  called  "Elliot's 
Debates  on  the  Constitution,"  and  author  of  numerous  political  works  con- 
cerning the  United  States. 

Elliott,  JCGGC  D.  (1782-1845),  entered  the  navy  in  1804,  captured  the 
" Detroit "  and  "Caledonia"  from  the  British  at  Fort  Erie  in  1812,  com- 
manded the  "  Madison  "  at  the  capture  of  York,  and  served  with  distinction 
in  the  battle  of  Lake  Erie. 

Ellis,  George  E.,  clergyman,  born  in  Massachusetts  in  1814.  Since  1887 
he  has  been  president  of  the  Massachusetts  Historical  Society.  He  has 
written  extensively  upon  historical  and  biographical  subjects,  e.  g.,  "  The 
Puritan  Age  in  Massachusetts." 

Ellmaker,  Amos  (1787-1851),  served  in  the  Pennsylvania  Legislature  from 
1812  to  1814,  was  State  Attorney-General  from  1816  to  1819  and  in  1832 
was  the  Anti-Masonic  candidate  for  Vice- President  of  the  United  States. 

Ellskwatawa,  born  about  1770,  a  Shawnee  Indian  prophet,  brother  of 
Tecumseh,  ordered  the  attack  at  Tippecanoe  in  1811. 

Ellsworth,  E.  E.  (1837-1861),  in  1861  was  appointed  colonel  of  a  regi- 
ment of  Zouaves,  and  was  shot  by  the  proprietor  of  a  hotel  in  Alexandria, 
Va.,  while  tearing  down  a  Confederate  flag  from  the  hotel. 

Ellsworth,  Oliver  (1745-1807),  was  admitted  to  the  Connecticut  bar  in 
1771,  and  became  State's  Attorney  in  1775.  He  was  a  delegate  to  the  Con- 
tinental Congress  from  1778  to  1783,  and  from  1780  to  1784  was  a  member 
of  the  Governor's  Council.  He  was  Judge  of  the  Connecticut  Supreme 
Court  from  1784  to  1787,  when  he  became  a  member  of  the  Federal  Con- 
vention at  Philadelphia,  and  was  of  influence  in  securing  the  compromise  in 
the  Constitution  which  reconciled  the  interests  of  the  small  States  and  the 
large  States.  He  was  a  U.  S.  Senator  from  1789  to  1796,  when  he  resigned; 
was  Chief  Justice  of  the  U.  S.  Supreme  Court  from  1796  to  1800,  and  Envoy 
Extraordinary  to  France  in  1799. 

Emancipation  Proclamation.  During  the  first  eighteen  months  of  the 
Civil  War  President  Lincoln  listened  unmoved  to  the  clamorings  of  aboli- 
tionists for  an  emancipation  proclamation.  He  declared  he  would  preserve 
the  Union  without  freeing  the  slaves,  if  such  a  thing  were  possible.  Sep- 
tember 22,  1862,  he  issued  a  preliminary  proclamation  that,  unless  the 
inhabitants  of  the  revolted  States  returned  to  their  allegiance  by  January  i, 


220  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

the  slaves  should  be  declared  free.  This  had  no  effect.  January  i,  1863,, 
the  proclamation  was  issued  declaring  the  freedom  of  slaves  in  all  the  States, 
which  had  seceded  except  forty-eight  counties  of  West  Virginia,  seven 
counties  in  Virginia,  including  the  cities  of  Norfolk  and  Portsmouth,  and 
thirteen  parishes  of  Louisiana,  including  New  Orleans.  These  districts 
were  practically  under  the  control  of  the  Union  army.  Lincoln  expected 
the  proclamation  to  take  effect  gradually.  Its  legal  effect  has  been  disputed;, 
its  practical  effect  was  enormous. 

Embargo,  a  prohibition  of  commerce  by  national  authority,  laid  in  var- 
ious forms  and  at  various  times  from  1794  until  1815.  Upon  the  declara- 
tion of  war  between  France  and  Great  Britain  in  1793,  each  Government, 
ordered  the  seizure  of  neutral  vessels  bound  for  the  ports  of  the  other.  This 
caused  great  excitement  in  the  United  States,  and  the  first  embargo  was  laid 
March  26,  1794,  to  continue  for  thirty  days  and  afterward  prolonged  to  sixty. 
In  consequence  of  the  depredations  of  England  and  France  upon  the  neutral 
commerce  of  the  United  States,  the  non-importation  act  was  passed  April 
1 8,  1806,  prohibiting  trade  witri  Great  Britain  and  her  colonies,  but  it  did 
not  go  into  effect  until  December  4.  On  December  22,  1807,  Congress,  at 
the  instance  of  Mr.  Jefferson,  passed  an  embargo  act,  prohibiting  the  sailing 
of  any  merchant  vessel  from  any  American  port,  save  coasters.  The  act  was 
extensively  evaded.  The  embargo  failed  to  bring  either  England  or  France 
to  terms,  and  meanwhile  it  inflicted  great  injury  on  the  shipping  interest 
and  the  export  trade  of  the  United  States.  On  February  28,  1809,  an  act 
was  passed  repealing  the  embargo,  and  replacing  it  by  a  non-intercourse  law 
which  forbade  British  or  French  vessels  to  enter  American  ports.  Another 
embargo  act  was  passed  in  1813,  during  the  war. 

Emerson,  Ralph  Waldo  (1803-1882),  an  eminent  American  poet  and 
philosopher,  was  born  in  Boston.  He  was  ordained  a  preacher  of  the  Gospel 
in  1829,  DUt  resigned  his  pastorate  in  1832,  because  he  could  not  sympathize 
with  the  formalities  practiced  in  the  church.  He  then  began  his  career  as 
an  eminent  lecturer,  giving  courses  of  lectures  for  the  most  part  upon  bio- 
graphical and  philosophical  subjects.  He  contributed  largely  to  periodicals 
and  published  numerous  works  in  literature  and  philosophy.  His  influence 
upon  the  more  thoughtful  portion  of  the  American  public  has  never  been 
surpassed.  He  resided  in  Concord,  Mass.,  during  all  the  latter  part  of  his  life. 

Emigrant  Aid  Company,  Massachusetts,  the  first  organization  formed 
for  the  purpose  of  settling  Kansas  with  free-State  emigrants.  It  was  planned 
by  Eli  Thayer,  and  chartered  by  the  Legislature  of  Massachusetts  in  April, 
1854.  But  before  the  actual  work  of  settlement  began,  the  "  New  England 
Emigrant  Aid  Society  "  took  its  place,  with  a  less  ambitious  design. 

Emory,  William  K.,  born  in  1811,  was  one  of  the  Mexico  and  U.  S. 
boundary  commissioners,  and  served  with  distinction  during  the  Civil  War, 
at  Yorktown,  Sabine  Cross-Roads,  Fisher's  Hill  and  Cedar  Creek,  attaining 
the  rank  of  major-general. 

Endicott,  John  (i588?-i665),  arrived  from  England  in  1628  to  assume 
fte  government  of  the  colony  at  Salem,  where  he  cpntinued  Governor  till 


OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  221 

1630,  at  which  time  the  government  of  the  Massachusetts  Company  and  colony 
was  transferred  to  New  England.  From  1641  to  1644  and  in  1650  he  was 
Deputy  Governor,  and  was  made  Governor  in  1644,  1649,  an<^  from  165*  to 
1665  except  1654,  when  he  was  again  Deputy  Governor.  In  1645  ^e  was 
appointed  to  the  highest  command  in  the  colonial  army,  and  in  1658  was 
made  president  of  the  colonial  commissioners.  He  was  a  man  of  firm  con- 
victions and  choleric  disposition,  who  tolerated  no  divergence  from  the 
strictly  orthodox  in  religion,  and  meted  out  a  severe  type  of  justice  to  all 
who  disobeyed  the  laws  of  the  colony. 

Endicott,  William  C.,  born  in  1827,  was  a  Judge  in  the  Massachusetts 
Supreme  Court  from  1873  to  1882,  and  from  1885  to  1889  was  Secretary  of 
War  in  Cleveland's  Cabinet. 

Endicott  Rock.  The  so-called  Endicott  Rock,  with  its  inscription  dated 
1652,  fixed  the  northern  limit  of  New  Hampshire  at  the  head  waters  of  the 
Merrimac  River,  and  as  a  part  of  Massachusetts. 

England,  John  (1786-1842),  born  in  Ireland,  was  made  Bishop  of  North 
and  South  Carolina  and  Georgia  in  1850,  and  was  the  first  Catholic  clergy- 
man invited  to  preach  in  the  Hall  of  Representatives  at  Washington. 

English,  William  H.,  born  in  1822,  was  secretary  of  the  Indiana  Consti- 
tutional Convention  in  1850,  Speaker  of  the  State  Legislature  in  1851,  U.  S. 
Congressman  from  1853  to  1861,  and  the  Democratic  candidate  for  Vice- 
President  in  1880.  Died  1896. 

Entails  were  unknown  in  New  England.  South  Carolina  abolished  them 
in  1733,  Virginia  in  1776,  Georgia  in  1777,  Maryland  in  1782,  North  Carolina 
in  1784. 

"  Enterprise,"  an  American  brig  of  fourteen  guns,  Captain  Burrows. 
September  5,  1813,  the  brig,  while  sailing  off  the  Maine  coast,  met  the 
British  brig  "  Boxer,"  also  of  fourteen  guns.  Both  vessels  opened  fire  at  the 
same  time.  The  wind  was  light  and  the  cannonading  very  destructive. 
The  "  Enterprise,"  crossing  the  bows  of  the  "  Boxer,"  gave  such  a  raking 
fire  that  the  latter  surrendered.  The  battle  lasted  forty  minutes.  Both 
commanders  were  killed.  Two  days  later  the  prize  was  taken  into  Portland 
harbor. 

Entomological  Commission,  a  commission  created  by  Act  of  Congress, 
March  3,  1877,  and  placed  under  the  supervision  of  the  Interior  Department. 

"  Epervier,"  brig.     (See  "  Peacock.") 
Episcopal  Church.     (See  Protestant  Episcopal.) 

Epworth  League,  an  organization  of  young  people  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  formed  in  1889.  There  are  now  (1893)  10,972  local  leagues 
and  over  650,000  members. 

Equal  Rights  Party,  1884,  the  title  assumed  by  a  party  headed  by  Belva 
Lock  wood  in  1884.  Belva  Lockwood  was  its  self-nominated  Presidential 
candidate,  her  platform  advocating  woman  suffrage.  (For  the  earlier  Equal 
Rights  party,  see  Loco-focos.) 


222  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Era  of  Good  Feeling,  a  name  applied  to  the  period  between  1817  and 
1823,  during  Monroe's  administration,  when  national  political  contents  were 
suspended,  the  Democrats  having  a  triumphant  majority  and  the  Federalist 
party  being  almost  extinct.  The  War  of  1812  was  ended  and  the  new  issues 
of  tariff  and  internal  improvement  had  not  arisen.  Monroe's  inaugural 
address  soothed  the  few  Federalists  and  the  leaders  of  both  parties  joined  in 
receiving  the  President  and  announcing  the  "era  of  good  feeling." 

Eric  the  Red,  a  Norwegian  who  is  reported  to  have  been  banished  from 
Iceland  and  to  have  gone  on  a  voyage  of  discovery  about  981,  in  which  lie 
landed  at  a  place  previously  discovered  by  Gunniborn.  On  his  return  three 
years  later  he  called  it  Greenland.  Thither  about  985  he  led  an  expedition 
and  planted  a  colony.  About  986  a  vessel  on  its  way  to  the  settlement  wan- 
dered from  its  course  and  landed  on  a  coast  nine  days'  sail  south  of  Greenland, 
and  in  1000  A.  D.,  a  son  of  Eric  the  Red  made  a  voyage  of  discovery  to  this 
region  and  named  it  Vinland,  which  is  supposed  to  have  been  somewhere 
on  the  New  England  coast  Authorities  differ  as  to  the  authenticity  x>f  this 
account,  but  the  general  opinion  prevails  that  some  such  discoveries  were 
made,  though  the  details  are  not  reliable. 

Ericsson,  John  (1803-1889),  born  in  Sweden,  early  in  life  gave  promise 
o'f  great  achievements  in  invention.  He  came  to  the  United  States  in  1839, 
and  in  1841  produced  the  war  steamer  "  Princeton,"  which  revolutionized  the 
navies  of  the  world.  During  the  Civil  War  he  was  employed  in  building 
monitors;  the  first  of  which,  the  "  Monitor,"  destroyed  the  Confederate  iron- 
clad "  Merrimac,"  in  1862.  He  is  the  author  of  a  great  number  of  valuable 
inventions,  the  most  important  of  which  are  connected  with  engines  and 
naval  equipments. 

Erie  Canal,  the  most  important  artificial  water-course  in  the  United  States. 
Its  construction  was  conceived  by  De  Witt  Clinton  in  1812,  and  begun  as  a 
State  work  in  1817,  being  completed  in  1825.  It  extends  363  miles  through 
New  York  State,  through  what  was,  at  the  time  of  its  commencement,  a 
wilderness,  from  the  Hudson  River  at  Albany  and  Troy  to  Lake  Erie  at 
Buffalo.  Clinton  had  at  first  intended  it  should  be  a  national  enterprise,  and 
from  the  interest  he  displayed,  he  was  deputed  with  others  to  lay  the  plan 
before  the  General  Government,  but  without  success.  It  was  executed  instead 
as  a  State  work,  chiefly  during  his  Governorship  of  New  York.  It  contrib- 
uted enormously  to  the  development  of  the  West  and  of  the  trade  prosperity 
of  New  York  City  and  State.  Property  along  the  canal  has  increased  enor- 
mously and  the  tolls  have  been  a  valuable  addition  to  the  State  revenue. 

Erie,  Fort,  Can.,  during  the  War  of  1812,  was  abandoned  and  fired  with 
all  its  stores,  May  28,  1813,  by  orders  of  General  Vincent.  The  same  day 
the  Americans  crossed  the  Niagara  and  took  possession  of  the  ruins.  After 
the  Americans  had  withdrawn  from  the  Canadian  shore,  the  British  rebuilt 
the  fort  and  stationed  there  170  men  under  command  of  Major  Buck.  July 
3,  1813,  General  Jacob  Brown,  preparatory  to  an  invasion  of  Canada, 
invested  the  fort,  and  on  demand  it  surrendered.  The  fort  was  now 
strengthened,  and  made  capable  of  enduring  a  siege.  After  the  battle  of 
Niagara,  the  British  advanced  against  the  American  position.  From 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  223 

August  7  to  14  the  bombardment  was  almost  incessant.  At  two  o'clock  on 
the  morning  of  the  fifteenth,  the  British,  1500  strong,  tried  to  surprise  the 
Americans.  Attacks  were  made  upon  three  points,  but  one  only  was  suc- 
cessful. The  main  bastion  of  the  fort  was  captured  and  held  against  all 
attack.  Suddenly  its  magazine  blew  up  with  tremendous  force,  the  attack 
was  renewed  and  the  British  retreated,  leaving  221  dead,  174  wounded  and 
186  prisoners.  The  Americans  lost,  all  told,  137  men.  The  siege  still  con- 
tinued, the  attacking  works  were  continually  pushed  nearer;  but  on  Sep- 
tember 17  General  Brown,  in  charge  at  the  fort,  planned  a  sortie  to  destroy 
the  British  works.  An  attack  in  three  divisions  was  arranged  and  executed 
under  cover  of  a  fog.  It  was  completely  successful.  The  works  were 
captured  and  destroyed,  the  British  broke  camp  and  gave  up  the  siege, 
leaving  behind  over  800  men  killed,  captured  or  wounded.  When  the 
Americans  finally  abandoned  Canada,  Fort  Erie  was  blown  up  November  5, 
1814,  and  never  rebuilt 

Erie  Purchase,  a  purchase  of  land,  in  1788,  made  by  the  State  of  Penn- 
sylvania. The  tract  is  now  included  in  Erie  County,  and  is  still  known  as 
the  "  Erie  Purchase." 

Erskine,  David  Montagu,  Baron  (1776-1855),  was  British  Minister  to  the 
United  States  from  1806  to  1809  (being  then  simply  Mr.  Erskine).  In  1809 
he  officially  announced  that  atonement  would  be  made  for  the  "  Chesapeake  " 
outrage,  and  that  the  British  orders  in  council  would  be  withdrawn,  pro- 
vided the  American  embargo  and  non-intercourse  acts  ceased  as  to  Great 
Britain.  In  consequence  of  this,  President  Madison  proclaimed  that,  on 
June  10,  1809,  all  interdicts  against  Great  Britain  would  cease.  The  British 
Ministry  repudiated  the  Erskine  arrangements  and  declared  them  unauthor- 
ized. President  Madison  was,  therefore,  compelled  to  restore  the  suspension 
of  intercourse  on  August  9. 

"  Essaie  du  Michigan,"  the  earliest  newspaper  issued  in  Michigan.  It 
was  published  by  Father  Gabriel  Richard  in  English  and  French,  the  first 
edition  appearing  at  Detroit  August  31.  1809.  Only  eight  or  nine  numbers 
appeared. 

"  Essex,"  U.  S.  frigate  of  thirty-two  guns,  Captain  Porter,  was  attacked 
on  August  13,  1812,  by  the  "  Alert,"  a  twenty-gun  sloop-of-war.  One  broad- 
side from  the  "  Essex  "  nearly  sunk  the  "  Alert,"  and  caused  its  surrender. 
Late  in  the  year  the  "  Essex "  started  on  an  independent  cruise  in  the 
Pacific.  Here  it  did  noble  service.  It  captured  nearly  every  British  whal- 
ing vessel  off  the  west  coast  of  South  America,  and  deprived  the  enemy  of 
$2,500,000  worth  of  property  and  360  seamen.  In  February,  1814,  it  was 
surprised  while  in  the  port  of  Valparaiso  by  the  appearance  of  two  British 
men-of-war,  the  "  Phcebe,"  thirty-six  guns,  and  the  "  Cherub,"  twenty-two 
guns.  On  March  28,  1814,  the  "  Essex  "  set  sail  for  the  open  sea,  and  was 
at  once  attacked  by  the  enemy.  It  was  a  desperate  and  bloody  battle. 
After  two-thirds  of  its  men  had  been  killed  or  disabled,  including  every 
officer  but  one,  and  with  his  vessel  a  helpless  wreck,  Captain  Porter  sur- 
rendered. 


224  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Essex  Junto,  the  name  applied  first  by  John  Hancock  in  1781  to  a  group 
of  leaders  of  Essex  County,  Massachusetts,  and  their  adherents.  They  were 
upholders  of  the  commercial  interests  of  the  country,  and  desired  a  stronger 
Federal  Government.  Upon  the  development  of  the  Federal  party  they  at 
once  fell  in  line  and  were  extreme  members  of  that  party.  President  Adams 
accused  them  of  trying  to  force  a  war  with  France  in  1798-99,  and  thus 
they  acquired  a  national  reputation.  During  the  embargo  period  the  name 
became  a  synonym  for  New  England  Federalism.  Among  its  number  were 
Fisher  Ames,  Cabot,  the  Lowells,  Pickering,  Theophilus  Parsons,  Higgin- 
son  and  Goodhue. 

Estaing,  Charles  H.  T.,  Count  d"  (1729-1794),  a  French  naval  officer, 
commanded  the  fleet  sent  in  1778  to  aid  the  colonies  against  Great  Britain, 
and  brought  Gerard,  the  first  French  Envoy  to  the  United  States.  He 
planned  an  attack  upon  the  British  fleet  in  Newport  harbor,  but  the  cam- 
paign was  not  successful,  and  in  1779  with  General  Lincoln  he  attempted  to 
take  the  city  of  Savannah  by  assault.  He  captured  a  number  of  British  ves- 
sels and  on  his  return  to  France  he  prevailed  upon  the  Ministry  to  send  6000 
men  to  America  under  Count  de  Rochambeau. 

Eustis,  James  B.  (1834-1899),  belonged  to  the  Louisiana  branch  of  the 
famous  Eustis  family.  Was  U.  S.  Senator  from  1879  to  1891,  and  minister 
to  France  from  1893  to  1897. 

Eustis,  William  (1753-1825),  represented  Massachusetts  in  Congress  from 
1801  to  1805,  and  from  1820  to  1823.  From  1809  to  1813  he  was  Secretary 
of  War  in  Madison's  Cabinet.  From  1814  to  1818  he  was  Minister  to  Hol- 
land, and  from  1823  to  T^25  was  Governor  of  Massachusetts. 

Eutaw  Springs,  Battle  of,  September  8,  1781.  Shortly  after  the  capture 
of  Ninety-Six,  Greene  moved  upon  the  British  so  secretly  they  were  not 
aware  of  his  presence.  At  Eutaw  Springs  he  came  upon  them.  At  4  a.  m. 
on  September  8,  Greene  attacked  the  British  in  his  usual  order.  The 
militia  in  the  first  line  under  Marion  and  Pickens  did  gallant  service  and 
were  supported  by  the  regulars  in  the  second  line.  A  bayonet  charge  fol- 
lowed, the  British  were  routed  and  many  fell  or  were  made  prisoners.  A  little 
later  the  retreating  British  took  shelter  in  a  brick  house.  Greene's  artillery 
was  -brought  to  bear  upon  it  in  vain.  The  gunners  were  shot  and  the  pieces 
captured.  A  cavalry  charge  by  Colonel  Washington  was  repulsed  and  that 
officer  was  taken  prisoner.  Thus  there  were  two  engagements.  In  the  first 
Greene  won  a  brilliant  victory,  in  the  second  he  lost  many  of  his  best  men. 
The  total  American  loss  was  554,  that  of  the  British  1000.  Again  a  tactical 
defeat  proved  to  the  Americans  a  strategic  victory.  In  the  course  of  the 
night  the  British  retreated  to  Charleston  in  such  haste  as  to  leave  their 
wounded. 

Evans,  George  (1797-1867),  was  born  in  Portland,  Me.  He  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  State  Legislature  from  1825  t°  I828.  He  represented  Maine  in 
the  House  of  Representatives  from  1829  to  1841,  and  was  elected  to  the 
Senate,  serving  from  1841  to  1847.  He  was  chairman  of  the  Committee  on 
Finance,  and  was  an  authority  on  questions  of  the  tariff  and  finance. 

Evans,  Sir  George  de  Lacy  (1787-1870),  led  the  British  soldiers  who 
destroyed  the  public  buildings  in  Washington  in  1814,  and  served  at  Bladens- 
burg,  Baltimore  and  New  Orleans, 


GENERALS  OF  THE  REVOLUTION. 

Francis   Marion.  Lafayette.  Henry   Knox. 

Nathaniel   Greene.  Horatio  Gates.  Charles   Lee. 

Henry   Lee.  George  Washington.  Rochambeau. 

Philip  Schuyler.  Anthony  Wayne. 

John  Paul  Jones.  Israel  Putnam,  Baron  Steuben.  John  Sulliva 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  225 

Evarts,  William  Maxwell,  lawyer  and  Senator,  was  born  in  Boston  in 
1818.  In  1860  he  was  chairman  of  the  New  York  delegation  to  the  Repub- 
lican convention.  In  1865  and  1866  he  established  the  unconstitutionality 
of  State  taxation  of  U.  S.  bonds  or  National  Bank  stock,  and  in  1868  was 
counsel  for  President  Johnson  in  the  impeachment  trial.  From  1868  to 
1869  he  was  Attorney-General  of  the  United  States,  and  in  1872  was  U.  S. 
counsel  on  the  "  Alabama  "  claims  at  Geneva.  In  1877  he  was  the  Republican 
counsel  before  the  Electoral  Commission,  and  was  Secretary  of  State  from 
1877  to  1 88 1,  in  the  Cabinet  of  President  Hayes.  He  was  a  delegate  to  the 
International  Monetary  Conference  in  1881,  and  from  1885  to  1891  was  a 
U.  S.  Senator  from  New  York. 

Everett,  Alexander  H.  (1792-1847),  of  Boston,  charge*  d'affaires  to  the 
Netherlands  from  i$i8  to  1824,  was  Minister  to  Spain  from  1825  to 
and  was  a  prolific  writer  upon  political,  economic  and  literary  subjects. 

Everett,  Edward  (1794-1865),  an  eminent  American  statesman,  orator 
and  scholar,  was  born  in  Massachusetts.  He  was  graduated  from  Harvard 
at  the  age  of  seventeen,  and  in  1813  was  ordained  pastor  of  a  church  in 
Boston,  but  resigned  in  1814.  In  1819  he  accepted  a  position  as  professor 
of  Greek  at  Harvard  College  and  held  it  until  1829,  when  he  became  editor 
of  the  North  American  Review.  From  1836  to  1840  he  was  Governor  of 
Massachusetts,  chosen  by  the  Whigs.  He  was  appointed  Minister  Pleni- 
potentiary to  Great  Britain,  and  served  from  1841  to  1845,  when  he  became 
president  of  Harvard,  resigning  in  1849.  He  was  Secretary  of  State  for 
four  months  in  1852  at  the  close  of  President  Fillmore's  administration, 
and  from  1853  to  1854  was  a  member  of  the  U.  S.  Senate.  In  1860  the 
"  Constitutional  Union  party  "  made  him  its  candidate  for  the  Vice-Presi- 
dency. 

Everett,  William,  son  of  Edward  Everett,  was  born  in  1839.  He  was 
assistant  professor  of  Latin  at  Harvard  from  1863  to  1881,  and  became  prin- 
cipal of  the  Adams  School  in  1882.  In  1893  he  was  elected  to  Congress 
from  Massachusetts  as  an  Independent  Democrat. 

Evertsen,  Cornells,  a  Dutch  naval  officer,  born  in  Zealand.  In  command 
of  a  squadron  he  secured  the  surrender  of  New  York  by  the  British  in  1673, 
changed  its  name  to  New  Orange,  and  re-established  the  old  form  of  govern- 
ment, with  Colve  as  Governor. 

Ewell,  Richard  S.  (1817-1872),  general,  was  graduated  at  the  U.  S. 
Military  Academy  in  1840,  and  served  in  the  Mexican  War  from  1846  to 
1848.  He  entered  the  Confederate  army  as  a  brigadier-general,  fought  at 
Blackburn's  Ford  and  at  Bull  Run,  and  was  promoted  major-general  in  the 
Shenandoah  campaign.  He  served  with  distinction  at  Malvern  Hill  and  at 
Cedar  Mountain.  In  1863  he  commanded  Jackson's  troops,  and  fought  at 
Gettysburg,  the  Wilderness  and  Spottsylvania  Court  House.  He  surrendered 
to  Sheridan  in  1865  at  Sailor's  Creek  with  his  entire  force  of  6000  men. 

Ewing,  Thomas  (1789-1871),  statesman,  born  in  Ohio,  was  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  1816.  From  1831  to  1837  he  represented  Ohio  in  the  U.  S. 
Senate,  where  he  supported  Clay's  tariff  system,  advocated  the  recharter  of 

15 


226  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

the  U.  S.  Bank,  and  also  the  "  Force  Bill,"  and  opposed  the  removal  of  the 
deposits  from  the  U.  S.  Bank.  In  1841  he  was  appointed  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury  in  Harrison's  Cabinet,  and  was  the  first  Secretary  of  the  Interior, 
serving  in  Taylor's  Cabinet  from  1849  to  I^5o.  From  1850  to  1851  he  was 
in  the  U.  S.  Senate,  succeeding  Thomas  Corwin. 

Excise  Law.  The  first  excise  law  was  passed  after  an  excited  debate  in 
1790,  Secretary  Hamilton  insisting  upon  the  necessity  of  such  an  enactment. 
It  levied  a  tax  varying  from  nine  to  twenty-five  cents  upon  every  gallon  of 
liquors  distilled  in  the  United  States  and  a  higher  rate  for  imported  liquors. 
Lower  rates  were  established  in  1792.  ,The  opposition  was  strong  through- 
out the  country,  culminating  in  the  Whisky  Insurrection  in  Pennsylvania  in 
1794.  During  Jefferson's  administration  the  excise  was  abolished,  but  was 
revived  in  1813  during  the  War  of  1812,  imposing  a  tax  on  liquor,  sugar, 
salt,  carriages,  and  instruments  of  exchange,  and  a  stamp  duty.  In  1817  these 
duties  were  repealed  and  no  excise  duty  was  levied  until  1862,  during  the 
Civil  War.  This  system  embraced  taxation  upon  occupations  and  trades, 
sales,  gross  receipts  and  dividends,  incomes  of  individuals,  firms  and  corpo- 
rations, manufactures,  legacies,  liquors,  tobacco,  distributive  shares  and  suc- 
cessions. (See  Internal  Revenue.) 

Executive.  The  executives  of  the  colonies  were  their  Governors,  appointed 
by  the  crown  in  most  colonies,  elected  by  the  people  in  Rhode  Island  and 
Connecticut  and  in  early  Massachusetts.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolution, 
after  the  royal  Governors  had  ceased  to  control  and  before  the  new  Consti- 
tutions were  set  up,  the  executive  was  the  committee  or  council  of  safety. 
The  States,  in  making  their  Constitutions,  mostly  instituted  Governors, 
though  some  created  an  executive  council,  forming  an  executive  like  that  of 
Switzerland.  From  1775  to  1789  the  U.  S.  Government  had  no  other  execu- 
tive than  Congress.  The  Constitution  of  1787  gave  executive  powers  to  the 
President,  the  Senate  sharing  in  the  executive  powers  of  appointment  and 
treaty  making.  There  was  talk  in  the  convention  of  a  plural  executive,  but 
a  single  head  was  finally  resolved  on.  Executive  departments  had  already 
come  into  existence.  The  Continental  Congress  at  first  managed  all  execu- 
tive business  through  committees.  Later,  commissions  were  formed,  partly 
of  its  own  members,  partly  of  others.  Early  in  1781  Congress  organized 
departments  under  single  heads — the  Secretary  for  Foreign  Affairs,  the  Super- 
intendent of  Finance,  the  Secretary  of  War  and  the  Secretary  of  Marine. 
The  history  of  these  offices  and  of  the  departments  which  followed  them  in 
1789,  may  be  seen  under  their  names  individually. 

Exeter,  N.  H.,  was  founded  about  1638.  During  the  latter  part  of  the 
seventeenth  and  early  part  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  town  suffered 
severely  from  attacks  by  Indians,  especially  in  1690  and  1709.  Phillips 
Exeter  Academy  was  established  here  in  1781. 

Exhibitions.  The  first  exhibition  of  national  importance  held  in  the 
United  States  was  one  held  in  New  York  in  1853,  the  next  the  Centennial 
of  1876,  held  at  Philadelphia,  both  as  an  international  exposition  of  this 
country's  progress  in  its  hundredth  year  of  existence  'and  an  anniversary. 
The  Centennial  was  under  the  management  of  the  city  of  Philadelphia,  and 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  227 

was  open  from  May  10  to  November  10.  Many  foreign  nations  were  rep- 
resented. The  exhibition  cost  over  $15,000,000.  The  International  Cotton 
Exposition  was  held  at  Atlanta,  Ga.,  from  October  5  to  December  31,  1881. 
It  was  suggested  by  Mr.  Edward  Atkinson,  of  Boston,  and  was  designed  to 
show  the  progress  in  the  manipulation  of  cotton.  The  Southern  Exposition 
opened  at  Louisville,  Ky.,  August  i,  1883,  and  continued  100  days.  The 
World's  Columbian  Exposition  was  created  by  Act  of  Congress  April  25, 
1890.  The  dedication  ceremonies  took  place  October  21,  1892,  and  the 
opening  May  i,  1893.  The  exposition  terminated  October  30.  The  total 
cost  was  about  $25,000,000.  The  exposition  was  held  at  Jackson  Park,  Chi- 
cago, nearly  every  nation  being  represented.  The  Midwinter  Exhibition  in 
California,  1893-94,  is  also  to  be  noted. 

Expatriation.  There  is  no  law  in  the  United  States  permitting  the  vol- 
untary expatriation  of  a  citizen.  Expatriation  has  been  pleaded  before  the 
Supreme  Court  frequently,  but  has  been  allowed  in  no  case.  It  has  been 
claimed  that  freedom  of  emigration  involved  the  right  of  voluntary  expa- 
triation and  many  learned  authorities  have  argued  that  such  is  the  fact,  and 
that  expatriation  is  a  natural  right.  So  far  as  custom  and  usage  sanctions 
the  right  has  been  accorded,  the  United  States  Government  having  in  a 
number  of  instances  refused  protection  to  both  native-born  and  naturalized 
citizens  on  the  grounds  that  they  have  expatriated  themselves. 

Expenditures.  In  1794  the  total  expenditures  of  the  Federal  Government 
amounted  to  $6,300,000,  in  1814  they  temporarily  ran  up  to  $34,700,000. 
In  1834  they  were  $18,600,000;  in  1854,  $55,000,000.  During  the  war  they 
ran  up  to  $1,295,000,000  in  1865.  Then  they  declined  to  $237,000,000  in 
1878.  During  the  ensuing  decade  they  averaged  $260,000,000  per  annum. 
In  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1893,  they  were  $459,400,000.  Of  the 
annual  expenditures,  interest  charges  have  sometimes  been  a  large  amount. 
(See  Debt.)  In  times  of  peace,  expenditures  for  the  army  have  usually  been 
about  two-thirds  those  for  the  civil  departments  of  Government  work,  those 
for  the  navy  about  two-thirds  those  of  the  army.  Since  1888  pensions  have 
been  the  largest  item. 

Exports.  The  specie  value  of  American  exports  in  1790  was  $20,200,000. 
Except  in  years  of  war  and  embargo  exports  steadily  rose  until  in  1836  they 
amounted  to*  $129,000,000.  In  1860  they  amounted  to  $400,000,000;  in 
1870  to  $451,000,000;  in  1880  to  $871,000,000;  in  1892  to  $1,113,000,000. 

Express.  This  system  of  transportation  was  begun  March  4,  1839,  by 
William  F.  Harnden,  who  established  express  communication  between  New 
York  and  Boston.  Alvan  Adams  and  P.  B.  Burke  started  the  Adams  Express 
Company  in  1840.  The  Wells  Fargo  Company  was  started  in  1845,  the 
United  States  Express  Company  in  1853. 

Expunging  Resolution.  In  1834  a  resolution  of  censure  had  been  adopted 
by  Congress  against  President  Jackson  for  removing  certain  money  deposits 
from  the  Bank  of  the  United  States.  This  resolution  was  expunged  by  the 
"Expunging  Resolution "  of  January  16,  1837,  Senator  Benton  being  the 
prime  mover  toward  its  adoption.  Clay,  Webster  and  Calhoun  opposed  it 


228  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

with  vehemence.     A  black  line  was  drawn  in  the  Journal  around  the  resolu- 
tion of  censure,  and  the  words  "  Expunged  by  order  of  the  Senate  this  six- 
teenth day  of  January,  1837,"  inserted. 
Extra  Sessions.     (See  Sessions.) 

Extradition,  International.  The  first  treaty  of  the  United  States  which 
made  any  provision  for  extradition  was  the  Jay  Treaty  of  1794,  and  Con- 
gress made  no  law  to  carry  this  into  effect.  After  this,  the  first  extradition 
treaty  concluded  by  the  United  States  was  the  Treaty  of  1842  with  Great 
Britain.  In  1875,  in  the  case  of  a  criminal  who  had  committed  an  offense 
not  mentioned  in  the  treaty,  the  United  States  procured  his  extradition  on 
another  charge,  then  tried  him  on  the  first.  Great  Britain  protested  against 
this.  In  many  ways  the  Treaty  of  1842  had  become  inapplicable  to  modern 
conditions.  In  1886,  the  Phelps-Rosebery  Convention,  which  aimed  to  sub- 
.stitute  a  more  satisfactory  system,  was  rejected  by  the  Senate.  But  in  1889 
the  Senate  ratified  the  Blaine-Pauncefote  Convention,  which  accomplished 
the  desired  results.  Extradition  treaties  have  been  concluded  with  all  the 
leading  countries  of  the  world,  and  most  of  the  minor  countries.  France, 
1843;  Hawaii,  1849;  Switzerland,  1850;  Prussia,  1852,  etc. 

Extradition,  Interstate.  The  New  England  Confederation  of  1643  Pro- 
vided  for  the  mutual  extradition  of  criminals,  and  so  did  the  Articles  of 
Confederation.  The  Constitution  provides  that  a  person  charged  with  crime 
in  any  State,  who  flees  to  another  State,  shall,  on  demand  of  the  Governor 
of  the  State  from  which  he  fled,  be  given  up.  An  act  of  1793  provided  the 
process. 

Ezra  Chapel,  Ga.  Here,  July  28,  1864,  Hood,  leading  about  30,000  Con- 
federates from  his  intrenchments  in  Atlanta,  which  was  then  invested  by 
Sherman's  Army  of  the  Tennessee,  advanced  against  the  Federal  troops,  con- 
sisting of  three  corps  under  Sherman  and  Logan.  The  Federals  were 
engaged  in  throwing  up  earthworks,  but  stopped  hastily  and  received  Hood's 
charge  staunchly.  Hood  was  defeated  with  great  loss  and  forced  back  to 
his  fortifications  within  the  town. 


Fair  Oaks,  or  Seven  Pines,  Va.,  a  two  days'  engagement  in  the  Penin- 
sular campaign,  May  31,  June  i,  1862,  between  the  Confederates,  numbering 
about  35,000  men  under  Johnston,  and  a  detachment  of  some  11,000  troops 
of  McClellan's  army  under  Casey.  That  leader  had  been  sent  across  the 
Chickahominy  River,  and  was  accordingly  isolated  from  the  main  army. 
Johnston  decided  to  attack  him.  He  therefore  sent  Hill  and  Longstreet 
against  Casey's  left  flank  and  Gustavus  Smith  against  his  right.  Casey  was 
overwhelmed,  and  retreated  to  Couch's  position  at  Seven  Pines,  where  the 
latter  was  fiercely  defending  himself  and  waiting'  for  reinforcements  from 
Heintzelman.  The  Confederates  were  forcing  their  way  down  along  the 
Chickahominy  to  Bottom's  Bridge,  when  they  were  intercepted  by  Sumner's 
batteries  and  routed  with  great  slaughter. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  .229 

Fairchild,  Charles  S.,  born  in  1842,  was  Attorney-General  of  New  York 
from  1876  to  1878.  He  was  Assistant  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  in  Cleve- 
land's Cabinet  from  1887  to  1889. 

Fairchild,  Lucius,  born  in  1831,  was  Governor  of  Wisconsin  from  1865 
to  1871.  He  was  U.  S.  Consul  at  Liverpool  from  1872  to  1878,  Consul- 
General  in  Paris  from  1878  to  1880,  and  U.  S.  Minister  to  Spain  from  1880 
to  1882.  Died  1896. 

Fairfax,  Thomas,  sixth  Baron  (1691-1782),  came  from  England  to  an 
inherited  estate  of  over  five  million  acres  in  Virginia,  where  he  lived  from 
1745  to  1782.  He  was  a  patron  and  intimate  friend  of  Washington. 

Falling  Waters,  W.  Va.,  a  smart  skirmish  between  Federal  and  Con- 
federate troops  under  Generals  Patterson  and  Johnston  respectively.  This 
occurred  early  in  July,  1861,  during  Patterson's  campaign  in  West  Virginia. 

Falmouth,  Mass.     (See  Portland,  Me.) 

"  Falmouth  Gazette  and  Weekly  Advertiser."  This  newspaper,  the  first 
printed  in  Maine,  was  established  at  Portland,  Me.,  by  Titcomb  and  White,  in 
1785.  In  1786  it  was  changed  to  the  Cumberland  Gazette,  and  in  1792  to  the 
Eastern  Herald.  In  1796  it  was  consolidated  with  the  Gazette  of  Maine, 
and  was  published  as  the  Eastern  Herald  and  Gazette  of  Maine.  Again  in 
1804  it  was  united  with  the  Portland  Gazette.  In  1831  it  was  established  as 
a  daily  under  the  title  of  the  Advertiser,  but  was  suspended  for  two  years, 
beginning  .with  1866.  In  1868  its  publication  was  once  more  resumed,  and 
continues  at  the  present  time,  in  connection  with  the  weekly  edition,  under 
the  name  of  the  Advertiser. 

Faneuil,  Peter  (1700-1743),  a  rich  merchant  of  Boston,  was  born  in  New 
York,  of  French  blood.  He  is  honored  as  the  giver  of  Faneuil  Hall  to  the 
city  of  Boston  in  1742. 

Faneuil  Hall,  the  gift  to  Boston  of  Peter  Faneuil,  a  merchant.  The 
hall  was  begun  in  1740.  It  was  designed  to  be  both  a  market-house  and  a 
place  of  public  meeting.  In  1761  it  was  destroyed  by  fire.  It  was  restored 
in  1763,  and  was  used  as  a  theatre  during  the  British  occupation  of  Boston, 
in  1775.  In  1805  it  was  enlarged  by  the  addition  of  a  third  story  and  an 
increase  in  width.  During  the  Revolution  it  was  the  usual  meeting  place  of 
patriots,  and  was  the  scene  of  many  stirring  debates  and  important  resolu- 
tions. It  has  been  called  the  "  Cradle  of  American  Liberty." 

Fannin,  James  W.  (1800-1836),  of  Texas,  commanded  a  force  in  1836  at 
Coleta  River  against  General  Urrea.  After  his  surrender  357  of  their  num- 
ber, including  Fannin,  were  shot  by  the  Mexicans. 

Fanning,  Edmund  (1737-1818),  at  first  a  clerk  of  the  North  Carolina 
Supreme  Court  and  a  legislator.  In  1777  he  commanded  a  corps  of  loyal- 
ists, and  fled  to  Nova  Scotia  at  the  close  of  the  war,  having  been  notorious 
for  his  barbarity  as  a  leader  in  partisan  warfare. 

Farewell  Address.  Upon  Washington's  retirement  in  1796  he  adopted 
the  suggestion  made  him  by  Madison,  and  delivered  a  farewell  address  to  the 
American  people,  partly  from  Madison's  draft  of  1792  and  partly  from  a 


230  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

draft  made  by  Hamilton  and  himself.  Its  most  important  paragraph  was  a 
recommendation  of  abstention  from  interference  in  European  affairs. 
Andrew  Jackson  also  delivered  a  farewell  address  in  1837. 

Faribault,  John  B.  (i769?-i86o),  a  pioneer  of  great  influence  over  the 
Indians  among  whom  he  traded;  was  the  first  to  cultivate  land  west  of  the 
Mississippi  and  north  of  the  Des  Moines. 

Farmers'  Alliance,  an  anti-secret,  national  organization  of  agriculturists 
for  mutual  improvement  and  furtherance  of  political  ends.  It  was  founded 
in  New  York  in  1873  and  spread  rapidly  westward.  Alliances  were  at  first 
State  organizations.  The  national  organization  was  completed  in  1889  with 
the  "  Agricultural  Wheel "  under  the  name  of  "  National  Farmers'  Alliance 
and  Industrial  Union."  Annual  conventions  have  been  held  at  different 
places,  the  most  noted  at  Ocala  in  1890.  The  Alliance  is  opposed  to  national 
banks,  the  alien  ownership  of  land,  special  privileges  and  Federal  election 
laws. 

Farmington,  Miss.,  occupied  by  General  Pope's  brigade  of  Halleck's 
Federal  army,  May  20,  1862.  Halleck  was  engaged  in  concentrating  his 
forces  about  Corinth,  and  Pope  was  ordered  to  push  on  and  occupy  Farming- 
ton.  Buell  was  to  join  Pope  at  this  place,  out  was  delayed,  and  Pope's 
advance  was  therefore  slow.  Two  brief,  but  severe  engagements  took  place 
May  3  and  9,  before  Pope  finally  joined  Buell.  The  Confederates  were 
defeated. 

Farmington,  Tenn.,  a  battle  of  the  Civil  War  during  Wheeler's  raid 
through  Tennessee.  At  Farmington  Wheeler  fell  in  with  Crook,  leading 
a  strong  National  force,  who  effectually  stopped  his  ravaging  in  that  neigh- 
borhood, by  defeating  him. 

Farragut,  David  Glasgow  (1801-1870),  the  most  famous  naval  hero  of 
modern  times,  entered  the  U.  S.  navy  at  the  age  of  nine.  In  the  War  of 
1812,  while  a  mere  boy,  he  was  intrusted  with  important  missions;  but  in 
the  long  period  of  peace  he  found  little  opportunity  for  distinction.  A 
Southerner  by  birth,  he  threw  in  his  lot  with  the  Union,  and  toward  the 
end  of  the  first  year's  fighting  in  the  war  he  was  assigned  to  important  com- 
mand. He  had  charge  of  the  flotilla  in  the  approach  to  New  Orleans  in 
April,  1862;  his  fame  was  founded  on  the  passage  of  the  river  past  the  forts 
on  April  24,  which  caused  the  fall  of  the  city  and  its  delivery  into  the 
hands  of  the  Federals  under  Butler.  On  June  28  he  ran  the  batteries  of 
Vicksburg,  and  the  following  year,  having  meanwhile  received  the  rank  of 
rear-admiral,  he  contributed  to  the  fall  of  Port  Hudson  and  the  final  open- 
ing of  the  river.  The  greatest  event  in  Farragut's  life,  and  one  of  the 
greatest  naval  battles  in  modern  times,  was  the  battle  of  Mobile  Bay  on 
August  5,  1864.  Farragut's  oversight  of  the  contest  while  lashed  to  the 
mast  of  his  flag-ship,  the  "  Hartford,"  has  become  one  of  the  most  familiar 
episodes  of  the  war.  The  office  of  vice-admiral  was  specially  created  for 
him  in  December,  1864,  and  that  of  admiral  in  1866. 

Fast  Days.  The  following  days  have,  by  Presidential  proclamation, 
chiefly  in  time  of  war,  been  appointed  as  days  of  national  fasting,  humiliation 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  231 

and  prayer:  May  9,  1798,  January  12,  1815,  September  26,  1861,  April 
30,  1863,  August  4,  1864,  June  i,  1865,  September  26,  1881,  the  last  on 
account  of  the  death  of  Garfield. 

Faulkner,  Charles  J.  (1806-1884),  author  of  the  Fugitive  Slave  Law  of 
1850,  was  a  U.  S.  Congressman  from  Virginia  from  1851  to  1859,  Minister 
to  France  from  1859  to  1861,  when  he  was  recalled  as  disloyal.  He  was  a 
U.  S.  Representative  from  1875  to  1877. 

Fauquier,  Francis  (1720?-! 768),  was  an  able  and  popular  Governor  of 
Virginia  from  1756  to  1768,  was  opposed  to  all  disloyalty,  and  was  the 
author  of  several  minor  works  on  finance. 

Federal  Hall,  in  New  York,  the  building  upon  the  balcony  of  which 
George  Washington  received  the  oath  and  made  his  first  inaugural  address, 
April  30,  1789.  The  Hall  had  been  fitted  up  for  the  use  of  the  first 
Congress . 

"  Federalist,"  a  collection  of  papers  first  published  in  the  Independent 
Journal,  of  New  York  City,  by  Hamilton,  Madison  and  Jay,  from  October, 
1787,  until  March,  1788.  They  were  eighty-five  in  number  and  appeared 
under  a  joint  signature,  "  A  Citizen  of  New  York  "  at  first,  afterward  "  Publius." 
The  first  of  these  essays  appeared  immediately  after  the  adoption  of  the 
Constitution.  They  were  in  explanation  and  defense  of  the  new  system  of 
government.  Gouverneur  Morris  was  also  invited  to  take  part,  but  was  pre- 
vented by  private  business.  Jay  wrote  five,  Hamilton  fifty-one,  Madison 
twenty-six  and  their  joint  effort  contributed  three,  by  the  most  probable 
conclusions.  These  papers  did  much  toward  securing  the  ratification  of  the 
Constitution,  and  form  one  of  the  most  important  commentaries  on  the  Con- 
stitution. 

Federalists,  Federal  Party,  the  first  political  party  which  had  control  of 
the  Federal  Government.  When  the  Constitution  of  1787  was  before  the 
people  for  ratification,  those  who  favored  its  adoption  took  the  name  of 
Federalists,  giving  to  its  opponents  that  of  Anti-Federalists.  In  the  First 
Congress,  definite  party  divisions  were  not  found.  Before  the  second  had 
ended,  there  was  a  definite  division  between  Federalists  and  those  whc  called 
themselves  Republicans  or  Democrats.  Hamilton  was  the  leader  of  the 
former,  Jefferson  of  the  latter.  Hamilton's  financial  measures  had  been 
acceptable  to  those  who  desired  strong  government,  the  commercial  classes, 
those  who  wished  to  see  the  Union  drawn  still  more  closely  together,  still 
further  in  the  direction  of  centralization  and  national  consolidation.  Their 
opponents  stigmatized  them  as  monarchists.  Beside  Hamilton  and  Vice- 
President  John  Adams,  the  party's  chief  leaders  were  Fisher  Ames,  Cabot, 
Sedgwick,  Strong,  Pickering  and  Quincy,  of  Massachusetts;  Ellsworth, 
Tracy,  Griswold  and  Hillhouse,  of  Connecticut;  Rufus  King,  Jay  and 
Gouverneur  Morris,  of  New  York;  Dayton,  of  New  Jersey;  Bayard,  of  Dela- 
ware; Marshall,  Henry  Lee,  of  Virginia,  and  C.  C.  Pinckney,  of  South 
Carolina.  Washington  was  more  inclined  to  this  party  than  to  the  other. 
Its  strength  was  always  greatest  in  New  England.  When  war  broke  out 
between  England  and  France  in  1793,  the  Federalists,  conservative  and 


232  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

averse  to  the  French  Revolution,  favored  Great  Britain.  In  1796  they 
elected  John  Adams  President,  but  failed  to  elect  Thomas  Pinckney  Vice- 
President  In  1797  they  tried  to  bring  the  country  into  war  with  France, 
but  Adams,  never  so  extreme  as  the  bulk  of  the  party,  prevented  this;  the 
result  was  a  schism  in  the  party.  In  1798  the  party  passed  the  Alien  and 
Sedition  laws,  which  forever  destroyed  their  popularity.  In  the  election  of 
1800  Adams  and  Pinckney  were  decisively  defeated  by  Jefferson  and  Burr; 
the  causes  were,  the  acts  mentioned,  internal  dissensions,  and  the  indifference 
of  intellectual  and  acute  leaders  to  popular  feelings.  During  the  administra- 
tions of  Jefferson  and  Madison  the  party  dwindled.  As  an  opposition  party, 
it  took  strict-constructionist  ground.  Some  of  its  leaders  engaged  in  projects 
for  a  disruption  of  the  Union.  Finally,  its  unpatriotic  course  in  the  War  of 
1812  and  the  odium  excited  by  the  Hartford  Convention  destroyed  it  utterly. 
Holding  the  Government  during  the  critical  years  1789-1801,  it  had  given 
it  strength,  but  it  distrusted  the  people  too  much  for  permanent  success  in 
America. 

Felton,  Cornelius  C.  (1807-1862),  appointed  Greek  professor  at  Harvard 
in  1834,  was  president  of  Harvard  from  1860  to  1862,  and  was  the  author  of 
many  classical  works. 

Fenceviewers,  town  officers  appointed  in  the  early  days  of  the  New  Eng- 
land colonies  to  look  after  fences.  They  had  to  take  care  that  the  fences 
were  four  feet  high,  of  reasonable  strength  and  in  a  good  state  of  repair, 
and  they  had  considerable  authority  to  carry  out  these  orders. 

Fenians,  an  organization  of  Irish-American  revolutionists,  established 
in  1 86 1,  which  advocated  the  forcible  separation  of  Ireland  from  England. 
By  1863  they  had  a  large  following  in  this  country,  John  O'Mahoney  being 
the  moving  spirit.  Emissaries  visited  all  parts  of  the  country.  The  British 
Government  watched  them  closely  and  spoiled  their  nearly  matured  plans 
for  revolution  by  seizing,  September  15,  1865,  their  organ,  the  Irish  People, 
in  Ireland  and  arresting  a  number  of  their  leaders,  Luby,  O'Leary  and 
O'Donovan  Rossa.  O'Mahoney  proposed  to  establish  an  independent  govern- 
ment in  America,  and  a  convention  was  held  at  New  York  in  1865  for  that 
purpose,  O'Mahoney  being  elected  president.  The  Fenians  made  several 
attacks  along  the  Canadian  frontier  in  1866,  and  rebellion  broke  out  in  Ireland 
in  1867.  It  was  quickly  suppressed  and  the  Fenians  rendered  harmless. 

Fenton,- Reuben  E.  (1819-1885),  was  born  in  New  York.  He  was  a 
Representative  to  Congress  from  New  York  from  1857  to  1864,  when  he  was 
elected  Governor  and  served  until  1868.  He  succeeded  E.  D.  Morgan  in  the 
U.  S.  Senate  and  served  from  1869  to  1875,  a"d  was  chairman  of  the  U.  S. 
Commission  at  the  Paris  International  Monetary  Conference  in  1878.  He 
was  a  prominent  Republican  leader. 

Ferguson,  Patrick,  died  in  1780.  He  was  a  British  soldier  who  came  to 
America  in  1777,  fought  at  Brandy  wine,  was  active  along  Jhe  Hudson  in 
1779,  and  was  promoted  major  for  services  at  the  siege  of  Charleston.  He 
enlisted  many  loyalists  in  South  Carolina,  but  was  defeated  at  the  battle  of 
King's  Mountain. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  233 

Ferry,  Orris  S.  (1823-1875),  was  born  in  Connecticut.  He  was  Judge 
of  Probate  in  1849,  a  member  of  the  Connecticut  legislature  from  1855  to 
1857,  and  a  U.  S.  Representative  from  1859  to  1861.  He  served  during  the 
Civil  War,  being  promoted  to  brigadier-general  in  1862.  He  was  a  U.  S. 
Senator  from  1867  to  1875. 

Ferry,  Thomas  W.,  bora  in  1827,  was  a  member  of  the  Michigan  House 
of  Representatives  in  1850,  and  Senator  in  1856,  and  was  a  member  for 
Michigan  in  the  Chicago  Republican  Convention  of  1860.  He  was  a  Rep- 
resentative in  the  U.  S.  Congress  from  1865  to  1871,  and  a  U.  S.  Senator 
from  1871  to  1883.  He  acted  as  president  of  the  Senate  from  1875  to  1877, 
during  which  time  he  presided  over  the  impeachment  trial  of  Secretary  Bel- 
knap,  and  over  the  joint  meetings  during  the  electoral  count  of  1 877.  D.  1 896. 

Fessenden,  William  Pitt  (1806-1869),  was  born  in  New  Hampshire.  He 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1827,  and  so°n  began  practice  in  Portland,  Me. 
He  served  in  the  Maine  House  of  Representatives  from  1832  to  1840,  1845 
to  1846,  and  1853  to  1854.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Whig  National  Con- 
ventions of  1840,  1848  and  1852,  and  became  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
Republican  party.  He  was  elected  to  the  U.  S.  Congress  from  1841  to  1843, 
and  served  in  the  U.  S.  Senate  from  1854  to  1864,  when  he  was  appointed 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury  by  President  Lincoln,  and  served  till  1865.  He 
was  again  a  U.  S.  Senator  from  1865  to  1869.  While  in  the  Senate  he  made 
a  famous  speech  against  the  Kansas-Nebraska  bill,  and  in  1861  was  appointed 
chairman  of  the  Finance  Committee,  where  he  very  ably  sustained  the 
national  credit.  He  was  one  of  the  seven  Republican  Senators  who  voted 
for  the  acquittal  of  President  Johnson  in  the  impeachment  trial  of  1867. 

F.  F.  V's,  an  abbreviation  of  "  First  Families  of  Virginia,"  applied  gen- 
erally to  the  Southern  aristocracy.  The  term  was  of  Northern  origin. 

Field,  Cyrus  West  (1819-1892),  born  in  Massachusetts,  was  engaged  in 
business  in  New  York  till  1853.  He  conceived  the  idea  of  a  submarine  tele- 
graph across  the  Atlantic,  and  formed  the  New  York,  Newfoundland  and 
London  Telegraph  Company,  consisting  of  Peter  Cooper,  Moses  Taylor, 
Marshall  Roberts  and  Chandler  White.  The  necessary  rights  for  fifty  years 
were  obtained,  and  communication  was  secured  in  1858,  but  the  cable  proved 
worthless  after  a  few  weeks.  The  Atlantic  Telegraph  Company  was  formed 
and  attempts  were  made  with  the  "Great  Eastern"  in  1865  and  1866,  the 
last  of  which  was  completely  successful.  For  this  great  achievement  he 
was  honored  both  at  home  and  abroad.  After  this  success  he  was  active  in 
improving  the  rapid  transit  system  of  New  York. 

Field,  David  Dudley  (1805-1894),  was  prominent  in  law  reform  move- 
ments. From  1847  to  I^5°  ne  was  a  commissioner  to  prepare  "Codes 
of  Civil  and  Criminal  Procedure,"'  now  in  several  instances  adopted;  and 
from  1857  to  1865  was  chairman  of  a  New  York  commission  to  prepare 
political,  penal  and  civil  codes.  In  1873  he  published  "  Outlines  of  an 
International  Code,"  which  has  attracted  wide  attention. 

Field,  Stephen  J.,  brother  of  Cyrus  W.  and  David  D.,  born  in  Connecti- 
cut in  1816,  practised  law  with  his  brother,  David  Dudley,  and  went  to 


234  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

California  in  1849,  being  one  of  the  founders  of  Marysville.  In  the  first 
State  Legislature  he  served  on  the  Judiciary  Committee,  where  he  was  active 
in  improving  the  judiciary  system.  From  1857  to  z^64  he  was  Judge  of  the 
California  Supreme  Court,  and  Chief  Justice  from  1859  to  1863,  when  he 
was  appointed  to  the  U.  S.  Supreme  Court  by  President  Lincoln.  He  was  a 
Democratic  member  of  the  Electoral  Commission  in  1877.  He  still  serves 
upon  the  supreme  bench  (1894).  Retired  1898,  and  died  1899. 

Fifty- four  forty  or  fight.  Under  the  treaty  with  Spain  of  1819,  parallel 
42°  was  fixed  as  the  northern  limit  of  that  country's  possessions  in  America. 
Between  42°  and  54°  40'  lay  the  special  "  Oregon  country,"  claimed  by  both 
England  and  the  United  States.  English  fur-traders  had  passed  to  the  south 
of  parallel  49°,  below  which  surveys  had  been  made  by  the  United  States,  and 
where  settlements  were  being  slowly  made.  In  1844  the  hot-headed  among 
the  Democrats  started  the  cry,  "  Fifty-four  forty  or  fight,"  referring  to  54° 
40',  for  which  limit  they  wished  to  resort  to  war.  For  a  time  war  seemed 
inevitable,  but  in  1846  a  treaty  was  concluded  fixing  the  boundary  between 
the  British  and  United  States  possessions  at  49°  north  latitude. 

Filibusters,  a  name  borrowed  from  the  West  Indian  freebooters  of  the 
sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries  and  applied  to  associations  originating 
in  the  United  States  for  the  ostensible  purpose  of  freeing  Cuba  and  other 
West  Indian  islands  or  Central  American  districts  from  European  control. 
The  acquisition  of  Texas  was  a  successful  filibustering  expedition.  In  1850 
Lopez,  a  Cuban,  Governor  Quitman,  of  Mississippi,  and  others,  were  arrested 
for  violating  the  neutrality  law  of  1818,  by  a  proposed  filibustering  expedi- 
tion against  Cuba.  They  were  afterward  released.  In  1855  General  William 
Walker,  with  a  California  company,  sailed  on  a  filibustering  expedition 
against  Nicaragua.  He  took  possession  of  the  country,  was  elected  President 
and  was  recognized  by  the  American  Minister.  He  surrendered  to  the  United 
States,  but  organized  another  expedition  in  1860.  He  was  captured  and  shot 
by  the  President  of  Honduras.  This  ended  filibustering.  The  term  "  fili- 
buster "  as  used  in  respect  to  parliamentary  proceedings,  in  the  sense  of 
engaging  in  dilatory  tactics,  is  no  doubt  derived  from  this,  in  the  meaning 
of  carrying  on  irregular  warfare. 

Fillmore,  Millard  (1800-1874),  was  born  in  New  York.  He  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1823  an^  began  practice  in  Aurora,  N.  Y.  He  was  elected  by 
the  Anti-Masons  a  member  of  the  New  York  House  of  Representatives  from 
1829  to  1831,  and  drafted  the  bill  abolishing  imprisonment  for  debt  He 
represented  New  York  as  a  Whig  in  the  Congress  of  the  United  States  from 
1833  to  1835,  and  again  from  1837  to  1843,  when  fle  served  as  chairman  of 
the  Ways  and  Means  Committee  and  drafted  the  tariff  bill  of  1842.  From 
1847  to  l849  ne  was  State  Comptroller.  In  1848  he  was  elected  Vice-Presi- 
dent  of  the  United  States  on  the  Whig  ticket  with  Zachary  Taylor  for  Presi- 
dent After  the  death  of  Taylor  on  July  9,  1850,  he  became  President  and 
served  until  March  3, 1853.  During  his  administration  the  Compromise  Acts 
of  1850  were  passed  and  the  Japanese  expedition  of  1852  was  arranged.  In 
1856  he  was  defeated  as  the  National  American  candidate  for  President  of 
the  United  States.  He  commanded  a  corps  during  the  Civil  War,  and  was 
president  of  the  Buffalo  Historical  Society. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  435 

Pilson,  John  (1747-1788),  was  an  early  explorer  on  the  Western  frontiers 
of  the  United  States,  who  collected  and  published  much  information  in 
regard  to  the  history  of  Kentucky. 

Finance.  (See  Revenue,  Expenditure,  Debt,  Banks,  Tariff,  Silver, 
Treasury,  Greenbacks,  Treasury  Notes,  Internal  Revenue,  Customs,  etc.) 

Findlay,  William  (1768-1846),  was  a  member  of  the  Pennsylvania  Legis- 
lature in  1797  and  1803,  State  Treasurer  from  1807  to  1817,  Governor  from 
1817  to  1820  and  a  U.  S.  Senator  from  1821  to  1827. 

Finney,  Charles  G.  (1792-1875),  clergyman,  met  with  great  Success  as 
an  evangelist.  In  1834  the  Broadway  Tabernacle,  in  New  York,  was  con- 
structed for  him.  From  1851  to  1866  he  was  president  of  Oberlin  College. 

Fire-eaters,  a  name  given,  especially  in  the  fifties,  to  those  Southern 
politicians  who  were  most  extreme  in  their  advocacy  of  Southern  claims 
and  in  their  hostility  to  the  North  and  to  anti-slavery  agitation. 

Fiscal  Bank  of  the  United  States.  In  1841,  Tyler  having  just  taken 
Harrison's  place  as  President,  the  Sub-Treasury  Act  was  repealed,  and  the 
Whigs  passed  an  act  chartering  the  Fiscal  Bank  of  the  United  States. 
Tyler  vetoed  the  bill,  to  every  one's  surprise.  Another  bill,  framed  with 
Tyler's  approval,  was  then  passed,  but  its  opponents  had  filled  the  Presi- 
dent's mind  with  jealousies  and  suspicions,  so  he  vetoed  this  bill  also,  and 
the  Whigs  could  not  override  the  veto. 

Fish,  Hamilton  (1808-1893),  born  in  New  York  City,  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1830.  He  was  elected  to  the  U.  S.  House  of  Representatives  from  New 
York,  serving  from  1843  to  I^45,  and  was  a  State  Senator  in  1847.  He  was 
Governor  of  New  York  from  1848  to  1850,  and  was  a  U.  S.  Senator  from 
1851  to  1857.  He  was  Secretary  of  State  in  Grant's  Cabinet,  serving  from 
1869  to  1877.  He  negotiated  the  Treaty  of  Washington  in  1871,  and  the 
St.  Domingo  treaties. 

Fish  Commission,  created  by  Act  of  Congress  in  1870.  The  head  of 
this  department  is  the  Commissioner  of  Fish  and  Fisheries.  There  is  also 
an  Assistant  Commissioner.  These  officers  collect  statistics  of  fish  and  fish- 
eries of  the  whole  country,  experiment  concerning  the  best  methods  of 
capture,  and  investigate  the  food  and  habits  of  fish. 

Fisher,  Fort,  N.  C.,  twice  assaulted  by  the  Federals  during  the  Civil 
War.  The  fort  protected  the  harbor  of  Wilmington.  The  first  attack  was 
made  December  23  and  25,  1864,  by  Porter's  fleet  and  a  land  force  of  6500 
men  under  Butler  and  Weitzel.  The  fleet  contained  500  guns.  Butler 
attempted  to  blow  up  the  fort  with  a  powder  boat,  but  failed.  This  attempt 
to  take  Fort  Fisher  failed,  so  Grant  sent  1500  more  men  under  Terry,  and 
on  January  13  and  15,  1865,  a  combined  attack  was  made  by  land  and  sea. 
The  fort  was  garrisoned  by  Whiting  with  2300  Confederates.  Throughout 
the  thirteenth  the  fleet  kept  up  a  continuous  fire,  but  the  garrison  held  out 
bravely.  On  the  fifteenth  the  land  force  made  an  attack,  and  a  hand-to-hand 
fight  of  five  hours  took  place.  Then  the  fort  surrendered,  the  entire  garrison 
being  captured.  Next  day  the  powder  magazine  blew  up,  killing  200  men. 


236  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Fisheries  Question.  Previous  to  the  Revolution  fishermen  of  the  Ameri- 
can colonies  had  free  access  to  the  fishing  grounds  of  Labrador,  Newfound- 
land and  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence.  Subsequently  to  the  war  this  privilege 
was  protested  against  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  Canadas.  The  question  was 
long  debated.  Finally  a  compromise  was  effected  in  the  Treaty  of  Paris, 
September  3,  1783.  United  States  fishermen  were  allowed  access  to  the 
fishing  grounds  of  Nova  Scotia,  Newfoundland,  Labrador,  the  St.  Lawrence 
and  the  Magdalen  Islands,  on  an  equal  footing  with  British  fishermen,  in 
such  parts  as  were  unsettled  or  where  permission  could  be  obtained  from  the 
settlers.  The  War  of  1812  did  away  with  this  treaty,  the  fishery  right  was 
denied  the  United  States  and  Canadian  Governors  were  instructed  to  exclude 
our  fishermen.  A  commission  of  the  two  countries  decided  in  1818  that  the 
United  States  should  forever  have  the  right  to  fish  on  the  western  and  north- 
ern coast  of  Newfoundland  and  the  Magdalens  only.  Reciprocal  trade 
being  established  between  the  United  States  and  Canada  by  the  Treaty  of 
1847,  fishing  was  allowed  the  former  in  all  British  colonies  except  Newfound- 
land, which  refused  consent.  This  treaty  was  terminated  in  1866  by  the 
United  States  and  the  conditions  of  1818  were  revived.  By  the  Treaty  of 
Washington  in  1871,  the  United  States  fishermen  were  allowed  to  take  fish 
of  any  description,  except  shell-fish,  in  all  Canadian  waters,  the  British  fisher- 
men to  have  the  same  privileges  in  United  States  waters  north  of  latitude  39° 
north. 

Fisher's  Hill,  Va.,  a  battle  of  the  Civil  War  between  Sheridan's  army  of 
the  Shenandoah  Valley,  about  20,000  strong,  and  Early,  commanding  a  large 
Confederate  force.  After  the  battle  of  Opequan,  when  Early  was  defeated, 
the  latter  retreated  to  Fisher's  Hill  and  was  there  overtaken,  October  21, 
1864,  by  Sheridan.  Early  held  an  unusually  strong  position.  The  Eighth 
Corps  gained  a  wooded  approach  in  the  Confederate  rear,  attacking  the  Con- 
federates thence  while  they  were  busy  with  Sheridan's  main  command  on 
their  front.  The  success  of  this  plan  was  instantaneous.  The  Confederates 
fled  in  all  directions,  and  were  pursued  by  Sheridan  to  the  Blue  Ridge. 

Fishing  Creek,  Battle  of,  August  18,  1780.  At  this  place  General  Sumter 
had  taken  his  position  with  considerable  stores  and  100  prisoners  captured 
from  the  British.  Here  Tarleton  attacked  him  and  routed  his  forces,  freed 
the  captives,  recovered  the  booty,  and  besides  took  300  prisoners. 

Fishing  Creek.     (See  Mill  Springs.) 

Fisk,  Clinton  B.  (1828-1890),  entered  the  Civil  War  as  colonel  and 
became  major-general.  He  was  president  of  the  Indian  Commission  under 
President  Grant,  and  was  the  Prohibitionist  candidate  for  President  in  1888. 

Fiske,  John,  born  in  1842,  first  came  to  public  prominence  as  an 
expounder  of  the  theory  of  evolution,  making  extensive  and  valuable  con- 
tributions. Since  1869,  residing  in  Cambridge,  he  has  lectured  on  Ameri- 
can history  throughout  the  United  States  and  in  England.  Among  his  works 
relating  to  the  history  of  the  United  States  are,  "  The  Critical  Period  of 
American  History,"  "  The  Beginnings  of  New  England,"  "  Civil  Govern- 
ment in  the  United  States,"  "  The  Discovery  and  Spanish  Conquest  of 
America,"  and  "  The  American  Revolution." 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  237 

Fitch,  John  (1743-1798),  was  born  in  Connecticut.  He  was  a  watch- 
maker, and  at  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolution,  engaged  in  gun-making  for 
the  American  forces.  He  spent  the  winter  with  the  troops  at  Valley  Forge, 
and  in  1780  was  appointed  deputy-surveyor  of  Virginia.  In  1785  he  con- 
structed a  boat  propelled  by  steam  power,  and  in  1790  one  of  his  improved 
passenger  boats  plied  regularly  between  Philadelphia  and  Burlington. 
Robert  Fulton  is  said  to  have  had  access  to  his  drawings  and  papers,  and  it 
was  proved  by  the  courts  in  1817,  that  his  inventions  and  those  of  Fitch  were 
in  substance  the  same. 

Fitzpatrick,  Benjamin  (1802-1869),  Governor  of  Alabama  from  1845  to 
1855,  was  a  U.  S.  Senator  in  1848  and  1849,  an<^  fr°m  J^53  to  1861.  •  He 
earnestly  supported  the  Confederacy. 

Five-Cent  Piece,  or  Half  Dime,  originally  a  silver  coin  authorized  in 
1792,  and  coined  the  same  year  (original  weight,  20.8  grains).  In  1853  it  was 
reduced  to  19.2  grains.  In  1873  it  was  discontinued.  In  1866  the  coinage 
of  nickel  five-cent  pieces  was  authorized,  the  value  remaining,  as  at  first, 
one-twentieth  of  the  standard  dollar.  The  legal -tender  value  was,  however, 
reduced  from  five  dollars  to  thirty  cents.  There  were  no  issues  of  half 
dimes  during  the  years  1798,  1799,  1804,  1806  to  1828  inclusive.  Some 
silver  half  dimes  were  the  first  coins  struck  by  the  U.  S.  Mint  in  1792. 

Five  Forks,  Va.,  a  battle  of  the  Civil  War  which  practically  sealed  the 
fate  of  Richmond  and  Petersburg.  It  occurred  April  I,  1865,  during  that 
last,  celebrated  campaign.  Here  Sheridan  cut  to  pieces  Pickett's  Confederate 
troops  after  many  hours  of  the  most  desperate  and  sanguinary  fighting  of 
the  whole  war.  The  Confederates  lost  over  5000  in  killed  and  prisoners. 
This  victory  for  the  Federals  precipitated  a  general  attack  upon  the  Con- 
federate lines  on  April  2. 

Five  Nations.     (See  Iroquois.) 

Five-twenties.  Bonds  bearing  six  per  cent  interest  payable  in  gold,  and 
redeemable  at  any  time  after  five  years  from  the  date  of  issue,  and  payable 
in  full  at  the  end  of  twenty  years,  issued  by  the  U.  S.  Government  in  1862, 
1864  and  1865. 

Flag.  The  Stars  and  Stripes  gradually  grew;  it  was  a  creature  of  circum- 
stance; there  is  no  record  of  its  birth.  Among  the  colonies  the  British  was, 
of  course,  the  recognized  standard.  Here  and  there  were  minor  modifica- 
tions, but  the  retention  of  the  "union"  with  its  two  crosses  of  St.  Andrew 
and  St.  George  marked  all  as  essentially  British.  Even  after  the  beginning 
of  the  Revolution  the  union  was  retained  to  show  that  the  war  did  not 
mean  separation.  Congress  made  at  first  no  effort  to  fix  a  national  standard. 
There  were  two  classes  of  flags  in  vogue  in  the  early  years  of  the  Revolu- 
tion, the  "  pine  tree  "  flags  of  New  England  origin,  and  the  "  rattlesnake  " 
flag,  more  national  in  its  make-up.  The  latter  was  white  with  a  rattlesnake 
cut  into  thirteen  pieces,  each  marked  with  the  initial  of  a  colony,  and  the 
legend  Join,  or  die.  The  need  of  a  national  flag  became  evident  in  1775. 
The  stripes  were  first  used  by  a  Philadelphia  light-horse  troop,  and  Congress 
adopted  them  in  1775  on  the  recommendation  of  a  committee  consisting  of 


238  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Franklin,  Lynch  and  Harrison,  still  retaining  the  British  "  union.''  This 
flag  was  raised  over  the  American  headquarters  at  Cambridge,  Mass.,  January 
i  or  2,  1776.  After  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  Congress,  June  14, 
1777,  ordered  the  "union"  to  be  displaced  by  thirteen  stars.  It  was  first 
displayed  at  the  battle  of  Brandywine,  September  n,  1777.  On  the  admis- 
sion of  Vermont  and  Kentucky,  1794,  two  new  stripes  were  added,  but  by 
the  Act  of  April  4,  1818,  the  number  of  stripes  was  limited  to  thirteen,  the 
number  of  stars  increasing  with  the  number  of  the  States.  (See  also  Revenue 
Flag  and  Stars  and  Bars.) 

Flagg,  Azariah  C.  (1790—1873),  an  influential  New  York  politician,  was 
appointed  Secretary  of  State  in  1826  by  Governor  Clinton,  and  served  till 
I833,  was  Comptroller  of  New  York  from  1834  to  1839  and  1842  to  1846, 
and  was  a  member  of  the  "  Albany  Regency  "  and  one  of  the  founders  of 
the  Barnburner  faction. 

Flanaghan,  Webster,  born  in  1832,  was  a  brigadier-general  in  the  Con- 
federate army.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Texas  Constitutional  Conventions 
of  1869  and  1875;  was  Lieutenant-Governor  in  1871  and  served  in  the 
Republican  National  Conventions  of  1872,  1880  and  1884. 

Flatheads,  a  term  incorrectly  applied  to  the  Selish  Indians.  They  have 
always  been  friendly  to  the  whites  and  originally  resided  on  the  Bitter  Root 
or  St.  Mary's  River.  In  a  treaty  approved  in  1859  thev  ceded  all  their  lands 
to  the  United  States,  and  in  1871  were  removed  to  a  reservation  in  northwest 
Montana. 

Fletcher,  Benjamin,  was  appointed  Governor  of  New  York  by  William 
and  Mary.  He  arrived  in  1692  and  received  a  commission  to  assume  also 
the  government  of  Pennsylvania,  which- he  did  in  1693.  He  was  zealous  in 
the  extension  of  the  English  Church.  In  1698  he  was  deposed  on  account 
of  suspicions  of  complicity  with  pirates. 

Fletcher  vs.  Peck,  a  breach  of  covenant  case  before  the  Supreme  Court  in 
1809—10,  by  writ  of  error  from  the  Circuit  Court  of  Massachusetts.  Peck 
had  sold  to  Fletcher  certain  lands  in  the  State  of  Georgia,  which  had  been 
purchased  from  the  State.  The  breach  assigned  was  that  the  Legislature  of 
Georgia  had  no  authority  to  dispose  of  the  lands.  Peck  had  averred  that  the 
title  was  good  and  that  by  the  Act  of  the  Georgia  Legislature  of  January  7, 
1795,  the  State  was  empowered  to  dispose  of  unappropriated  lands.  But  in 
1796  this  act  was  repealed  (see  art.  Yazoo  Frauds).  The  Supreme  Court 
decided  that  the  grant  of  land  by  the  State  was  a  contract,  and  that  the  Act 
of  1796,  impairing  the  obligation  of  this  contract  of  1795,  was  therefore 
unconstitutional  and  void. 

Flogging.  Until  1850  this  was  one  of  the  punishments  inflicted  in  the 
navy.  It  was  abolished  in  that  year  in  the  navy  and  on  merchant  vessels. 
It  was  finally  prohibited  in  the  army  in  1861. 

Florida  was  acquired  by  the  treaty  with  Spain  of  February  22,  1819, 
which  was  not  finally  ratified  by  Spain  until  1821.  It  was  first  discovered 
by  Ponce  de  Leon,  a  Spaniard,  in  1513,  on  Easter  day,  whence  its  name. 
It  was  explored  by  Narvaez  in  1528,  and  by  De  Soto  in  1539.  In  1564  a 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  239 

settlement  was  made  near  Florida  by  French  Huguenots  under  Laudonniere, 
but.  in  the  following  year  Melendez  sailed  from  Spain  to  exterminate  the 
heretics;  and  having  founded  St.  Augustine,  1565,  massacred  the  entire  French 
colony.  The  Spaniards  held  Florida  until  1763,  when  they  exchanged  it 
with  England  for  Cuba.  In  1783  England  gave  Florida  back  to  Spain  in 
exchange  for  the  Bahama  Islands.  In  1795  the  territory  west  of  the  Perdido 
was  ceded  to  France,  and  passed  into  the  possession  of  the  United  States 
with  the  Louisiana  Purchase  of  1803.  During  the  War  of  1812  the  govern- 
ment of  Florida  was  weak,  and  the  State  became  a  refuge  for  fugitive  slaves 
and  Indians.  The  Governor  of  Georgia  sent  a  force  against  them,  which 
increased  the  disorder.  In  1818  General  Jackson  invaded  Florida,  attacked 
the  Seminoles  and  captured  Pensacola,  which  was  restored  to  Spain.  Ceded 
by  Treaty  of  1819,  in  1822  Florida  became  a  territory  of  the  United  States, 
and  in  1845  it  was  admitted  as  a  State.  In  1835-44  a  war  with  the  Seminoles 
resulted  in  their  removal  to  the  Indian  Territory.  From  1845  to  1852  the 
State  was  controlled  by  the  Whigs,  when  it  became  Democratic.  An  ordi- 
nance of  secession  was  passed  by  a  State  Convention,  January  10,  1861.  It 
was  restored  to  its  full  standing  as  a  State  on  June  25,  1868.  From  this 
time  until  1876  the  Republicans  controlled  the  State.  In  that  year  the 
dispute  over  the  electoral  vote  was  decided  by  the  Electoral  Commission  at 
Washington  in  favor  of  the  Republicans.  Since  1876  the  State  has  been 
Democratic.  In  1869  Alabama  offered  $1,000,000  for  West  Florida,  and  a 
popular  vote  in  that  part  of  the  State  voted  in  favor  of  the  annexation  to 
Alabama,  but  it  was  not  accomplished.  The  present  Constitution  was  made 
in  1868.  The  population  of  the  State  in  1845  was  54>4775  m  I^9°  ^  was 
391,422. 

"  Florida,"  a  Confederate  cruiser  fitted  out  in  England  in  1862,  and  sail- 
ing at  first  under  the  name  of  the  "  Oreto."  She  proceeded  immediately  to 
Nassau,  in  the  Bahama  Islands,  and  was  twice  seized,  but  eventually  escaped. 
Her  name  was  then  changed  to  the  "  Florida."  For  two  years  she  did  great 
damage  to  the  Union  cause  all  along  the  coast  and  among  the  West  Indies. 
She  was  captured  and  sunk  October  7,  1864,  in  the  Brazilian  harbor  "of 
Bahia,  by  the  Union  vessel  "Wachusett,"  Captain  Collins,  who  surprised 
her  when  unprepared  for  battle. 

Flower,  Roswell  P.,  born  in  New  York  in  1835,  represented  New  York 
in  Congress  from  1881  to  1883  as  a  Democrat,  and  was  elected  Governor  of 
New  York  in  1892.  He  served  one  term.  Died  1899. 

Floyd,  John  (1770-1837),  a  States-rights  Democrat  from  Virginia,  in 
Congress  from  1817  to  1829,  was  Governor  of  Virginia  from  1830  to  1834, 
and  was  a  personal  friend  of  Jefferson,  Madison,  Crawford  and  Jackson.  In 
1832  South  Carolina  cast  her  electoral  votes  for  him  as  President. 

Floyd,  John  B.  (1807-1863),  was  born  in  New  York.  He  served  in  the 
Virginia  Legislature  in  1847-1849  and  1853,  and  was  Governor  from  1850 
to  1853.  He  was  appointed  Secretary  of  War  by  President  Buchanan,  and 
served  from  1857  to  1860,  when  he  resigned.  He  was  accused  of  conspiracy 
in  aiding  the  Secessionists  while  Secretary  of  War,  especially  in  removing 
war  materials  to  Southern  arsenals.  He  joined  the  Confederate  army  as  a 


24o  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

brigadier-general  and  fought  at  Fort  Donelson,  but  was  soon  after  relieved 
of  command  by  Mr.  Davis. 

Floyd,  William  (1734-1821),  was  a  delegate  from  New  York  to  the  Con- 
tinental Congresses  from  1774  to  1783,  and  signed  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence. He  was  a  State  Senator  from  1777  to  1778,  and  a  member  of 
the  first  U.  S.  Congress  from  1789  to  1791.  He  was  a  Presidential  elector 
in  1800,  1804  and  1820,  and  again  State  Senator  in  1808. 

Folger,  Charles  J.  (1818-1884),  was  chairman  of  the  Judiciary  Committee 
of  the  New  York  Senate  from  1861  to  1869,  and  was  appointed  by  Presi- 
dent Grant  assistant  treasurer  in  New  York  City,  1869  to  1870.  He  was 
made  Associate  Judge  of  the  State  Court  of  Appeals  in  1871,  Chief  Justice 
in  1880,  and  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  in  Arthur's  Cabinet  from  1881  to 
1884.  In  1882,  as  Republican  candidate  for  Governor  of  New  York,  he 
received  a  remarkable  defeat  at  the  hands  of  Mr.  Cleveland. 

Follen,  Charles  T.  C.  (1796-1840),  born  in  Germany,  came  to  America 
in  1824,  and  from  1825  to  1834  was  professor  of  German  at  Harvard  Col- 
lege. He  was  an  ardent  anti-slavery  advocate. 

Foot,  Solomon  (1802-1866),  was  a  member  of  the  Vermont  Legislature 
in  1833  and  1836,  and  Speaker  in  1837,  1838  and  1847.  He  was  a  Whig 
Congressman  from  1843  to  1847,  and  Senator  from  1857  to  1866. 

Foote,  Andrew  H.  (1806-1863),  entered  the  navy  in  1822,  and  from  1849 
to  1852  was  active  in  suppressing  the  African  slave  trade.  At  the  beginning 
of  the  Civil  War  he  was  placed  in  command  of  the  western  flotilla.  In  1862, 
in  connection  with  the  army  of  General  Grant,  he  compelled  Fort  Henry  to 
surrender  and  aided  in  a  combined  attack  upon  Fort  Donelson.  He  suc- 
ceeded in  capturing  Island  No.  10  from  the  Confederates,  and  in  1863  was 
promoted  rear-admiral.  He  was  one  of  the  most  noble  and  courageous 
officers  of  the  U.  S.  navy. 

.Foote,  Henry  S.  (1800-1880),  was  elected  a  U.  S.  Senator  from  Missis- 
sippi in  1847,  and  served  till  1852,  when  he  became  Governor  of  the  State 
and  served  till  1854.  He  was  a  zealous  opponent  of  secession  in  the  South- 
ern convention  at  Knoxville  in  1859,  but  served  in  the  first  two  Confederate 
Congresses.  He  published  "  Texas  and  the  Texans  "  and  "  The  War  of  the 
Rebellion." 

Foote,  Samuel  A.  (1780-1846),  was  a  Representative  from  Connecticut 
in  the  U.  S.  Congress  from  1819  to  1821  and  1823  to  1825;  was  Speaker  of 
the  State  Legislature  from  1825  to  1826,  and  a  U.  S.  Senator  from  1827  to 
1833.  In  the  Senate  he  offered  the  resolution  which  caused  the  famous 
debate  between  Webster  and  Hayne.  He  was  Governor  of  Connecticut  in 
1834. 

Foraker,  Joseph  B,,  was  born  in  1846.  He  served  in  the  Army  of  the 
Cumberland  during  the  war;  was  Judge  of  the  Cincinnati  Superior  Court  from 
1879  to  1882,  Republican  Governor  of  Ohio  from  1886  to  1890,  and  was 
elected  U.  S.  Senator  in  1897. 

Forbes,  John  (1710-1759),  British  soldier,  was  appointed  brigadier-general 
in  America,  in  1757,  a.n4  was  adjutant-general  in  the  expedition,  against 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  241 

Louisbourg.  He  commanded  the  expedition  against  Fort  Duquesne,  accom- 
panied by  Washington  with  2000  Virginians;  and  after  taking  possession 
named  it  Fort  Pitt  (now  Pittsburg),  in  honor  of  William  Pitt 

Force,  Peter  (1790-1868),  an  enthusiastic  collector  of  materials  for  Ameri- 
can history,  from  1823  to  1830  published  the  National  Journal,  the  first  to 
be  called  an  "  official  organ."  From  1833  to  1867  he  was  occupied  in  prepar- 
ing a  documentary  history  of  the  Revolution.  Nine  volumes,  entitled  ' '  Ameri- 
can Archives,"  were  published.  The  remainder  still  waits  for  publication. 
Colonel  Force  collected  22,000  books  and  40,000  pamphlets  relating  to  colo- 
nial history,  probably  the  most  valuable  collection  then  in  existence. 

Force  Bill.  After  the  passage  of  the  Act  of  1828,  authorizing  a  higher 
protective  tariff  system,  great  discontent  prevailed  through  many  of  the 
Southern  States.  In  1832-33  South  Carolina  claimed  that  State  power  to 
nullify  objectionable  Federal  enactments  was  an  integral  feature  of  American 
constitutional  law.  A  bill,  nullifying  the  protective  tariff  law,  prepared 
according  to  John  C.  Calhoun's  theory,  was  passed  by  the  State  Legislature. 
A  bill  to  enforce  the  tariff  law  was  therefore  at  once  introduced  into  Congress 
and  became  law  March  2,  1833.  It  was  called  the  "  force  bill,"  or  the  "  bloody 
bill."  Compromise  adjusted  the  trouble. — During  the  reconstruction  period, 
at  the  first  indication  of  an  attack  on  the  reconstructed  governments,  Congress 
at  once  took  steps  to  defeat  the  attempt.  A.  bill  for  the  enforcement  of  the 
Fourteenth  and  Fifteenth  Amendments,  commonly  called  the  "  force  bill," 
was  passed  in  Congress  by  a  strict  party  vote  and  became  law  May  31,  1870. 
It  made  punishable  by  fine  or  imprisonment  all  attempts  at  intimidation, 
bribery  or  hindrance  in  the  matters  of  registration  and  qualifying  for  voting. 
April  20,  1871,  a  much  more  stringent  law  was  enacted  to  put  down  the  con- 
spiracies against  civil  rights  by  the  Ku-Klux  Klan  and  similar  organizations. 
— The  name  has  recently  been  applied  to  the  Lodge  Election  Bill.  July  2, 
1890,  a  bill  "  to  amend  and  supplement  the  election  laws  of  the  United  States, 
and  to  provide  for  a  more  efficient  enforcement  of  such  laws,"  passed  the 
House,  having  been  submitted  by  Lodge,  of  Massachusetts,  but  was  forced 
out  of  the  way  in  the  Senate  by  a  combination  of  Democratic  and  Repub- 
lican Senators  anxious  for  the  adoption  of  free  coinage  legislation. 

Forefathers'  Day.  The  celebration  of  the  landing  of  the  Pilgrims  began 
in  1769.  At  that  time  December  11,  old  style,  was  taken  to  be  December 
22  of  new  style,  instead  of  December  21,  as  it  should  be.  Hence  an  error 
and  confusion  regarding  the  day  was  perpetuated. 

Foreign  Affairs,  Secretary  of.  This  office  was  created  by  the  Continental 
Congress,  January  10,  1781,  upon  the  urgent  appeal  of  the  representatives 
in  foreign  countries.  Robert  R.  Livingston,  of  New  York,  was  the  first  to 
fill  the  office.  The  secretary  had  charge  of  all  matters  concerning  foreign 
governments  and  interstate  affairs  as  well.  His  scope  was  much  restricted 
at  first,  but  was  enlarged  by  reorganization  in  1782.  Later  (1784-1789)  the 
office  was  held  by  John  Jay. 

Forney,  John  W.  (1817-1881),  between  1837  and  1855  edited  the  Demo- 
cratic Intelligencer,  Journal and  Pennsylvanian.     From  1851  to  1855  he  was 
16 


242  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

clerk  of  the  U.  S.  House  of  Representatives,  and  also  edited  trie  Union.  He 
edited  the  Press^  of  Philadelphia,  from  1857  to  I859)  when  he  again  became 
clerk  of  the  House,  and  edited  the  Chronicle  till  1870.  From  1861  to  1867 
he  was  clerk  of  the  U.  S.  Senate,  and  in  1879  established  the  Progress,  of 
Philadelphia. 

Forrest,  Edwin  (1806-1872),  born  in  Philadelphia,  made  his  first  appear- 
ance on  the  stage  in  1820.  After  his  appearance  as  "  Othello,"  at  the  Park 
Theatre  in  New  York,  in  1826,  his  success  was  almost  uninterrupted.  'He 
was  most  successful  in  melodramatic  plays,  and  was  exceedingly  popular  as 
Othello,  Richard  III.,  Coriolanus,  Lear,  Spartacus  and  Damon.  At  Philadel- 
phia he  collected  the  largest  dramatic  library  in  the  United  States. 

Forrest,  Nathan  B.  (1821-1877)  born  in  Tennessee,  enlisted  in  the  Con- 
federate service,  and  commanded  a  regiment  of  cavalry  at  Fort  Donelson. 
He  took  part  in  the  battle  of  Shiloh,  and  made  a  successful  attack  upon 
Murfreesboro.  He  served  at  Chickamauga  in  1863,  captured  Fort  Pillow  in 
1864,  and  surrendered  to  General  Wilson,  at  Gainesville,  in  1865. 

Forsyth,  John  (1780-1841),  born  in  Virginia,  was  made  Attorney-General 
of  Georgia  in  1808.  He  was  a  Democratic  Congressman  from  1813  to  1818 
and  a  U.  S.  Senator  from  1818  to  1819,  when  he  was  appointed  Minister  to 
Spain,  serving  till  1823  and  securing  the  cession  of  Florida  to  the  United 
States.  He  was  again  a  U.  S.  Congressman  from  1823  to  I^27>  when  he 
was  elected  Governor  of  Georgia.  From  1829  to  l834  ne  was  a  U.  S. 
Senator,  and  from  1834  to  1841  was  Secretary  of  State  in  the  Cabinets  of 
Jackson  and  Van  Buren. 

"Fortune,"  a  vessel  which  arrived  at  Plymouth  November  n,  1621, 
bringing  thirty-five  colonists  to  strengthen  the  feeble  number  of  the  Pilgrims 
and  a  patent  from  the  president  and  council  of  New  England  empowering 
the  grantees  to  make  laws  and  set  up  a  government. 

Fortune  Bay.  Under  the  fisheries  treaty  of  1871  between  the  United 
States  and  Great  Britain,  our  fishermen  were  granted  a  participation  in  the 
Newfoundland  fishing  grounds.  In  January,  1878,  in  violation  of  these 
provisions,  several  Gloucester  vessels  were  attacked  by  the  natives  at  Fortune 
Bay,  and  driven  away.  Great  Britain  awarded  damages  of  ^15,000. 

Forward,  Walter  (1786-1852),  was  a  Congressman  from  Pennsylvania 
from  1822  to  1825,  and  was  active  in  the  State  Constitutional  Convention  in 
1837.  He  was  appointed  First  Comptroller  of  the  Treasury  in  1841,  was 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury  in  Tyler's  Cabinet  from  1841  to  1843,  and  Charge* 
d'affaires  to  Denmark  from  1849  to  1851. 

Foster,  Sir  Augustus  J.  (1780-1848),  was  appointed  British  Minister  Pleni- 
potentiary to  the  United  States  in  1811.  His  manners  were  not  conciliatory, 
and  the  difficulties  which  led  to  the  War  of  1812  were  not  settled.  He 
returned  in  1812. 

Foster,  Charles,  born  in  Ohio  in  1828,  was  a  member  of  Congress  from 
1870  to  1876,  and  served  on  the  Committee  of  Ways  and  Means.  He  was 
Governor  of  Ohio  from  1879  to  l884-  From  1891  to  1893  he  was  Secretary 
of  the  Treasury  in  Harrison' §  Cabinet. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  243 

Foster,  John  W.,  born  in  Indiana  in  1836,  served  in  the  Civil  War,  com- 
manding in  East  Tennessee;  and  was  Minister  to  Mexico  from  1873  to  1880; 
to  Russia  from  1880  to  1881,  and  to  Spain  from  1883  to  1885.  From  1892 
to  1893  he  was  Secretary  of  State  in  the  Cabinet  of  President  Harrison. 

Foster,  Lafayette  S.  (1806-1880),  was  born  in  Connecticut,  a  descendant 
of  Miles  Standish.  He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1831,  was  elected  to  the 
State  Legislature  in  1839,  1840  and  1846,  and  was  Speaker  in  1847,  l848 
and  1854.  He  was  a  U.  S.  Senator  from  1855  to  l86.7>  ancl  served  on  the 
committees  on  land  claims,  public  lands,  pensions,  the  judiciary  and  foreign 
relations,  and  was  president  of  the  Senate  from  1865  to  1867.  He  was 
Speaker  of  the  Connecticut  Assembly  in  1870,  and  was  a  judge  of  the  State 
Supreme  Court  from  1870  to  1876. 

Foster,  Stephen  S.  (1809-1881),  anti-slavery  agitator,  studied  for  the 
ministry,  but  zealously  opposed  the  pulpit  for  upholding  slavery,  and  pub- 
lished "The  Brotherhood  of  Thieves:  a  True  Picture  of  the  American 
Church  and  Clergy,"  and  many  articles  on  the  abolition  of  slavery. 

Four  Years'  Law,  a  law  passed  by  Congress  in  May,  1820,  limiting  the 
term  of  office  of  all  persons  employed  in  collecting  the  revenue  to  four  years. 
The  bill  was  hurried  through  with  little  debate  and  signed  by  President 
Monroe  after  a  brief  consideration.  Its  purpose  was  avowedly  to  bring 
revenue  accounts  for  inspection  each  year  and  withhold  reappointment  for 
remissness.  Its  framers  have  been  suspected  of  passing  it  in  order  to 
strengthen  Crawford's  chances  for  the  Presidency.  At  all  events,  its  passage 
much  facilitated  the  growth  of  the  spoils  system.  It  included  all  postmasters. 

Fox,  George  (1624-1691),  founder  of  the  Society  of  Friends,  came  to 
America  and  visited  the  colonies  of  Maryland,  New  Jersey,  New  York  and 
Rhode  Island  (1671-73). 

Fox,  Gustavus  V.  (1821-1883),  enlisted  in  the  navy  in  1838,  and  served 
most  efficiently  as  Assistant  Secretary  of  the  Navy  from  1861  to  1865,  when 
he  was  sent  to  Russia  on  a  special  commission  and  secured  Alaska  for  the 
United  States. 

Foxes,  a  tribe  of  Algonquin  Indians  and  kinsmen  of  the  Sacs.  They 
were  early  driven  from  place  to  place,  and  finally  settled  on  the  Wisconsin. 
In  the  Revolution  they  joined  the  British  under  De  Langlade.  They  made 
a  treaty  in  1804  and  ceded  lands,  but  with  the  English  attacked  Sandusky 
in  the  War  of  1812.  In  1824  and  l83°  tney  ceded  large  tracts  of  land. 
Though  involved  in  the  Black  Hawk  War  they  gave  up  more  of  their  terri- 
tory in  a  treaty  with  General  Scott  at  its  close.  Later  they  centred  on  the 
Des  Moines,  and  in  1842  were  removed,  settling  on  the  Osage. 

France.  The  first  treaty  which  the  independent  States  of  North  America 
made  was  with  France,  February  6,  1778.  An  offensive  and  defensive  alli- 
ance was  thus  effected  between  the  two  countries  against  Great  Britain,  and 
the  "  essential  and  direct  end  "  was  to  maintain  the  sovereignty  and  inde- 
pendence of  the  United  States.  The  United  States,  as  an  equivalent,  guar- 
anteed to  the  crown  of  France  all  its  then  possessions  in  the  West  India 


244  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Islands;  exclusive  mutual  privileges  were  granted  as  to  ships  of  war  and 
privateers  bringing  prizes  into  port.  France  powerfully  aided  in  securing 
American  independence,  by  troops  under  Rochambeau  and  fleets  under 
D'Estaing  and  De  Grasse.  The  attempt  of  the  United  States  to  escape  the 
responsibilities  of  its  guarantees  gave  rise  to  strained  relations  during  the 
French  Revolution,  but  the  treaty  of  1800  (to  remain  in  force  eight  years) 
restored  good  feeling  between  the  two  countries,  and  in  the  amendments  on 
each  side  the  old  treaties  entirely  disappeared.  On  April  30,  1803,  France 
ceded  to  the  United  States  the  province  of  Louisiana,  as  it  had  been  retro- 
ceded  from  Spain  to  France  in  1800,  for  the  payment  of  60,000,000  francs, 
independent  of  the  assumption  of  spoliation  claims  against  France,  which 
amounted  to  20,000,000  francs  more.  In  1831  a  mutual  settlement  of  all 
claims  was  agreed  upon  between  the  two  countries,  the  United  States  agree- 
ing to  pay  1,500,000  francs,  and  France  25,000,000.  Difficulties  arising 
from  this  treaty  postponed  the  fulfillment  of  its  provisions,  and  it  was  not 
until  1836  that  the  whole  matter  was  settled.  Conventions  for  the  extradi-. 
tion  of  criminals  were  concluded  in  1843,  1845,  1858  and  1893.  A  consular 
convention  was  concluded  in  1853.  French  difficulties  in  Mexico,  the  Civil 
War  of  the  United  States  and  the  war  of  1870-71  between  France  and 
Germany  gave  rise  to  claims  on  the  part  of  citizens  of  each  country  against 
the  other.  Accordingly  the  convention  of  1880  was  concluded  by  which 
commissioners  were  appointed  for  the  settlement  of  these  claims.  The  com- 
missioners finally  allowed  claims  of  $2,636.21  against  France,  and  claims  of 
$625,566.35  against  the  United  States.  A  reciprocity  treaty  was  concluded 
March  15,  1892.  (See  also  French  Revolution,  and  Directory.) 

Frank,  Manor  of,  a  territory  with  privilege  of  local  self-government 
granted  to  certain  Welsh  colonists,  known  as  the  "  Free  Society  of  Traders," 
by  William  Penn,  March  20,  1682.  The  grant  empowered  them  to  hold 
courts  of  sessions  and  jail  deliveries,  and  to  appoint  certain  civil  officers. 
The  company  purchased  20,000  acres,  of  Penn. 

Frankfort,  Ky.,  was  laid  out  in  1787,  and  was  made  the  capital  of  the 
State  in  1792.  It  was  held  by  the  Southern  forces  for  a  month  in  1862. 

Frankfort  Land  Company,  a  company  formed  in  1686  of  wealthy  and 
distinguished  persons  of  Germany  and  Holland.  The  members  were  chiefly 
Pietists,  and  they  had  intended  coming  to  Pennsylvania  themselves,  but 
gave  up  the  idea,  so  the  colonists  were  led  by  Francis  Daniel  Pastorius,  a 
lawyer  and  scholar.  They  came  out  in  1683,  and  began  the  foundation  of 
Germantown  the  same  year.  Later  the  company  was  organized,  and  25,000 
acres  were  purchased  from  William  Penn. 

Franking  Privilege,  a  privilege  formerly  enjoyed  by  the  President,  Vice- 
President,  the  Cabinet  officers,  the  members  of  Congress,  the  delegates  from 
the  Territories  ai»d  a  few  others,  of  sending  mail  matter  free.  To  each  of 
the  first  four  Presidents  this  privilege  was  voted  for  the  remainder  of  his 
life,  and  it  has  also  been  voted  to  the  widows  of  ex-Presidents.  The  privi- 
lege as  regards  individuals  was  abolished  in  February,  1873,  but  there  is 
still  a  provision  permitting  packages  and  business  letters  to  be  sent  free  from 
the  departments. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  245 

Frankland,  Sir  Charles  Henry  (1716-1768),  collector  of  the  port  of 
Boston  from  1741  to  1757,  is  noted  on  account  of  his  romantic  connection 
with  Agnes  Surriage,  a  maid  at  a  Massachusetts  tavern,  who  afterward 
became  Lady  Frankland.  He  was  a  man  of  great  wealth,  and  lived  in  a 
state  of  luxury  unusual  in  colonial  times. 

Frankland  or  Franklin,  the  name  given  to  a  State  assumed  to  be  organ* 
ized  by  the  inhabitants  of  what  is  now  Tennessee,  in  1784,  in  revolt  from 
the  control  of  North  Carolina.  A  Constitution  was  framed  and  ratified  by 
popular  vote,  a  Legislature  and  a  Governor,  John  Sevier,  were  elected,  and 
civil  war  with  the  older  parts  of  North  Carolina  seemed  imminent.  But  the 
party  favorable  t~  the  old  government  suppressed  the  State  government  of 
Frankland  in  17  S8,  and  the  cession  of  the  lands  to  the  United  States,  in 
1790,  quieted  the  disturbance. 

Franklin,  Benjamin  (January  17,  I7o6-April  17,  1790),  one  of  the  most 
eminent  American  statesmen,  philosophers  and  writers,  was  born  in  Boston, 
the  son  of  a  tallow-chandler  and  soap-boiler.  He  was  apprerticed  to  his  elder 
brother,  a  printer,  and  developed  an  eager  fondness  for  books  ar.d  writing. 
At  seventeen  he  ran  away  to  Philadelphia,  where,  in  1729,  he  established  a 
newspaper.  His  public  spirit,  his  talents  as  a  writer  and  the  fame  of  his 
scientific  discoveries  advanced  him  in  prominence.  In  1753  he  was  appointed 
deputy  postmaster-general  of  the  British  colonies.  In  1754,  being  a  member 
of  the  Albany  Convention,  he  proposed  an  important  plan  for  colonial  union. 
From  1757  to  1762,  and  again  from  1764  to  the  Revolution,  he  was  agent  of 
Pennsylvania  in  England;  part  of  the  time,  also,  for  Massachusetts,  New 
Jersey  and  Georgia.  In  1773,  acting  as  agent  for  the  political  leaders  in 
Massachusetts,  he  sent  over  to  them  the  correspondence  of  Hutchinson, 
Oliver  and  other  Massachusetts  loyalists  with  a  confidant  of  the  British 
Ministry.  The  publication  of  the  letters  aroused  great  excitement  in  the 
colonies,  and  brought  down  tipon  Franklin  violent  abuse  on  the  part  of  the 
ministerialists,  and  dismissal  from  his  office  of  postmaster-general.  In  1775, 
seeing  that  reconciliation  was  impossible,  he  returned  to  Pennsylvania,  and 
was  at  once  chosen  a  delegate  to  the  Continental  Congress.  In  1776  he  was 
one  of  the  committee  of  five  who  drew  up  the  Declaration  of  Independence, 
and  in  the  autumn  was  sent  to  join  Arthur  Lee  and  Silas  Deane  in  the 
mission  to  France.  In  Paris  he  was  received  with  great  enthusiasm.  He 
succeeded  in  obtaining  from  the  French  Government  not  only  the  treaty  of 
1778,  but  also  large  sums  of  money  supplied  in  secret  before  that  govern- 
ment declared  war  on  England  and  openly  afterward.  Franklin  had  a  leading 
part  in  the  beginnings  of  negotiation  with  Great  Britain  for  peace  and 
independence.  In  respect  to  the  actual  manner  in  which  the  treaty  was 
concluded,  he  was  overruled  by  Adams  and  Jay,  who  deemed  it  best,  con- 
trary to  the  instructions  of  Congress,  to  negotiate  apart  from  France  and 
make  separate  terms.  Franklin  played  an  important  part  in  the  arrange- 
ments of  the  treaty,  especially  those  respecting  the  loyalists.  After  the 
Treaty  of  Versailles  had  thus  been  signed  (September  3,  1783),  Franklin 
negotiated  a  favorable  treaty  with  Prussia.  In  1785  Franklin  returned  to 
America,  and  was  chosen  president  of  Pennsylvania,  and  again  in  1786 
and  1787.  He  was  an  influential  member  of  the  Convention  of  1787,  and 


246  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

died  at  Philadelphia  a  few  years  later.  Beside  his  eminence  as  a  statesman 
and  as  a  philosopher  and  scientific  discoverer,  Franklin  was  noted  as  a 
shrewd  and  practical  philanthropist,  and  was  one  of  the  best  of  English 
writers.  Writings  edited  by  Sparks  (1850)  and  by  Ford  (1887);  autobi- 
ography; lives  by  Parton  and  Hale. 

Franklin,  William  (1729-1813),  last  royal  Governor  of  New  Jersey,  was 
an  illegitimate  son  of  Benjamin  Franklin.  During  a  residence  in  Great 
Britain  he  was  appointed  Governor  of  New  Jersey,  and  held  the  office  from 
1762  to  1776.  In  that  year  he  was  arrested  as  a  Tory  by  the  provincial 
Congress  of  New  Jersey.  In  1778  he  was  exchanged,  lived  in  New  York 
till  the  close  of  the  Revolutionary  War,  and  then  retired  tc  .England,  where 
he  died. 

Franklin,  William  B.,  general,  born  in  Pennsylvania  in  1823,  was 
graduated  at  West  Point  in  1843,  and  served  with  distinction  in  the  Mexi- 
can War,  during  which  he  was  attached  to  the  staff  of  General  Taylor. 
From  this  time  to  1861,  he  was  engaged  in  engineering  work  for  the  Gov- 
ernment. He  entered  the  Civil  War  as  a  colonel  of  the  regular  army,  and 
took  part  in  most  of  the  battles  of  the  Peninsular  campaign,  commanding 
the  Sixth  Army  Corps  throughout  the  year  1862.  At  Fredericksburg  he 
commanded  the  left  wing,  and  was  removed  by  General  Burnside  after  the 
battle.  The  order  of  removal  was  not  approved  by  President  Lincoln,  and 
Burnside  resigned  his  command.  In  1863-64  Franklin  commanded  the 
Nineteenth  Corps  and  took  part  in  the  Red  River  expedition. 

Franklin,  Tenn.,  scene  of  an  important  battle  of  the  Civil  War,  Novem- 
ber 30,  1864.  General  Hood,  Confederate,  attempted  to  draw  Sherman  back 
from  his  march  through  Georgia  by  moving  northward  into  Tennessee  and 
attacking  Thomas.  At  Franklin  Hood  brought  to  a  stand  a  portion  of 
Thomas'  army  under  Schofield,  and,  after  several  desperate  attacks,  com- 
pelled him  to  withdraw.  But  the  Confederate  loss  was  5500,  while  that  of 
Schofield  was  2300.  Soon  followed  Thomas'  great  victory  over  Hood  at 
Nashville. 

Franklin  and  Marshall  College  Lancaster,  Pa.,  under  the  control  of  the 
Reformed  (German)  Church,  was  founded  in  1853  by  the  consolidation  of 
Franklin  College  (founded.  1787)  and  Marshall  College  (founded  1836).  Its 
theological  seminary  was  founded  in  1825. 

Fraser,  Simon  (1729-1777),  British  brigadier-general,  who  in  1776  had 
commanded  at  Three  Rivers,  had  command  of  Burgoyne's  right  wing  in  his 
advance  upon  New  York.  He  won  the  victory  of  Hubbardton  on  July  7, 
1777,  but  was  mortally  wounded  in  the  battle  of  Saratoga,  October  7. 

Frayser's  (or  Fraser's)  Farm,  Va.,  also  called  Glendale,  an  action  in  the 
Seven  Days'  righting  in  the  Peninsular  campaign,  on  the  fifth  day,  June  30, 
1862.  McClellan  was  retreating  to  the  James,  pursued  by  Jackson.  Long- 
street  and  A.  P.  Hill  attacked  him  at  Frayser's  Farm,  intending  to  pierce 
his  line.  The  Confederates  attacked  McCalPs  division  with  reckless  impetu- 
osity, but  failed  to  break  the  line.  They  lost  7000  men  killed,  wounded 
and  missing,  the  Federals  4000. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HisTo&Y.  547 

Frederic  II.  (1712-1786),  King  of  Prussia  from  1740  to  1786,  in  1783 
instructed  his  ambassador  in  Paris  to  make  friendly  overtures  to  the  Minis- 
ters of  the  United  States  there.  Offers  of  a  treaty  of  commerce  and  naviga- 
tion were  made  in  1784,  and  in  1785  such  a  treaty  was  signed.  Frederic 
sent  General  Washington  a  sword.  "  from  the  oldest  general  in  the  world  to 
the  greatest." 

Frederica,  Ga.,  on  St.  Simon's  Island,  was  founded  by  General  Ogle- 
thorpe  in  1736,  an  armed  colony  being  settled  there  to  guard  the  frontier 
against  the  Spaniards.  In  1742,  during  the  war  between  England  and 
Spain,  Frederica  was  attacked  by  a  large  force  of  Spaniards  by  land  and  sea, 
but  Oglethorpe  succeeded  in  holding  it  until  the  arrival  of  English  ships 
drove  the  besiegers  away. 

Fredericksburg,  Va.,  scene  of  one  of  the  most  important  battles  of  the 
Civil  War,  December  13,  1862.  Burnside  had  been  appointed  to  the  com- 
mand of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac  on  November  7.  He  resolved  to  make  a 
direct  march  on  Richmond,  and  moved  his  troops  to  the  heights  opposite 
Fredericksburg,  on  the  north  side  of  the  Rappahannock.  His  force  num- 
bered about  125,000.  The  right  was  commanded  by  Sumner,  the  centre  by 
Hooker,  the  left  wing  by  Franklin.  The  army  of  Lee,  80,000  in  number,  was 
strongly  intrenched  on  the  heights  behind  Fredericksburg,  the  right  being 
commanded  by  Jackson,  the  left  by  Longs treet.  A  road  connected  these 
wings.  A  stone  wall  ran  along  the  foot  of  the  heights  between  the  left 
wing  and  the  town.  The  Federal  forces  crossed  the  river  by  three  pontoon 
bridges  during  the  two  days  preceding  the  battle.  Burnside's  plan  was  that 
Franklin  should  make  the  chief  attack  and  seize  the  road,  and  that  Sumner 
and  Hooker  should  then  carry  the  stone  wall  and  the  heights  behind  it. 
Franklin  did  not  employ  enough  troops  to  effect  the  object  assigned  him. 
Sumner' s  troops  attacked  the  fortifications  on  Marye's  Heights  with  great 
bravery  and  persistency,  but  were  finally  repulsed  with  great  slaughter  at  the 
stone  wall.  The  assault  made  by  Hooker's  forces  at  another  portion  of  the 
wall  was  also  repulsed  with  terrible  slaughter,  lacking  support  from  Franklin. 
The  Federal  loss  in  the  battle  was  12,800,  the  Confederate  4300.  Two  days 
later  Burnside  withdrew  from  Fredericksburg.  On  the  thirtieth  he  and 
Franklin  were  relieved  of  their  commands. 

Free  Banking  System.  In  1838  the  New  York  State  Government  estab- 
lished a  "  free  banking  "  system,  which  set  the  fashion  of  reform  elsewhere 
and  was  followed  as  a  basis  of  the  national  banking  system  of  1863.  Under 
this  system  the  practice  of  granting  special  charters  was  abandoned.  Any 
persons  could  form  a  bank  who  should  deposit  securities  with  the  State  to 
the  full  amount  of  its  circulating  notes.  Many  of  the  other  States  quickly 
followed  New  York's  example,  for  the  unregulated  banking  methods  were 
beginning  to  affect  seriously  the  State  finances. 

Free  Masons.  An  attempt  to  introduce  freemasonry  into  the  colonies  was 
made  in  1730  by  the  appointment  of  a  provincial  grand  master  of  New  Jersey, 
but  so  far  as  is  known  the  first  lodge  was  established  in  1733  at  Boston. 
Others  speedily  followed.  After  the  securing  of  independence  the  lodges 


248  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

established  grand  lodges  in  the  separate  States.     For  the  history  of  the 
opposition  to  freemasonry  in  the  United  States,  see  Anti-Masonic  party. 

Free  Negroes.  According  to  the  census  of  1790,  there  were  59,481  free 
colored  persons  in  the  United  States.  Of  these  28,558  were  in  the  Southern 
States,  as  against  about  647,000  slaves,  17,852  in  the  Middle  States,  as  against 
about  45,000  slaves,  and  13,071  in  New  England,  as  against  about  3800 
slaves.  As  aversion  to  slavery  decreased  in  the  South,  emancipation  was 
made  less  easy,  and  free  negroes  were  put  under  certain  disabilities.  The 
view  that  they  were  a  dangerous  element  in  the  population  strengthened  the 
movement  for  colonization  of  them  in  Africa  (see  arts.  Colonization  Society, 
Liberia).  In  1857  the  Supreme  Court  declared  that  free  negroes  were  not 
citizens  of  the  United  States  (see  Dred  Scott).  The  Thirteenth  Amendment 
made  all  negroes  free. 

"  Free  Ships,  Free  Goods."  A  popular  summary  of  the  doctrine  that,  in 
time  of  war,  all  goods,  whether  belonging  to  neutrals  or  to  members  of  the 
belligerent  states,  are,  if  carried  in  neutral  vessels,  thereby  exempted  from 
capture,  unless  they  are  by  nature  contraband  of  war.  This  doctrine  was 
generally  held  by  neutrals.  It  was  maintained  by  the  United  States  during 
the  wars  between  England  and  France,  1793-1815.  England,  on  the  other 
hand,  had  always  maintained  that  the  determining  characteristic  was  the 
ownership  of  the  property,  whatever  the  ownership  of  the  vessel.  This  was  one 
of  the  differences  from  which  arose  the  War  of  1812.  The  Treaty  of  Ghent 
did  not  settle  the  question.  By  the  Declaration  of  Paris  (1856)  it  was  agreed 
by  the  signatory  powers  that  fre'e  ships  should  make  free  goods,  and  indeed 
that  both  enemy's  goods  in  neutral  ships  and  neutral  goods  in  enemy's  ships 
should  be  exempt  from  capture.  While  the  United  States  did  not  accede  to 
the  Declaration  as  a  whole,  they  naturally  welcomed  this  part  of  it 

Free  Society  of  Traders,  a  Welsh  colonization  company  formed  in  1682 
to  establish  colonies  in  Pennsylvania.  March  20  of  that  year,  William  Penn 
granted  them  the  "  Manor  of  Frank,"  with  privileges  of  local  self-govern- 
ment, and  later  they  bought  from  Penn  20,000  acres  of  land. 

Free-Soil  Party,  a  short-lived  party  of  anti-slavery  men,  which  sprang 
into  existence  in  1848.  Immediately  after  Taylor's  nomination  a  plan  was 
laid  for  a  great  anti-slavery  meeting  at  Buffalo  in  August.  Thousands 
attended  the  meeting,  chiefly  of  two  elements:  the  members  of  the  Liberty 
party,  though  in  October,  1847,  they  had  nominated  John  P.  Hale  as  candi- 
date for  President;  and  the  "  Barnburners,"  or  dissatisfied  anti-administration 
Democrats  of  New  York,  followers  of  Van  Buren,  desirous  of  avenging  him 
for  the  nomination  of  Polk  in  1844.  These 'last  had  in  June  nominated 
Van  Buren  by  convention  held  at  Utica.  The  Buffalo  Convention,  com- 
posed of  these  two  partly- incongruous  elements,  nominated  Van  Buren  and 
C.  F.  Adams.  Its  resolutions  declared  that  Congress  had  no  more  power  to 
make  a  slave  than  to  make  a  king,  and  ought  to  keep  slavery  out  of  the 
Territories.  The  "  Free-Soilers  "  polled  291,263  votes  in  1848.  They  were 
strongest  in  New  York,  Massachusetts  and  Ohio.  They  also  won  fourteen 
Congressmen,  and  in  the  next  Hpuse  had  seventeen.  In  1852  the  Van  Buren 
faction  was  reunited  with  the  regular  Democracy.  The  Free-Soilers  met  in 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  249 

convention  at  Pittsburgh  in  August,  and  nominated  John  P.  Hale  and 
George  W.  Julian,  but  polled  only  155,825  votes.  The  Kansas-Nebraska 
Bill  called  into  existence  the  Republican  party,  and  the  Free-Soil  party  was 
absorbed  in  it. 

Freedmen's  Bureau,  a  bureau  of  the  War  Department  of  the  United  States 
Government,  established  by  Act  of  March  3,  1865,  to  have  general  charge 
of  the  interests  of  the  enfranchised  negroes  of  the  Southern  States.  Its  title 
was  "  bureau  of  refugees,  freedmen  and  abandoned  lands,"  and  it  was  author- 
ized to  assign  to  the  freedmen  allotments  of  confiscated  or  abandoned  lands 
given  over  to  it  by  the  President  for  such  purposes.  It  was  to  continue  one 
year.  A  bill  continuing  it  for  two  years  more  was  vetoed  by  President  John- 
son in  -866,  but  was  passed  over  the  veto.  Its  general  work  continued  till 
1869,  its  educational  work  till  1870.  It  expended  in  its  work  over  $15,000,000. 

Freeman's  Farm,  N.  Y.,  an  indecisive  battle,  September  19,  1777,  between 
the  British  army  under  Burgoyne,  and  Gates  commanding  the  Continental 
troops.  The  latter  was  worsted  at  first,  but  Benedict  Arnold  attacked  Bur- 
goyne's  centre  and  saved  the  Americans. 

Freewill  Baptists.  This  denomination  originated  in  1780,  in  a  church 
founded  at  New  Durham,  N.  H.,  by  Benjamin  Randall,  and  professing  the 
doctrines  of  free  salvation  and  open  communion.  Their  general  conference 
originated  in  1827.  ^n  I^9°  tneY  numbered  1586  churches  and  about 
88,000  members. 

Frelinghuysen,  Frederick  T.  (1817-1885),  nephew  of  Theodore,  was 
Senator  from  New  Jersey  from  1866  to  1869,  and  from  1871  to  1877,  and  a 
member  of  the  Electoral  Commission  of  1877.  From  1881  to  1885  he  was 
Secretary  of  State  in  General  Arthur's  Cabinet. 

Frelinghuysen,  Theodore  (1787-1861),  Senator  from  New  Jersey  from 
1829  to  1835,  was  nominated  for  Vice- President  by  the  Whigs  in  1844  on 
the  ticket  with  Clay,  but  defeated.  From  1839  to  1850  he  was  chancellor 
of  the  University  of  New  York,  and  from  1850  to  his  death  president  of 
Rutgers  College.  •  . 

Fremont,  John  Charles  (1813-1890),  was  born  in  Norfolk,  Va.,  and  edu- 
cated at  Charleston,  S.  C.  After  a  brief  service  in  the  navy  he  joined  the 
U.  S.  corps  of  topographical  engineers,  and  married  the  daughter  of  Senator 
Benton.  In  1842  he  explored  a  portion  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  In  1843 
and  1844,  with  remarkable  skill  and  energy,  he  conducted  an  exploration  of 
the  regions  of  Utah,  the  basin  of  the  Columbia,  and  the  passes  of  the  Sierra 
Nevada.  In  1846,  while  in  conduct  of  another  exploration  in  California,  he 
assisted  in  the  Bear  Flag  War,  alleging  instructions  from  Washington, 
co-operated  with  Commodore  Stockton  in  the  conquest  of  California,  but 
was  court-martialed  for  disobedience  to  General  Kearny.  In  1848  he 
explored,  amid  great  hardships,  the  paths  from  Sante  Fe"  to  Sacramento,  and 
made  a  similar  expedition  in  1853  and  1854.  These  explorations  made  him 
famous  as  the  "  Pathfinder,"  and  in  1856  the  new  Republican  party  made 
him  its  candidate  for  the  Presidency,  but  was  defeated.  In  1861  he  com- 
manded in  Missouri,  but,  prematurely  ordering  emancipation,  was  removed. 


250  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

In  1862  he  commanded  against  Jackson  in  the  Valley.  In  1864  he  was 
nominated  for  the  Presidency  by  a  convention  of  radical  Republicans  dis- 
satisfied with  Mr.  Lincoln,  but  finally  withdrew.  A  partial  autobiography 
has  been  published. 

French  and  Indian  War  (1754-1763),  the  American  phase  of  the  Seven 
Years'  War,  and  the  culminating  portion  of  the  struggle  between  France  and 
England  for  the  possession  of  North  America.  In  1754  France  claimed  the 
whole  region  west  of  the  Alleghanies  as  a  part  of  the  basins  of  the  St.  Law- 
rence and  the  Mississippi.  England  laid'  claim  to  all  the  country  west  of  its 
Atlantic  settlements.  The  French  colonists  numbered  only  about  80,000 
whites,  the  English  more  than  1,100,000.  But  the  latter  were  divided  under 
thirteen  discordant  governments  and  were  industrial,  while  the  French  rule 
was  unified  and  military,  and  had  help  from  the  Indians.  The  war  began 
with  a  struggle  for  Pittsburgh  (Fort  Duquesne),  Washington  attacking  the 
French  at  Great  Meadows  and  being  forced  to  surrender  at  Fort  Necessity 
(1754).  In  1755  the  English  planned  four  attacks:  Braddock's  expedition 
against  Fort  Duquesne,  and  others  by  way  of  Lake  Champlain,  by  way  of 
Oswego  and  Niagara,  and  against  the  French  posts  near  Nova  Scotia.  The 
first  was  disastrous,  the  second  and  third  accomplished  nothing  substantial, 
but  the  fourth  was  successful.  'From  1756  on,  the  French  and  Indians  being 
under  the  command  of  the  able  Marquis  of  Montcalm,  the  English  made  no 
progress  until  the  advent  of  William  Pitt  to  the  head  of  the  ministry  in 
England  in  1757-  He  formed  a  general  scheme  of  conquest  in  America.  In 
1758  Amherst  and  Wolfe  took  Louisbourg,  Bradstreet  captured  Fort  Front- 
enac  and  Forbes  took  Fort  Duquesne.  Encouraged  by  these  successes,  Pitt 
undertook  the  conquest  of  Canada.  In  1759  Amherst  took  Ticonderoga  and 
Crown  Point,  while  Prideaux  took  Niagara.  But  the  chief  operation  of  the 
year  was  a  direct  attack  upon  Quebec,  entrusted  to  General  Wolfe,  who  cap- 
tured that  town,  considered  impregnable,  by  means  of  the  battle  upon  the 
Plains  of  Abraham.  The  French  were  unable  to  retake  Quebec.  Montreal 
was  taken  in  1760,  and  the  conquest  of  Canada  was  completed.  The  French 
empire  in  North  America  came  to  an  end.  By  the  peace  of  Paris  (1763) 
France  resigned  to  England  all  her  possessions  east  of  the  Mississippi,  and 
to  Spain  New  Orleans  and  all  her  possessions  west  of  that  river.  To  the 
colonists  the  war  was  important  as  relieving  them  from  the  pressure  of  hostile 
neighbors,  as  giving  them  military  experience  and  as  enforcing  the  necessity 
of  union. 

French  Creek  (near  Clayton,  N.  Y.).  General  Brown,  here  entrenched 
with  his  division,  was  attacked  November  i,  1813,  by  a  small  British  fleet. 
A  battery,  skillfully  handled,  drove  them  back  in  two  engagements.  The 
British  loss  was  severe,  the  American  slight. 

French  Revolution.  The  French  Revolution  began  with  the  meeting  of 
the  States  General  in  May,  1789,  and  continued  through  the  period  of  the 
National  Assembly  and  Legislative  Assembly  and  Convention  to  1795,  or, 
if  the  Directory  be  included,  to  1799.  It  not  only  started  movements  of 
enormous  and  permanent  effect  in  Europe,  but  exerted  a  great  influence  in 
America.  At  first  Americans  were  favorable  to  it,  as  to  a  natural  con- 
sequence of  the  American  Revolution  and  a  movement  in  favor  of  human 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  251 

liberty  and  progress.  But  the  execution  of  the  king  in  January,  1793,  and 
the  ensuing  Reign  of  Terror  increased  the  conservative  feeling  against  it. 
It  was  one  of  the  main  matters  upon  which  our  first  parties  were  divided,  the 
Federalists  opposing  it,  the  Republicans  favoring  it;  with  the  result  that  the 
former  seemed  to  be  especially  the  friends  of  England,  the  latter  of  France, 
attacking  Washington's  administration  with  great  vigor  on  account  of  his 
neutrality. 

French  Spoliation  Claims.  During  the  difficulties  with  France  in  1798, 
which  nearly  amounted  to  a  state  of  war,  French  war-vessels  and  privateers 
committed  many  depredations  upon  American  commerce,  and  many  similar 
acts  had  been  committed  before,  in  the  course  of  the  war  between  France 
and  Great  Britain.  The  American  negotiators  in  1798,  1799  and  1800 
attempted  to  obtain  redress  for  these.  But  in  the  convention  finally  nego- 
tiated with  the  First  Consul  Bonaparte  in  1800,  it  was  found  necessary  to 
drop  the  claim.  The  claims  were  then  made  against  the  U.  S.  Government 
by  its  injured  citizens.  Bills  for  their  relief  were  vetoed  by  Polk  in  1846 
and  Pierce  in  1855.  In  1885  they  were  referred  to  the  Court  of  Claims, 
before  which  several  thousand  such  cases  have  now  come. 

Frenchtown,  now  Monroe,  in  Southeast  Michigan,  scene  of  a  battle  in  the 
War  of  1812,  on  January  22,  1813.  The  British  were  driven  out  of  the  town 
on  the  twentieth  by  Winchester,  commanding  the  advance  of  Harrison's  forces 
intended  for  the  reduction  of  Detroit.  On  the  twenty-second  the  British, 
under  Colonel  Proctor,  fell  upon  Winchester,  and  compelled  him  to  surrender. 
Many  of  the  prisoners  were  massacred  by  the  Indian  allies  of  the  British. 
Hence  the  affair  is  sometimes  called  the  Massacre  of  the  River  Raisin. 

Freneau,  Philip  (1752-1832),  poet,  was  graduated  at  Princeton  in  1771' 
He  wrote  several  popular  poems  during  the  Revolutionary  War,  and  edited 
various  periodicals.  In  1790  he  became  editor  of  the  New  York  Daily 
Advertiser.  He  was  soon  appointed  by  Jefferson  translator  for  the  State 
Department,  and  became  editor  of  the  National  Gazette,  in  which  he  abused 
the  Federalists  so  violently  that  his  official  connection  with  Jefferson  led  to 
embarrassing  criticisms  upon  the  latter. 

Friends,  or  Quakers.  In  1656  Quakers  began  to  come  to  Massachusetts, 
where  they  were  imprisoned,  banished,  and  in  four  cases  in  which  they 
returned,  hanged.  Charles  II.  put  a  stop  to  the  persecution.  George  Fox, 
their  founder,  visited  America  in  1671-73.  Friends  settled  largely  in  Rhode 
Island,  and  especially  in  Pennsylvania,  which,  founded  by  a  Quaker  (Penn), 
was  largely  a  Quaker  colony.  New  Jersey  also  was  largely  settled  by 
Quakers.  Everywhere  they  were  thrifty  and  excellent  citizens,  though  their 
aversion  to  war  hampered  Pennsylvania  in  making  successful  defence  against 
the  French.  They  were  constantly  forward  in  movements  of  philanthropy 
and  reform,  and  had  a  most  important  part  in  the  abolition  movement.  In 
1827  occurred  a  rupture  between  the  "  Orthodox  "  Friends  and  the  Hicksites, 
or  followers  of  Elias  Hicks,  the  dispute  being  with  regard  to  the  atonement. 
In  1890  the  Friends  numbered  107,000. 

Fries,  John  (?  17 64-?! 82 5),  leader  of  a  small  insurrection  against  the  U.  S. 
Government  in  Northampton,  Bucks  and  Montgomery  counties,  Pa.,  in  the 


252  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

spring  of  1799,  raised  several  hundred  men  in  opposition  to  the  direct 
tax  on  houses  ("  window  tax  "),  and  at  Bethlehem  resisted  a  U.  S.  Marshal. 
Convicted  of  treason  in  1799  and  again  upon  a  new  trial  in  1800,  he  was 
sentenced  to  death,  but  was  pardoned  by  President  Adams. 

Frobisher,  Sir  Martin  (?i 535-1594))  an  English  navigator,  in  1576  sailed 
to  find  the  northwest  passage,  and  discovered  Frobisher's  Strait.  Later  he 
made  other  voyages  toward  the  northwest  and  took  part  in  the  destruction 
of  the  Spanish  Armada. 

"  Frolic,"  brig.     (See  "  Wasp.") 

Fromentin,  Judge  of  the  western  district  of  Florida  in  1821.  Callava, 
the  Spanish  ex-Governor,  applied  to  him  for  a  writ  of  habeas  corpus  when 
he,  Callava,  was  arrested  at  Andrew  Jackson's  orders.  Fromentin  granted 
the  writ.  Jackson  deemed  this  contempt  and  a  quarrel  followed.  Each 
appealed  to  the  President. 

Front  Royal,  Va.,  an  action  in  Jackson's  Valley  campaign,  May  23,  1862. 
Banks  lay  at  Strasburg,  with  a  large  detachment  at  Front  Royal  under 
Colonel  Kenly.  After  forced  marches  Jackson  surprised  and  routed  Kenly. 

Frontenac,  Louis  de  Buade,  Count  (1620-1698),  Governor  of  New  France, 
a  man  of  high  military  reputation,  was  appointed  to  that  post  in  1672. 
Being  a  man  of  violent  passions  and  great  self-will  he  quarreled  with  the 
intendant  Duchesneau,  the  priests  and  the  Jesuits,  and  was  recalled  in  1682. 
But  in  1689,  the  colony  having  fallen  into  grave  difficulties,  he  was  reap- 
poi:ited.  He  organized  the  war  against  the  English  with  great  spirit  and 
skill,  and  sent  out  in  1690  the  expeditions  which  destroyed  Schenectady, 
N.  Y.,  Salmon  Falls,  N.  H.,  and  Casco,  Maine.  In  the  same  year  he  repulsed 
the  attack  of  Sir  William  Phips  upon  Quebec.  In  1696  he  invaded  in  person 
the  country  of  the  Iroquois  and  inflicted  upon  them  a  crushing  defeat. 

.Frontenac,  Fort,  a  fort  established  by  Count  Frontenac  in  1672,  on  the 
present  site  of  Kingston,  Ontario.  Abandoned  in  1689,  it  was  reoccupied  in 
1696.  In  1758  it  was  captured  and  destroved  by  Bradstreet,  with  3000 
men,  mostly  provincials. 

Frontier  Posts.     The  treaty  of  peace  with  Great  Britain  (1783)  provided 
flat  the  boundary  of  the  United  States  should  be  Lakes  Ontario,  Erie,  St.. 
Clair,  Huron  and  Superior,  and  that  the  British  should  at  once  evacuate 'all' 
posts  within  the  United  States.     But  Great  Britain  continued  to  hold  the 
posts  on  the  great  lakes,  Oswegatchie  (now  Ogdensburg),  Oswego,  Niagara, 
Presque  Isle  (now  Erie),  Sandusky,  Detroit,  Mackinaw,  and  some  others  of 
less  importance,  on  the  Aground  that  the  American  States  had  not  complied 
with  the  requirement  that  debts   due   to  British  citizens  should  be  paid. 
Again  their  surrender  was  stipulated  in  the  Jay  Treaty,  and  they  were  finally 
given  up  in  June,  1796. 

Frothingham,  Richard  (1812-1880),  editor,  of  Charlestown,  Mass.,  wrote 
a  history  of  the  siege  of  Boston,  published  in  1849,  and  in  l87J  published 
the  "  Rise  of  the  Republic  of  the  United  States." 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  253 

Fry,  James  B.,(i827-i894)an  officer  of  the  U.  S.  army,  was  chief  of  staff 
to  McDowell  and  Buell  from  1861  to  1863,  and  from  1863  to  1866  occupied 
the  responsible  and  difficult  post  of  provost-marshal-general  of  the  army. 

Frye,  William  P.,  born  in  1831,  Senator,  was  Representative  from  Maine 
from  1871  to  1 88 1,  and  was  then  elected  a  Senator,  which  office  he  has  held 
as  a  Republican,  to  the  present  time  (1897). 

Fryeburg,  Me.,  scene  of  an  Indian  fight  in  April,  1725.  John  Lovewell, 
after  two  successful  expeditions  against  the  Indians,  undertaking  a  third, 
was  surprised  and  slain  at  this  place. 

Fuca,  Juan  de,  a  Greek  of  Cephalonia,  asserted  that  in  1592,  sailing  in 
the  Spanish  service  on  the  northwest  coast  of  America,  he  had  sailed  into  a 
strait  in  latitude  47°  or  48°,  which  led  into  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  '  It  has 
been  thought  that  this  was  the  strait  now  called  by  his  name,  but  his  narra- 
tive is  disbelieved  by  good  judges. 

Fuca  Strait.     (See  San  Juan  Arbitration.) 

Fugio,  also  known  as  Franklin  and  sun-dial  cents,  were  the  earliest  copper 
coins  struck  off  by  order  of  the  U.  S.  Government,  from  the  dies  of  Abel 
Buel,  in  1787.  The  first  was  struck  off  in  New  York.  Obverse:  Thirteen 
linked  rings,  making  an  endless  chain.  Legend:  United  States,  inscribed 
around  a  small  central  field  inclosing  inscription,  We  are  one.  Reverse: 
An  erect  sun-dial,  sun  appearing  above.  Legend:  Fugio,  1787.  Exergue: 
Mind  your  business. 

Fugitive  Slaves,  Fugitive  Slave  Laws.  In  all  the  colonies  provision  was 
made  by  law  for  the  arrest  and  return  of  fugitive  slaves.  The  articles  of 
confederation  between  the  New  England  colonies  in  1643  provided  for 
mutual  restoration  between  those  colonies.  Somersett's  case  prevented 
extradition  from  England.  The  Ordinance  for  the  Northwest  Territory 
provided  for  return  of  fugitives  thence.  The  Constitution  of  1787  provided 
that  no  fugitive  slave,  fleeing  into  a  free  State,  should  therefore  be  free,  but 
that  he  should  be  delivered  up  on  claim  by  his  owner.  In  1793  Congress 
passed  the  first  Fugitive  Slave  Act,  providing  that,  on  the  owner's  giving 
proof  of  ownership  before  a  magistrate, of  the  locality  where  the  slave  was 
found,  the  magistrate  should  order  the  slave  delivered  up  to  him,  without 
trial  by  jury.  Hindering  arrest  or  harboring  a  runaway  slave  was  punish- 
able by  fine  of  five  hundred  dollars.  The  law  was  open  to  much  abuse. 
Many  free  negroes  in  Northern  States  were  kidnapped.  Interference  with 
captures  and  rescue  of  arrested  negroes  became  more  frequent  as  anti-slavery 
feeling  increased  in  the  North.  In  Prigg  vs.  Pennsylvania  the  Supreme 
Court  held  that  the  law  must  be  carried  out  by  Federal  authorities  alone; 
States  or  State  authorities  could  not  be  forced  to  act  (1842).  Several  States 
then  forbade  them  to  do  so.  The  escape  of  slaves  to  Canada  was  extensive, 
and  systematically  aided  by  the  Underground  Railway.  (See  art.)  In  1850, 
as  a  part  of  the  compromise  measures  of  that  year,  a  law  was  passed  pro- 
viding for  a  stricter  practice  in  the  matter,  through  U.  S.  commissioners 
appointed  by  the  U.  S.  courts.  Proof  of  identity  and  two  witnesses  to  the 
fact  of  escape  were  all  that  was  required  as  evidence.  The  negro  could  not 


254  DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

testify,  nor  have  jury-trial.  Upon  this  many  Northern  States  passed  "  Per- 
sonal Liberty  Laws  "  for  the  protection  of  negroes.  Some  of  these  conflicted 
with  the  Act  of  1850  and  even  with  the  Constitution.  The  Act  of  1850 
aroused  great  feeling  in  the  North,  the  "  Personal  Liberty  Laws "  in  the 
South.  The  question  of  fugitive  slaves  did  much  to  bring  on  the  Civil 
War.  The  war  and  emancipation  ended  the  whole  matter.  The  acts  were 
repealed  in  1864. 

Fuller,  Margaret,  Marchioness  of  Ossoli  (1810-1850),  of  Cambridge,  Mass., 
a  woman  of  great  learning,  intellectual  gifts  and  social  charm  and  influence, 
and  a  prominent  leader  among  the  Transcendentalists,  was  editor  of  the  Dial^ 
their  organ,  from  1840  to  1842.  She  took  an  interesting  part  in  aiding  the 
Italian  cause  in  1848,  and  was  shipwrecked  and  drowned  off  Long  Island  on 
her  return. 

Fuller,  Melville  W.,  born  in  Maine  in  1833,  was  graduated  at  Bowdoin 
College  in  1853,  and  was  a  lawyer  in  Chicago  from  1856  to  1888.  In  1862 
he  was  a  member  of  the  Illinois  Constitutional  Convention.  In  1888  he  was 
appointed  by  President  Cleveland  Chief  Justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the 
United  States. 

Fulton,  Robert  (1765-1815),  practically  the  inventor  of  the  steamboat, 
was  born  in  Pennsylvania.  At  first  a  portrait-painter,  he  went  to  England 
in  1786.  After  a  few  years  he  began  to  occupy  himself  with  engineering 
and  inventions.  The  subject  of  steam  navigation  already  interested  him. 
From  1797  to  1804  he  resided  in  France,  where,  inventing  the  torpedo,  he 
attempted  to  induce  Napoleon  to  adopt  it,  but  in  vain.  In  England  (1804-06) 
he  had  similar  want  of  success  with  the  British  Ministry,  and  in  1 806  returned 
to  America.  At  New  York,  in  1807,  he  successfully  realized  his  project  of 
a  vessel  propelled  by  steam  power,  his  steamboat,  the  "  Clermont,"  success- 
fully steaming  from  New  York  to  Albany.  His  invention  was  of  the  first 
importance  in  developing  the  interior  parts  of  the  United  States.  (See  also, 
for  prior  inventions,  Fitch  and  Runisey.) 

Fundamental  Constitutions  of  Carolina,  an  elaborate  constitution  for  that 
colony,  drawn  up  in  1667  f°r  the  proprietors  by  John  Locke,  the  philosopher. 
It  provided  for  a  territorial  aristocracy,  the  proprietors  at  the  head  and  two 
orders  of  nobility,  called  landgraves  and  caciques,  below  them.  These  were 
to  have  entailed  estates  called  seigniories  and  baronies.  The  proprietors 
were  to  be  respectively  palatine,  chancellor,  chief  justice,  constable,  admiral, 
treasurer,  high  steward  and  chamberlain.  There  was  to  be  a  palatine's  court, 
a  grand  council  and  a  parliament.  Property  qualifications  prevailed.  Some 
religious  liberty  was  granted.  The  whole  scheme  was  unsuited  to  the  needs 
of  a  pioneer  colony,  and  never  went  into  practical  operation. 

Fundamental  Orders  of  Connecticut,  "  tho  oldest  truly  political  consti- 
tution in  America"  (Bryce),  were  framed  in  January,  1639,  by  the  towns  of 
Windsor,  Hartford  and  Wethersfield,  uniting  to  form  "  one  publike  State  or 
commonwealth."  The  orders  provided  for  two  general  representative  assem- 
blies each  year,  composed  of  delegates  from  each  town,  one  for  the  election 
of  Governor  and  magistrates,  the  other  for  the  making  of  laws. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  255 

Funding,  the  converting  of  floating  debt  into  debt  having  a  definite  time 
to  run  before  maturity,  usually  into  interest-beating  bonds.  The  most  famous 
such  operation  in  United  States  history  was  that  accomplished  by  the  Act  of 
August  4,  1790,  suggested  by  Hamilton,  as  Secretary  of  the  Treasury.  It 
provided  for  paying  in  full  not  only  the  foreign  and  domestic  debt  of  the 
United  States,  but  also  those  debts  which  the  States  had  incurred  in  the 
prosecution  of  the  Revolutionary  War,  by  means  of  six  per  cent  bonds,  of 
which,  in  the  case  of  the  domestic  debt,  one-third  were  to  be  deferred  stock, 
interest  beginning  to  be  paid  in  1800.  (See  art  Assumption.) 

Funston,  Frederick,  born  in  1865.  He  fought  in  the  Cuban  army,  in  the 
U.  S.  army  in  the  Philippines,  and  has  been  promoted  brigadier-general  for 
bravery. 

Fur-trade.  This  trade,  especially  that  in  beaver,  was  an  important  ele- 
ment in  the  economic  life  of  all  the  colonies  in  the  seventeenth  century,  and 
in  the  struggle  between  England  and  France  for  the  possession  of  North 
America,  also  in  all  negotiations  respecting  the  northwest  boundary  of  the 
United  States.  As  the  trade  receded  farther  and  farther  to  the  northwest, 
the  Hudson  Bay  Company  and  the  Northwest  Company,  established  in  1783 
by  England,  tried  to  monopolize  it.  In  1809  John  Jacob  Astor  secured  the 
incorporation  of  the  American  Fur  Company.  He  founded  Astoria  in  Ore- 
gon, and  attempted  to  connect  it  with  Mackinaw  by  a  line  of  posts  and 
consolidate  the  whole  northwestern  fur-trade.  After  the  War  of  1812  he 
renewed  his  attempt.  In  1816  Congress  passed  an  act  excluding  foreign 
fur-traders. 

Fuss  and  Feathers,  the  army  nickname  for  General  Winfield  Scott,  also 
used  politically  when  he  ran  for  the  Presidency  in  1852;  due  to  his  punctili- 
ousness as  to  dress. 

G. 

Gabriel's  Insurrection,  an  insurrection  incited  among  the  negro  slaves  of 
the  vicinity  of  Richmond,  Va.,  in  1800,  by  a  slave  of  Thomas  Prosser,  called 
"General  Gabriel,"  and  "Jack  Bowler."  They  intended  to  attack  Rich- 
mond by  night  with  a  thousand  negroes  and  murder  the  inhabitants.  An 
escaped  negro  revealed  the  plot.  Governor  James  Monroe  ordered  out  the 
militia  and  attacked  the  insurgents.  The  ringleaders  were  captured  and 
punished. 

Gadsden,  James  (1788-1858),  served  in  the  War  of  1812,  was  aide-de- 
camp to  General  Jackson  in  the  subjugation  of  the  Seminole  Indians,  and 
constructed  works  for  the  defense  of  the  Gulf.  He  was  appointed  Minister 
to  Mexico  in  1853  by  President  Pierce,  and  negotiated  the  Gadsden  Treaty, 
which  secured  the  purchase  of  the  southern  portion  of  Arizona  and  New 
Mexico. 

Gadsden  Treaty  was  a  treaty  negotiated  with  Mexico  in  1853  by  James 
Gadsden.  By  this  treaty  the  United  States  secured  45,000  square  miles  of 
land  in  what  is  now  Arizona  and  New  Mexico.  The  United  States  paid 
Mexico  $10,000,000,  but  received  a  considerably  larger  amount  from  Mexico 
for  Indian  depredation  claims. 

Gage,  Lyrrian  J.,  banker,  Chicago,  111.  Born  1836,  De  Ruyter,  N.  Y. 
Became  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  in  President  McKinley's  Cabinet,  March 
5,  1897- 


256  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Gage,  Thomas  (1721—1787),  came  to  America  in  1754  in  command  of  a 
regiment  accompanying  Braddock's  expedition.  He  was  appointed  Governor 
of  Montreal  in  1760,  and  from  1763  to  1772  was  commander-in-chief  in 
America.  In  1774  he  was  appointed  Governor  of  Massachusetts,  and 
attempted  to  subdue  the  antagonism  of  the  colonists  to  English  rule.  In 
1775  he  sent  troops  to  destroy  stores  collected  at  Concord,  and  this  led  to 
the  battle  of  Lexington.  The  colonists  refused  to  recognize  Gage  as  Gov- 
ernor, and  soon  after  the  battle  of  Bunker  Hill  he  resigned  his  commission. 

-  Gag-rule.  A  rule  adopted  by  Congress  in  January,  1836,  on  motion  of 
John  C.  Calhoun.  Congress  had  long  been  besieged  by  petitions  from  aboli- 
tionists all  over  the  country.  Calhoun  proposed  that  henceforth  all  anti- 
slavery  petitions  be  laid  on  the  table  unnoticed.  This  infringement  upon 
the  right  of  petition  only  increased  the  petition  spirit  in  the  North,  and  the 
"gag-rule"  was,  after  a  long  struggle,  abolished  December  3,  1844.  John 
Quincy  Adams  was  its  bitterest  opponent  and  an  ardent  upholder  of  anti- 
slavery  principles  in  Congress  during  ten  years. 

Gaillard,  John  (1765-1826),  born  in  South  Carolina,  served  in  the  U.  S. 
Senate  from  1805  to  1826,  and  was  president  pro  tempore  in  every  Congress 
from  the  eleventh  to  the  eighteenth  inclusive. 

Gaines,  Edmund  P.  (1777-1849),  served  during  the  War  of  1812,  and 
was  promoted  major-general  for  services  in  defense  of  Fort  Erie  in  1814. 
He  was  commissioner  to  the  Serninole  Indians  in  1816,  and  took  command 
against  them  in  1817. 

Gaines,  Myra  Clark  (1805-1885),  wife  of  Edmund  P.  Gaines,  was  for 
many  years  plaintiff  in  an  extraordinary  lawsuit  to  recover  the  estate  of  her 
father,  Daniel  Clark.  Her  claim  included  much  valuable  property  in  New 
Orleans,  estimated  at  $35,000,000. 

Gaines'  Mills,  or  Chickahominy,  Va.,  June  27,  1862.  In  this  engage- 
ment of  the  Civil  War,  Porter,  commanding  25,000  troops  of  McClellan's 
army,  was  defeated  by  Lee  with  a  Confederate  force  of  35,000.  On  the 
morning  of  June  27,  Porter  fell  back  to  a  range  of  low  hills,  and  there 
repelled  the  Confederate  attack  until  5000  more  men  were  sent  him  by 
McClellan.  Meantime  Jackson  had  joined  Lee  with  18,500  more  troops.  A. 
P.  Hill  first  attacked  Porter's  position,  and  was  driven  back  with  great  loss 
after  a  two  hours'  struggle.  Then  Jackson  came  up  and  joined  the  attack. 
Porter,  having  no  intrenchments,  was  forced  to  give  way  before  the  superior 
numbers.  He  crossed  the  Chickahominy  in  rapid  retreat,  and  burned  the 
bridges  behind  him. 

Gales,  Joseph  (1786-1860),  an  editor  of  the  Nationa  Intelligencer  from 
1807  to  1860  in  partnership  with  W.  W.  Seaton,  published  valuable  reports 
of  proceedings  in  Congress,  which  would  otherwise  be  unavailable — the 
"  Annals  of  Congress,"  in  forty-two  volumes. 

Gallatin,  Albert  (January  29,  I76i-August  12,  1849),  was  born  at  Geneva, 
Switzerland,  and  is  one  of  the  most  illustrious  American  statesmen  of  foreign 
birth.  He  was  educated  at  the  university  of  his  native  city,  and  emigrated 
to  America  in  1780.  After  varied  experiences  he  settled  as  a  manufacturer 


STATESMEN  OF  THE  EARLY  REPUBLIC. 


Timothy   Pickering.  Josiah   Quincy. 

DeWitt  Clinton.  Albert  Galattn.  Alexander   Hamilton. 

Rufus   King.  John   Randolph. 

Gouverneur   Morris.  Charles   C     Pinckney. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  257 

in  Pennsylvania  in  1784.  By  1790  he  was  in  the  Legislature.  His  rise 
to  State  and  national  prominence  as  a  leader  in  the  Democratic-Republican 
party  was  rapid.  He  was  elected  U.  S.  Senator  in  1793,  but  was  not  admit- 
ted to  his  seat.  The  following  year  he  helped  by  his  influence  to  suppress 
the  Whiskey  Insurrection.  From  1795  to  1801  he  was  a  member  from 
Pennsylvania  of  the  National  House  of  Representatives,  and  took  a  leading 
part  almost  from  the  start,  especially  on  financial  topics.  When  his  party 
came  into  power  with  Jefferson,  Gallatin  was  invited  to  take  the  Treasury 
portfolio.  He  filled  this  position  from  1801  to  1813,  and  has  passed  into 
history  as  one  of  the  ablest  of  American  financiers.  In  1813-14  he  was 
peace  commissioner  in  Europe,  where  his  services  in  negotiating  the  Treaty 
of  Ghent  were  conspicuous.  He  was  U.  S.  Minister  to  France  1816-1823, 
and  in  1826  he  was  sent  as  Envoy  Extraordinary  to  Great  Britain.  He  was 
later  a  bank  president  in  New  York  City,  and  died  at  Astoria  on  Long  Island. 
Gallatin  published  various  pamphlets  on  finance,  on  the  Oregon  question,  on 
the  war  with  Mexico,  "  Considerations  on  the  Currency  and  Banking  System 
of  the  United  States"  (1831);  he  was  moreover  an  ethnologist,  and  pub- 
lished "Synopsis  of  the  Indian  Tribes"  (1836)  and  other  works.  Biogra- 
phy by  Henry  Adams,  who  has  also  edited  his  writings. 

Gallaudet,  Thomas  H.  (1787-1851),  was  the  first  to  undertake  in  America 
the  instruction  of  deaf  mutes  (1817),  and  founded  at  Hartford  an  institution 
for  that  purpose. 

Gallipolis,  O.,  was  settled  by  French  refugees  in  1789.     It  was  a  depot  of 

supplies  during  the  Civil  War. 

Galloway,  Joseph  (1729-1803),  was  Speaker  of  the  Pennsylvania  Assembly 
from  1766  to  1774,  proposed  a  form  of  government  favorable  to  the  crown 
at  the  Provincial  Congress  in  1774,  and  joined  the  British  forces  in  1776. 

Galveston,  Tex.,  was  first  settled  in  1816,  but  first  permanently  settled  in 
1838.  From  1817  to  1821  it  was  the  haunt  of  the  famous  pirate  Lafitte. 

Galvez,  Bernardo  de  (1755-1786),  count,  was  born  in  Spain,  became  col- 
onel in  Louisiana  in  1776  and  was  Governor  from  1777  to  1783.  He  aided 
the  colonies  against  the  British  in  the  Revolutionary  War  and  was  made 
Viceroy  of  Mexico  in  1785. 

Gamble,  Hamilton  R.  (1798-1864),  was  Secretary  of  State  in  Missouri  in 
1824,  a  Judge  of  the  Supreme  Court  from  1851  to  1855,  was  appointed  Gov- 
ernor of  the  State  in  1861  by  the  Constitutional  Convention  and  served 
until  1864. 

Gananoqui  (near  Thousand  Islands,  Can.).  Here  Captain  Forsyth,  with 
slight  loss,  captured,  on  September  20,  1812,  a  large  supply  of  ammunition 
and  provisions  from  the  British,  whose  loss  was  ten  killed  and  twelve  taken 
prisoners. 

Gansevoort,  Peter  (1749-1812),  born  in  New  York,  accompanied  Mont- 
gomery to  Canada  in  1775;  withstood  the  British  and  Indians  at  Fort  Schuylei 
in  1777;  was  appointed  Indian  Commissioner  and  promoted  brigadier-general 
in  1809. 
17 


258  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Gardoqui,  Don  Diego  de,  was  Minister  of  Spain  to  the  United  States  from 
1785  to  1789,  and  negotiated  concerning  the  Mississippi  with  Secretary 
Jay. 

Garfield,  James  Abram  (November  19,  i83i-September  19,  1881),  twen- 
tieth President  of  the  United  States,  was  born  at  Orange,  Cuyahoga  County, 
O.,  and  after  miscellaneous  experiences,  including  work  on  a  canal  tow-path, 
he  entered  Hiram  College  in  Ohio.  From  there  he  went  to  Williams  College, 
and  graduated  in  1856.  For  a  short  time  he  taught  the  classics  in  Hiram 
College,  and  in  1857  became  the  president  of  that  institution.  Two  years 
later  he  entered  the  State  Senate.  In  the  opening  year  of  the  war  he  was 
appointed  lieutenant-colonel  of  volunteers;  having  been  entrusted  with  a 
small  independent  command  he  routed  the  Confederates  at  Middle  Creek, 
Ky.,  January  10,  1862.  He  was  made  a  brigadier-general,  served  at  Shiloh, 
etc.,  and  became  chief  of  staff  in  Rosecrans'  Army  of  the  Cumberland.  In 
this  capacity  he  rendered  important  services,  and  was  made  major-general 
after  Chickamauga.  He  had  been  already  elected  to  Congress,  and  took  his 
seat  in  December,  1863.  From  this  time  he  served  continuously  and  was  one 
of  the  leading  debaters  and  orators  on  the  Republican  side.  He  was  mem- 
ber of  important  committees,  like  Military  Affairs  and  Ways  and  Means,  and 
was  chairman  of  the  Committee  on  Banking  and  Currency  and  on  Appropri- 
ations. General  Garfield  served  on  the  Electoral  Commission  of  1877  and 
was  elected  U.  S.  Senator  from  Ohio  in  1880.  The  same  year  he  attended 
the  National  Convention,  and  on  the  thirty-sixth  ballot  received  the  nomina- 
tion, through  the  influence  of  Elaine.  Entering  office  March  4,  1881,  he 
chose  Elaine  for  the  State  Department,  Windom  for  the  Treasury,  and  R.  T. 
Lincoln  for  War.  He  became  almost  immediately  involved  in  the  Republi- 
can factional  quarrels  of  New  York.  His  appointment  of  the  "  Half-Breed  " 
Robertson  to  the  collectorship  of  New  York  caused  the  "  Stalwart  "  Senators, 
Conkling  and  Platt,  to  resign  and  demand  a  "  vindication."  In  the  midst 
of  these  proceedings  President  Garfield  was  shot  at  Washington,  July  2,  by  a 
fanatic,  Guiteau.  He  lingered  through  the  summer,  was  removed  in  Sep- 
tember to  Elberon,  New  Jersey,  and  there  passed  away.  Life  by  J.  R.  Gilmore. 

Garfield,  Lucretia  R.,  born  in  Hiram,  O.,  in  1832,  became  the  wife  of 
James  A.  Garfield  in  1858.  Her  name  beca'ne  famous  by  reason  of  her 
husband's  Presidency,  and  of  her  care  over  him  during  his  long  period  of 
suffering  from  his  mortal  wound. 

Garland,  Augustus  H.,  was  born  in  Tennessee  in  1832.  He  opposed 
secession  in  the  State  Convention  in  1861,  but  served  in  the  Confederate 
Congress  till  the  close  of  the  war.  He  won  the  famous  test-oath  case  in 
1866,  and  in  1874  was  chosen  Governor  of  Arkansas.  He  served  in  the  U.  S. 
Senate  from  1876  to  1885,  and  was  Attorney-General  in  Cleveland's  Cabinet 
from  1885  to  1889.  Died  1899. 

Garland,  Hugh  A.  (1805-1854),  a  Virginia  Assemblyman  for  five  years, 
was  clerk  of  the  U.  S.  House  of  Representatives  from  1838  to  1841.  He 
secured  a  Democratic  majority  at  the  opening  session,  in  1839,  by  omit- 
ting the  names  of  the  contested  New  Jersey  delegates.  (See  Broad  Seal 
War.) 


DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  259 

Garland's  Case,  an  important  case  decided  by  the  U.  S.  Supreme  Court 
in  1866.  In  1860  A.  H.  Garland,  of  Arkansas,  was  admitted  to  the  Supreme 
Court  of  the  United  States  as  attorney  and  counselor,  taking  the  oath  then 
required.  In  1862  Congress  passed  an  act  requiring  all  candidates  for  office 
to  take  oath  that  they  had  never  in  any  way  engaged  in  hostility  against  the 
Union.  In  1865  all  persons  admitted  to  the  bar  of  the  U.  S.  Courts  were 
required  to  take  this  oath.  Garland  participated  in  the  war  against  the 
Union,  but  was  freely  pardoned.  He  entered  a  plea  before  the  Supreme 
Court  in  1866  against  his  taking  the  prescribed  oath  of  1865,  saying  it  was 
unconstitutional  and  void  as  affecting  his  status  in  court,  and  that  his  pardon 
released  him  from  compliance  with  it,  even  if  it  were  constitutional.  His 
plea  was  granted  by  the  court,  on  the  ground  that  the  act  was  ex  post  facto. 

Garner  Case  (1856),  the  saddest  of  many  noted  fugitive  slave  cases. 
Simeon  Garner,  his  son  and  their  families  escaped  from  Kentucky  to  Cincin- 
nati. They  were  pursued  and  after  a  desperate  struggle  captured.  Margaret 
Garner,  in  order  to  save  her  children  from  slavery,  had  attempted  to  kill 
them  during  the  struggle,  and  one  was  found  dead  when  the  fugitives  were 
captured.  The  courts  decided  upon  returning  the  slaves.  On  their  way 
back  to  Kentucky  Margaret  made  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  drown  herself 
and  child. 

Garnett,  Robert  S.  (1819-1861),  born  in  Virginia,  was  a  Democratic 
Representative  from  Virginia  from  1817  to  1827.  He  voted  alone  against 
the  recognition  of  the  South  American  Republics.  Commanding  Con- 
federate forces  in  West  Virginia,  he  was  defeated  and  killed  at  Carrick's 
Ford  in  1861. 

Garrison,  William  Lloyd  (1805-1879;,  was  born  in  Massachusetts.  He 
began  his  career  in  the  employ  of  the  Newburyport  Herald  in  1818,  making 
anonymous  contributions  reproving  the  general  apathy  on  the  subject  of 
slavery.  Between  1826  and  1831  he  edited  various  emancipation  papers, 
among  them  the  Herald,  Free  Press,  National  Philanthropist,  Journal  of  the 
Times  and  the  Genius  of  Universal  Emancipation.  He  also  delivered  series 
of  lectures  in  the  interest  of  emancipation.  From  1831  to  1860  he  edited 
the  Liberator,  which  exerted  an  immense  influence  against  slavery.  In  1832 
the  American  Anti-Slavery  Society  was  formed  and  organized  by  him,  and 
soon  afterward  he  became  its  president.  His  efforts  for  the  abolition  of 
slavery  were  unceasing  until  the  emancipation  proclamation  of  President 
Lincoln  had  gone  into  effect.  His  influence  in  the  anti-slavery  cause  was 
greater  than  that  of  any  other  man.  Life  by  his  sons,  four  volumes. 

Gary,  James  A.,  born  in  1833,  college  graduate,  cotton  manufacturer, 
banker  and  politician.  Postmaster-General  from  1897  to  1898. 

Gas-light  was  first  successfully  introduced  into  Boston  in  1822,  into  New 
York  in  1823,  into  Philadelphia  in  1835. 

"  Gaspee."  During  the  spring  of  1772  the  British  armed  schooner 
"  Gaspee  "  remained  in  Narragansett  Bay  and  annoyed  the  inhabitants  along 
the  coast  by  excessive  zeal  in  the  suppression  of  smuggling.  Chief  Justice 
Hopkins,  of  Rhode  Island,  sent  a  sheriff  on  board  to  know  by  what  authority 
Dudingston,  her  commander,  acted,  and  found  he  was  upheld  by  the  British 
admiral.  June  9,  the  "  Gaspee  "  gave  chase  to  the  "  Providence,"  a  small 


260  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

packet,  and  ran  aground  near  Pawtuxet.  That  night  a  party  of  citizens 
attacked  her,  wounded  and  captured  Dudingston  and  the  crew,  and  burned 
the  "  Gaspee."  Efforts  to  bring  the  perpetrators  to  justice  failed. 

Gates,  Horatio  (1728-1806),  general,  born  in  England,  came  to  America 
in  1755,  and  was  a  captain  in  Braddock's  expedition.  At  the  outbreak  of 
the  Revolution  he  was  appointed  adjutant-general  in  the  colonial  army,  and 
in  1777  commanded  the  Northern  forces  and  gained  a  decisive  victory  over 
the  British  at  Saratoga.  Highly  honored  for  this  success  he  overestimated 
his  abilities  and  conspired  to  gain  chief  command  of  the  colonial  army,  but 
his  schemes  were  disclosed.  In  1780  he  was  placed  in  command  of  the 
Southern  army,  and  met  with  a  severe  defeat  at  Camden.  He  was  retired 
from  command,  and  was  not  acquitted  by  court-martial  from  blame  for  this 
defeat  until  1782. 

Gates,  Sir  Thomas,  was  appointed  lieutenant-general  under  the  Virginia 
Company,  and  came  to  Virginia  in  1609  with  seven  ships.  The  colony  did 
not  prosper,  and  Gates  was  sent  to  England  in  1610,  returning  with  men 
and  provisions  in  1611.  He  assumed  the  government,  and  the  colony  became 
more  prosperous  under  his  rule,  which  continued  till  1614,  when  he  returned 
to  England. 

Gatling,  Richard  J.,  was  born  in  North  Carolina  in  1818.  He  has 
invented  various  labor-saving  devices,  but  is  best  known  as  inventor  of  the 
revolving  battery-gun  bearing  his  name,  which  is  capable  of  firing  1200 
shots  per  minute. 

Gay,  Sydney  Howard  (1814—1888),  born  in  Massachusetts,  edited  the 
Anti-Slavery  Standard  from  1844  to  1857,  when  he  became  an  editor  of  the 
Tribune,  serving  as  such  until  1866.  He  is  the  author  of  an  illustrated 
history  of  the  United  States. 

Gayarre,  Charles  E.  A.,  born  in  1805,  served  in  the  Louisiana  Legislature, 
was  Secretary  of  State  for  seven  years,  and  is  the  author  of  numerous  his- 
torical works,  chiefly  histories  of  Louisiana  in  various  periods.  Died  1895. 

Geary,  John  W.  (1819-1873),  commanded  at  Chapultepec  in  1846,  was 
prominent  in  California  politics  from  1849  to  1852,  was  Governor  of  Kansas 
1856-57,  and  during  the  Rebellion  won  distinction  at  Bolivar  Heights,  Cedar 
Mountain  and  Lookout  Mountain,  being  promoted  major-general.  He  was 
Governor  of  Pennsylvania  from  1866  to  1873. 

General.  This  grade  was  first  created  by  Act  of  Congress  March  3,  1799, 
and  General  Washington  was  appointed  to  fill  it.  The  office  was  abolished 
in  1802.  It  was  not  revived  again  until  1866,  when  General  Grant  was 
appointed.  On  the  election  of  Grant  to  the  Presidency,  William  T.  Sherman 
succeeded  him  in  the  grade  of  general.  On  the  retirement  of  General  Sher- 
man, November  i,  1883,  tne  office  again  became  extinct.  It  was  revived  for 
a  brief  time  (June  to  August,  1888),  for  Lieutenant-General  Philip  H.  Sheri- 
dan. Since  his  death  in  1888  the  office  has  ceased  to  exist,  as  has  that  of 
lieutenant-general. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  261 

Genet,  Edmond  C.  (1765-1834),  was  born  in  France.  He  was  appointed 
Minister  to  the  United  States  in  1792,  and  arrived  in  Charleston,  S.  C.,  in 
1793.  He  immediately  took  steps  to  induce  the  United  States  to  aid  France 
in  her  troubles  with  Great  Britain,  and  unlawfully  commissioned  privateers 
from  American  ports.  The  executive  had  determined  upon  neutrality. 
Genet  succeeded  for  a  time  in  arousing  enthusiasm  among  the  people  of  the 
United  States,  and  acted  so  imprudently  that  Washington's  administration 
requested  his  recall  in  1794.  He  was  afterward  naturalized  and  became  a 
citizen  of  the  United  States. 

Geneva  Arbitration.  A  tribunal  of  arbitration  assembled  at  Geneva  in 
Switzerland,  December  15,  1871,  to  arbitrate  upon  the  "Alabama"  claims. 
(See  art.)  The  tribunal  consisted  of  Count  Federigo  Sclopis,  of  Italy; 
Viscount  Itajuba,  of  Brazil;  Mr.  Jacques  Staempni,  of  Switzerland;  Charles 
Francis  Adams,  of  the  United  States,  and  Sir  Alexander  Cockburn,  of  Eng- 
land. The  tribunal  decided  that  an  award  of  compensation  for  the  "  indirect 
claims  "  advanced  by  America  was  not  in  keeping  with  the  principles  of 
international  law.  This  preliminary  decision  was  accepted.  The  tribune 
also  decided  that  Great  Britain  had  not  exercised  due  diligence  in  preventing 
the  construction,  equipment  and  provisioning  of  such  ships  as  the  "  Alabama;" 
that  $15,500,000  should  be  awarded  in  a  gross  sum  to  the  United  States,  but 
no  compensation  should  be  made  for  the  pursuit  of  cruisers  or  for  prospective 
earnings. 

Geneva  Convention.  A  convention  was  concluded  in  1864  for  the  amel- 
ioration of  the  condition  of  the  wounded  in  armies  in  the  field,  between 
Switzerland,  Baden,  Belgium,  Denmark,  Spain,  France,  Hesse,  Italy,  Nether- 
lands, Portugal,  Prussia  and  Wiirttemberg,  and  acceded  to  by  most  civilized 
nations,  including  the  United  States.  Additional  articles  in  1868  extended 
to  naval  forces  the  advantages  of  the  previous  convention. 

Gentry,  Meredith  P.  (1809-1866),  served  in  the  North  Carolina  Legisla- 
ture from  1835  to  1839,  was  a  U.  S.  Congressman  from  1839  to  1843  and 
from  1845  to  1853,  and  served  in  the  Confederate  Congress  in  1862  and 
1863. 

Geographer  of  the  United  States,  an  office  created  by  the  Act  of  May  20, 
1785.  The  geographer's  duties  consisted  in  the  supervision  of  surveys  and 
in  the  transmission  to  the  Board  of  Treasury  of  the  series  of  plats  whenever 
the  seven  ranges  of  townships  had  been  surveyed. 

Geological  Survey.  The  U.  S.  Geological  Survey  was  established  by 
Congress  in  March,  1879,  as  a  bureau  of  the  Department  of  the  Interior. 
The  interior  surveys,  topographical  and  geological,  heretofore  carried  on  by 
other  Government  agencies,  were  confided  to  it. 

George  I.  (1660-1727),  King  of  Great  Britain  and  Elector  of  Brunswick, 
ascended  the  English  throne  in  1715,  and  ruled  uneventfully  over  England 
and  the  colonies  for  twelve  years. 

George  II.  (1683-1760),  King  of  Great  Britain  from  1727  to  1760,  granted 
in  1732  a  tract  of  country  from  the  reserved  Carolina  tract  to  James  Ogle- 
thorpe  and  a  company  formed  by  him.  The  government  of  the  colony  was 


262  DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

to  be  conducted  by  the  proprietors  during  twenty  years,  and  after  that  time 
the  form  of  government  was  to  be  decided  by  the  king.  In  1749  George 
II.  granted  to  the  Ohio  Company,  formed  by  certain  wealthy  Virginians, 
500,000  acres  of  land,  on  which  they  were  to  plant  100  families,  and  were  to 
build  and  maintain  a  fort.  (See  King  George's  War,  Seven  Years'  War, 
French  and  Indian  War.)  His  reign  is  chiefly  memorable  in  American 
history  for  the  conquest  of  Canada. 

George  III.  (1738-1820),  son  of  Frederick,  Prince  of  Wales,  succeeded  to 
the  throne  of  England  in  1760.  His  obstinate  determination  to  increase  the 
royal  authority  had  much  to  do  with  the  provoking  of  American  resistance. 
At  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolution  he  insisted  merely  upon  maintaining  the 
right  to  tax  the  colonies,  but  when  they  showed  persistent  determination  he 
became  exasperated  and  wrote,  "Every  means  of  distressing  America  must- 
meet  with  my  concurrence."  Under  his  direction  the  war  was  prosecuted 
with  vigor  and  he  reluctantly  consented  to  peace  in  1782.  He  was  kind- 
hearted,  upright  and  truthful,  with  a  very  forcible  character,  but  was  nar- 
row-minded and  obstinate. 

George,  Henry,  born  in  Philadelphia  in  1839,  is  well  known  as  a  writer 
upon  economics.  He  published  various  newspapers  in  California  from  1858 
to  1879.  He  first  became  prominent  through  his  work,  "  Progress  and 
Poverty,"  which  advocates  a  common  ownership  of  land  to  be  brought  about 
by  taxing  land  to  the  full  amount  of  the  rent.  He  is  the  author  of  "  Social 
Problems,"  "  Protection  or  Free  Trade,"  etc.  Died  October  29,  1897. 

George,  James  Z.,  born  in  1826,  signed  the  Mississippi  ordinance  of 
secession  in  1861  and  was  a  U.  S.  Senator  from  Mississippi  from  1881  to  the 
present  time  (1897).  Died  August  14,  1897. 

George,  Fort  (Niagara  River).  In  the  War  of  1812,  after  the  capture  of 
York  by  the  Americans,  they  moved  against  Fort  George.  On  May  27, 1813, 
the  troops  were  landed  under  cover  of  the  guns  of  the  fleet.  The  attack, 
led  by  Colonel  Winfield  Scott  and  Commodore  Perry,  was  successful.  The 
British,  after  spiking  the  guns  and  destroying  the  ammunition,  abandoned 
the  fort.  Soon  after,  Forts  Erie  and  Chippewa  were  likewise  abandoned,  and 
the  whole  Niagara  frontier  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Americans. 

George,  Fort,  the  name  given  by  the  French  to  Fort  William  Henry. 
(See  William  Henry,  Fort.) 

Georgetown  College,  D.  C.,  was  founded  as  a  college  by  the  Jesuits  in 
1789  and  chartered  as  a  university  in  1815. 

Georgia,  one  of  the  original  thirteen  States,  was  founded  by  Oglethorpe 
in  1733  as  a  refuge  for  debtors.  The  territory  was  originally  claimed  by  the 
Spanish  Government,  who  explored  it.  In  1663  it  constituted  a  part  of  the 
Carolinas,  but  in  1732  it  was  set  apart  and  given  to  James  Oglethorpe  and 
others,  to  be  held  in  trust  for  twenty-one  years.  The  territory  was  styled 
Georgia  in  honor  of  George  II.,  and  included  the  land  between  the  Savannah 
and  the  Altamaha  and  the  South  Sea.  The  colony  was  expected  to  serve  as 
a  protection  to  the  Carolinas  against  the  Spaniards  of  Florida,  In  1752 
Georgia  became  a  royal  colony.  In  1763  the  southern  boundary  was  extended 


DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  263 

to  St.  Mary's  River  and  the  western  boundary  to  the  Mississippi.  The  State 
suffered  greatly  from  war  and  disorder  during  the  Revolution.  The  first 
Constitution  was  made  in  1777;  the  present  in  1868.  January  2,  1788, 
Georgia  unanimously  ratified  the  National  Constitution.  In  1798  the 
western  territory  of  the  State  was  organized  into  the  Mississippi  Territory 
by  the  U.  S.  Government.  Georgia's  claims  were  satisfied  in  1802  by  the 
payment  on  the  part  of  the  United  States  of  $1,250,000,  and  the  promise  to 
purchase  for  Georgia  the  claims  of  the  Indians  to  lands  within  the  State. 
In  1795  occurred  the  "  Yazoo  fraud,"  by  which  the  western  territory  was 
sold  to  land  companies.  The  sale  was  afterward  repealed,  and  the  land- 
holders were  compensated  by  the  National  Government.  The  State  authori- 
ties demanded  the  fulfillment  of  the  promise  of  1802  relative  to  the  Indian 
removal,  but  not  until  1826  did  the  General  Government  succeed  in  obtaining 
the  Georgian  lands  of  the  Creeks.  The  Creeks,  however,  refused  to  move, 
and  were  protected  by  the  decision  of  the  U.  S.  Supreme  Court.  The 
Indians  were  eventually  driven  out  by  the  authorities  of  Georgia,  as  Presi- 
dent Jackson  refused  to  support  the  decision  of  the  court.  Georgia  seceded 
January  19,  1861.  During  the  war  Confederate  prisons  were  established  at 
Andersonville  and  Milieu.  General  Sherman,  marching  through  Georgia, 
captured  Atlanta,  September  2,  1864,  and  Savannah,  December  21.  The 
reconstruction  of  the  State  was  delayed  until  July,  1870,  because  of  the 
refusal  to  extend  the  suffrage  to  the  blacks.  Since  reconstruction  the  State 
has  been  uniformly  Democratic.  The  population  of  the  State  in  1790  was 
82,548;  in  1890  it  was  1,837,353.  Histories  by  Jones  and  by  Stevens. 

"  Georgia,"  an  iron  steamboat  built  at  Glasgow  in  1863  and  used  as  a 
Confederate  cruiser.  She  sailed  from  Glasgow  in  April,  1863,  under  the 
name  of  the  "Japan."  She  destroyed  a  large  number  of  Union  merchant 
ships  along  the  French  coast,  and  then  sailed  for  England,  where  it  was 
given  out  she  was  to  be  chartered  by  the  Portuguese  Government.  She  was 
nevertheless  seized,  August  15,  1863,  by  Captain  Craven,  commanding  the 
United  States  ship  "  Niagara,"  and  returned  to  England. 

"Georgia  Gazette,"  first  newspaper  printed  in  Georgia.  It  was  estab* 
lished  at  Savannah  by  James  Johnston,  April  17,  1763,  and  continued  until 
1802,  when  its  publication  was  suspended. 

Georgia  Historical  Society,  founded  at  Savannah  in  1839.  It  has  pub- 
lished four  volumes  of  papers  and  part  of  a  fifth.  At  the  instance  of  the 
society  Bishop  Stevens  undertook  his  "  History  of  Georgia."  It  possesses 
many  valuable  manuscripts. 

Gerard,  Conrad  A.,  died  in  1790.  He  was  the  first  French  Minister  to 
the  United  States.  Having  negotiated  the  treaty  between  France  and  the 
United  States,  he  came  to  America  in  1778,  returned  in  1779,  and  was  active 
in  the  negotiations  with  Great  Britain  in  1782. 

Germaine,  Lord  George  (1716-1785),  was  appointed  colonial  secretary  by 
George  III.  of  England  in  1775,  and  superintended  the  conduct  of  the 
British  forces  during  the  Revolutionary  War.  He  advocated  vigorous 
measures  against  the  colonies,  enlisted  the  services  of  the  Six  Nations,  and 
was  influential  in  the  bribery  of  Benedict  Arnold.  Resigned  in  1782. 


264  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

German  Empire.  One  treaty  of  importance  has  been  concluded  between 
the  United  States  and  the  new  German  Empire,  that  to  define  the  rights, 
privileges  and  duties  of  consular  agents,  and  to  establish  an  agreement  upon 
trade-marks  (1871).  A  reciprocity  treaty  was  concluded  in  1892. 

Germans.  There  were  more  Germans  in  Pennsylvania  than  in  any  other 
of  the  colonies.  Penn  encouraged  their  immigration.  They  were  largely 
of  sects  persecuted  in  Germany.  They  were  averse  to  war  and  indifferent  to 
politics,  but  had  important  influence  on  the  development  of  manufactures. 
Palatine,  Moravian  and  other  Germans  were  also  settled  in  large  numbers  in 
Maryland,  New  York,  Virginia  and  the  Carolinas,  and  Salzburgers  in 
Georgia.  They  were  sober  and  industrious.  In  the  Revolution  they  were 
in  general  not  active.  Of  immigrants  into  the  United  States  since  1820, 
more  than  one-third  have  been  Germans.  The  revolutionary  movements  of 
1848  caused  the  emigration  of  large  numbers  to  the  United  States. 

Germantown,  Battle  of,  October  4,  1777.  Howe  after  occupying  Phila- 
delphia sent  a  considerable  detachment  down  the  river  to  seize  Forts  Mercer 
and  Mifnin.  When  Washington  learned  of  this  he  determined  to  crush  the 
British  at  Germantown.  In  the  early  morning  of  October  4  his  army  in 
two  columns,  the  centre  under  Sullivan,  the  left  under  Greene,  advanced 
upon  the  village.  The  central  column  drove  in  the  British  outposts  and 
was  forcing  back  the  British  line  opposite.  Greene  also  was  driving  the 
right  back  when  an  accident  happened  to  destroy  the  whole  plan.  Stephen, 
who  was  upon  the  right  of  Greene's  division,  came  on  through  the  heavy 
fog,  and  mistaking  the  American  left-centre  for  the  enemy,  charged  upon 
them.  This  at  once  caused  a  panic  and  the  battle  was  lost.  However,  the 
troops  retreated  in  good  order  before  Cornwallis,  who  had  hurried  from 
Philadelphia  with  two  battalions.  The  Americans  lost  673,  the  British  575. 

Geronimo,  a  chief  of  the  Chiricahuas  of  the  Apache  tribe  of  Indians. 
He  was  captured  by  General  Miles  in  1886  for  making  depredations,  and  was 
placed  under  surveillance  at  Fort  Perkins,  Florida. 

Gerry,  Elbridge  (1744-1814),  Vice-President,  born  in  Massachusetts,  was  a 
member  of  the  Massachusetts  colonial  House  of  Representatives  from  1772 
to  1775  and  a  delegate  to  the  Continental  Congress  from  1776  to  1780  and 
from  1783  to  1785.  He  signed  the  Declaration  of  Independence  and  aided 
in  framing  the  Constitution,  but  refused  to  sign  it,  believing  that  too  great 
powers  were  Delegated  to  the  National  Government.  He  was  elected  a 
Representative  from  Massachusetts  to  the  first  U.  S.  Congress  in  1789  and 
served  till  1793.  He^was  a  Special  commissioner  to  France  in  1797  with 
Pinckney  and  Marshall,  arMi' was  elected  Governor  of  Massachusetts  in  1810 
and  1811.  He  was  elected  Vice-President  of  the  United  States  in  1812  as  a 
Democrat  and  served  until  his  death  (1813-1814).  Life  by  Austin. 

Gerrymander,  an  arrangement  of  the  boundaries  of  election  districts  so 
contrived  as  to  secure  an  unfair  advantage  to  the  dominant  party.  In  colo- 
nial times  elections  were  by  counties  or  by  towns,  and  the  gerrymander  was 
not  developed.  The  first  gerrymander  has  been  said  to  be  an  arrangement 
of  Patrick  Henry's,  whereby  Madison  should  not  be  elected  to  the  First 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  265 

Congress.  But  in  reality  the  districting  of  Virginia  at  that  time  was  not 
clearly  unfair.  The  name  arose  from  a  redistricting  scheme  carried  out  by 
the  Republicans  of  Massachusetts  in  181 1,  in  accordance  with  which  the  Essex 
District  bore  a  fanciful  resemblance  to  a  salamander.  Hence  the  name 
"  gerrymander  "  was  given  to  it  from  Governor  Elbridge  Gerry,  under  whom 
the  act  was  passed.  The  practice  has  since  become  well-nigh  universal  in 
American  politics,  with  most  injurious  effects  upon  public  morality. 

Getty,  George  W.,  born  in  1819,  was  promoted  major-general  for  gallantry 
during  the  Civil  War,  serving  in  the  Virginia  campaign  and  having  a  com- 
mand at  Yorktown,  Antietam,  Fredericksburg  and  the  Wilderness.  He 
defended  Washington,  and  served  in  the  Shenandoah  campaign.  He  retired 
in  1883. 

Gettysburg,  Pa.,  a  memorable  battle  of  the  Civil  War,  considered  the 
turning  point  of  the  struggle  between  the  Confederates  and  Federals.  The 
Confederates  numbering  70,000,  under  Lee,  were  defeated  by  the  Union 
Army,  led  by  Meade,  finally  numbering  93,000.  The  battle  occurred  July  1-3, 
1863.  Lee,  having  pushed  thus  far  in  his  great  invasion  of  the  North,  lay 
at  Chambersburg  awaiting  the  results  of  disturbances  among  the  "  Copper- 
head "  faction  in  the  Northern  cities.  Ewell  was  posted  between  York  and 
Carlisle  with  a  strong  Confederate  force.  Longstreet's  columns  and  Stuart's 
cavalry  were  also  separated  from  the  main  Confederate  command.  Meade 
had  just  taken  command  of  the  National  troops,  vice  Hooker,  resigned,  had 
ordered  the  evacuation  of  Harper's  Ferry,  and  contemplated  a  concentration 
of  his  forces  at  Pipe  Creek,  fifteen  miles  from  Gettysburg,  hoping  to  offer 
battle  to  Lee  at  that  place.  The  absence  of  Stuart's  cavalry  prevented  Lee 
from  ascertaining  the  strength  of  the  Nationals.  Meade's  plans  of  battle  at 
Pipe  Creek  were  frustrated,  July  i,  by  an  attack  by  the  Confederates  upon 
Reynolds'  division  at  Gettysburg.  Reynolds,  though  supported  by  Buford's 
cavalry,  was  routed  and  killed.  The  fighting  became  general.  Ewell's  and 
Longstreet's  columns  had  arrived,  and  Meade  sent  Howard  to  assume  com- 
mand of  the  National  field.  Howard  placed  his  forces  upon  the  right, 
extending  his  line  beyond  the  town  to  the  north.  This  line  was  broken  in 
the  centre  by  Lee's  repeated  charges,  but  not  without  severe  losses  to  the 
Confederates.  Hancock  arrived  and  rallied  the  Federals,  placing  his  line 
along  Round  Top  and  Little  Round  Top,  two  strong  positions.  The  National 
line  now  was,  beginning  with  the  right:  Slocum's,  Howard's,  Hancock's  and 
Sykes',  with  Sedgwick  in  reserve.  The  bloodiest  fighting  of  the  day,  July  2, 
was  between  Vincent's  and  Hood's  men  on  Little  Round  Top.  The  battles 
of  the  first  two  days  were  indecisive.  Meade  began  the  attack,  July  3,  by 
driving  Ewell  from  his  position  on  Rock  Creek.  Then  followed  Pickett's 
disastrous  charge  upon  Cemetery  Ridge,  in  which  4600  Confederates  were 
killed  and  wounded.  Lee  was  obliged  to  retreat.  The  Nationals  lost 
19,000  killed  and  wounded  ;  the  Confederate  loss  was  officially  reported  at 
about  18,000.  Many  generals  were  killed  on  both  sides. 

Ghent,  Treaty  of,  a  treaty  of  peace  concluded  between  British  and  Ameri- 
can commissioners,  assembled  at  Ghent  in  1814.  Clay,  Adams,  Gallatin, 
Bayard  and  Russell  represented  the  United  States.  The  treaty  was  con- 
cluded December  24,  1814,  and  was  ratified  early  in  1815.  It  provided  for 


266  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

universal  peace  between  the  belligerents;  the  mutual  restoration  of  territory, 
property  aud  archives;  a  cessation  of  hostilities  immediately  upon  ratifica- 
tion; a  restoration  of  prisoners  of  war;  an  establishment  of  the  disputed 
northeastern  boundary  by  construction  of  the  treaty  of  1783,  with  possible 
final  reference  to  some  friendly  power;  other  boundary  questions  to  be  dis- 
posed of  in  a  similar  manner;  and  a  mutual  promotion  of  the  abolition  of 
the  slave  trade.  Nothing  was  said  of  the  impressment  of  seamen,  the  search 
of  American  vessels,  and  the  oppressive  decrees  respecting  neutral  commerce 
the  three  grievances  which  mainly  caused  the  war. 

Gherardi,  Bancroft,  born  in  1832,  nephew  of  George  Bancroft,  entered 
the  navy  in  1846,  was  made  lieutenant-commander  in  1862,  and  in  com- 
mand of  the  "  Port  Royal "  distinguished  himself  at  Mobile  Bay.  He 
became  a  commodore  in  1884,  and  a  rear-admiral  in  1886. 

Gibbon,  John,  born  in  1827,  served  during  the  Mexican  War,  and  in  the 
Civil  War,  on  the  Federal  side,  taking  part  in  the  battles  of  South  Mountain, 
Antietam,  Fredericksburg,  Chancellorsville,  Gettysburg  aud  the  Wilderness. 
He  is  author  of  an  essay  on  "  Our  Indian  Question."  Died  1896. 

Gibbons,  James,  Roman  Catholic  prelate,  born  in  Maryland  in  1834, 
ordained  a  priest  in  1861,  became  Archbishop  of  Baltimore  in'  1877,  and  was 
confirmed  cardinal  in  1886. 

Gibbons  vs.  Ogden,  an  important  case  in  the  U.  S.  Supreme  Court. 
Aaron  Ogden,  having  obtained  by  assignment  the  exclusive  right  of  navi- 
gation of  all  waters  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  State  of  New  York, 
granted  by  that  State  to  Livingston  and  Fulton  for  thirty  years,  beginning 
1808,  filed  a  bill  in  the  Court  of  Chancery  of  New  York  for  an  injunction 
against  one  Gibbons,  of  New  Jersey,  who  possessed  two  steamboats  running 
between  New  York  and  Elizabethtown,  N.  J.  The  injunction  was  granted. 
Gibbons  appealed  to  the  Supreme  Court  in  1824.  The  court  gave  judg- 
ment for  the  appellant,  it  being  deemed  that  the  granting  of  exclusive  navi- 
gation of  waters  within  the  State  of  New  York  by  that  State's  Legislature, 
extending  to  coastwise  traffic  with  another  State,  was  repugnant  to  the 
clause  of  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States  authorizing  Congress  to 
regulate  commerce. 

Gibson,  Randall  L.  (1832-1892),  Senator,  entered  the  Confederate  army  as 
a  private,  and  rose  to  various  commands  at  Shiloh,  Murfreesboro  and  Chicka- 
mauga.  He  represented  Louisiana  in  the  U.  S.  Congress  from  1875  to  1883, 
and  in  the  Senate  from  1883  to  1892. 

Giddings,  Joshua  R.  (1795-1864),  was  born  in  Pennsylvania.  He  served 
in  the  Ohio  militia  during  the  War  of  1812,  after  which  he  studied  law  and 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1820.  He  was  elected  to  the  State  Legislature 
in  1826,  and  was  a  Representative  from  Ohio  in  the  U.  S.  Congress  from 
1838  to  1859,  during  which  time  he  was  prominent  as  an  advocate  of  the 
right  of  petition  and  one  of  the  foremost  opponents  of  slavery.  In  1842  he 
was  censured  by  the  House  of  Representatives  for  his  advocacy  of  anti- 
slavery  measures.  He  at  once  resigned,  and  was  triumphantly  re-elected. 


DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  267 

In  1 86 1  he  was  appointed  Consul-General  in  Canada,  and  in  1864  published 
a  history  of  the  Rebellion. 

Gilbert,  Sir  Humphrey  (i53°-I584),  English  navigator,  half  brother  of 
Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  sought  to  discover  a  northwest  passage  to  India,  and 
wrote  a  treatise  on  the  subject  In  1578  he  made  an  expedition  which  met 
with  no  success.  In  1583  he  planted  a  colony  at  Newfoundland  which  did 
not  prosper.  On  his  return  he  was  lost  at  sea. 

Giles,  William  B.  (1762-1830),  represented  Virginia  in  the  U.  S.  Congress 
from  1790  to  1799,  1801  to  1803,  and  in  the  Senate  from  1804  to  1815.  In 
1826  he  was  a  member  of  the  Virginia  Legislature,  and  was  Governor  of  the 
State  from  1826  to  1829.  He  was  a  skillful  parliamentary  leader. 

Gillmore,  Quincy  A.  (1825-1888),  was  born  in  Ohio.  He  was  graduated 
at  the  U.  S.  Military  Academy  in  1849,  was  chief  of  engineers  in  the  Port 
Royal  expedition  in  1861,  superintended  the  attack  on  Fort  Pulaski,  defeated 
the  Confederates  at  Somerset  in  1862,  commanded  at  Fort  Sumter,  Fort 
Wagner  and  Morris  Island,  and  was  promoted  major-general  for  services  at 
Charleston.  He  was  an  authority  in  engineering  subjects. 

Oilman,  Arthur,  born  in  Illinois  in  1837,  in  1876  established  the 
"Harvard  Annex,"  of  which  he  has  since  been  executive  officer.  He  has 
contributed  largely  to  historical  study. 

Gilman,  Daniel  C.,  born  in  1831,  one  of  the  foremost  of  American  edu- 
cators, was  associated  with  Yale  College  from  1856  to  1872,  and  was  presi- 
dent of  the  University  of  California  from  1872  to  1875,  since  which  time  he 
has  been  president  of  the  Johns  Hopkins  University. 

Gilman,  Nicholas  (1755-1814),  promoted  adjutant-general  during  the 
Revolution,  was  a  New  Hampshire  delegate  to  the  Continental  Congress 
from  1786  to  1788,  a  U.  S.  Representative  from  1789  to  1797,  and  a  Senator 
from  1805  to  1814. 

Gilmer,  Thomas  W.,  died  in  1844,  was  Governor  of  Virginia  from  1840 
to  1841.  He  was  a  U.  S.  Democratic  Congressman  from  1841  to  1844.  He 
was  Secretary  of  the  Navy  in  Tyler's  Cabinet  in  1844,  and  was  killed  in  the 
"  Princeton  "  disaster. 

Gilmore,  James  R.,  born  in  Massachusetts  in  1823,  at  the  beginning  of 
the  Civil  War  published  influential  novels  portraying  Southern  life. 

Gilpin,  Henry  D.  (1801-1860),  was  U.  S.  attorney  for  Pennsylvania  in 
1832,  solicitor  of  the  U.  S.  Treasury  in  1837,  and  Attorney-General  for  the 
United  States  from  1840  to  1841,  and  was  deeply  interested  in  historical 
work.  He  edited  the  papers  of  James  Madison,  1840. 

Girard,  Stephen  (1750-1831),  was  born  in  France,  but  came  to  Phila- 
delphia about  1776.  He  amassed  an  immense  fortune  by  commercial  enter- 
prises and  speculation  during  financial  crises.  During  the  War  of  1812  he 
greatly  aided  the  Government  by  a  loan  of  $5,000,000.  He  was  rigidly 
frugal  and  inhospitable  in  private  life,  but  very  generous  in  public  affairs, 
giving  large  sums  for  public  and  charitable  purposes.  He  founded  Girard 
College  for  orphans  at  Philadelphia. 


568  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Girty,  Simon  (i75O?-i8i5),  a  Kentucky  loyalist  who  led  the  Indians  in 
their  depredations  during  the  Revolutionary  War  and  in  the  War  of  1812, 
committing  many  atrocious  deeds. 

Gist,  Mordecai  (1743-1792),  was  elected  captain  of  the  first  Maryland 
company  in  the  Revolutionary  War,  fought  at  Cainden  in  1780,  and  gained 
a  victory  over  the  British  at  Combahee  in  1782. 

Glass.  The  first  mention  of  the  manufacture  of  glass  in  the  United 
States  is  in  Captain  John  Smith's  "  History  of  Virginia,"  in  which  he  speaks 
of  a  glass  factory  having  been  founded  at  Jamestown  in  1615,  and  a  second 
in  1622.  The  work  was  coarse,  being  chiefly  confined  to  bottles.  In  1754, 
a  successful  factory  was  established  in  Brooklyn  by  Bamper,  a  Dutchman. 
In  1779,  factories  were  founded  at  Temple,  N.  H.,  and  in  1795  the  industry 
was  begun  at  Pittsburgh.  By  1813  there  were  five  glass  factories,  valued 
at  $160,000,  at  Pittsburgh.  In  1840  there  were  eighty-one  factories  in  the 
States,  having  a  capital  of  $2,014,100.  By  1870,  201  factories  flourished  in 
different  places,  having  a  total  capital  of  $14,111,642.  Since  then  the 
industry  has  rapidly  increased. 

Glazier,  Willard,  born  in  1841,  a  lieutenant  in  the  Civil  War,  was  con- 
fined in  Southern  prisons  from  1863  to  1864,  and  wrote  "  Capture,  Prison- 
Pen  and  Escape,"  a  popular  account  of  his  experiences. 

Glendale,  or  Frayser's  Farm,  Va.,  a  battle  in  the  Peninsular  campaign  of 
the  Civil  War,  occurring  June  30,  1863.  McClellan's  army  had  just  emerged 
from  White  Oak  Swamp,  where  had  also  been  a  fierce  battle  with  Jackson's 
troops.  Hill  and  Longstreet  fell  upon  the  Federal  rear  and  there  was  terrific 
fighting  all  the  afternoon.  McCall's  division  of  the  Federals  fared  worst  and 
that  leader  was  captured.  Darkness  ended  this  indecisive  battle.  This  fight 
is  also  called  Nelson's  Farm  and  Charles  City  Cross-Roads. 

"  Globe,"  a  newspaper  established  at  Washington  by  Francis  P.  Blair  in 
1830,  and  succeeding  the  U.  S.  Telegraph  as  the  official  organ  of  Jackson's 
administration.  Later  as  the  Congressional  Globe  it  became  the  publisher 
of  official  debates,  and  is  now  continued  as  the  Congressional  Record,  pub- 
lished by  Congress. 

Globe,  Congressional.  A  continuation  of  the  "  Register  of  Debates," 
containing  in  108  volumes  a  verbatim  report  of  Congressional  proceedings, 
debates  and  laws  from  1837  to  1872.  Its  place  was  then  taken  by  the  Con- 
gressional Record. 

Gnadenhlitten,  a  settlement  of  Indians,  christianized  by  the  Moravians, 
made  in  1783.  It  was  situated  on  the  Muskingum  River.  For  many  years 
this  village  and  the  sister  settlements  of  Salem  and  Schonbrunn  were  peace- 
ful and  prosperous.  In  1781  Matthew  Elliott,  leading  300  whites  and 
Hurons,  appeared  at  Gnadenhiitten  and  urged  the  missionaries  and  Indians 
to  depart  to  Sandusky.  They  did  so,  but  returned  the  next  year.  Another 
troop  of  soldiers,  frontiersmen  and  savages,  under  Colonel  Williamson,  and 
without  civil  or  military  authority,  appeared,  and  brutally  butchered  the 
entire  tribe,  destroying  their  thriving  village. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  269 

Godkin,  Edwin  L,.,  bom  in  England  in  1831,  came  to  America  in  1856. 
In  1865  ne  established  the  Nation,  and  since  1881  has  been  an  editor  of  the 
Evening  Post. 

"  God-Speed,"  a  vessel  sent  in  1602  with  the  "  Discovery  "  by  the  East 
India  Company  on  a  voyage  of  exploration  toward  Greenland.  She  was 
afterward  sent  with  the  "Susan  Constant"  and  the  "Discovery"  with 
colonists  to  Virginia  in  1606  by  the  Virginia  Company. 

Godwin,  Parke,  born  in  1816,  was  connected  with  the  New  York  Evening 
Post  from  1837  to  1853,  contributed  largely  to  the  Democratic  Review,  and 
published  political,  biographical  and  historical  works,  especially  a  history 
of  France  to  843  A.  D. 

Goff,  Nathan,  born  in  1843,  was  promoted  major  during  the  Civil  War, 
and  was  elected  to  the  West  Virginia  Legislature  in  1867.  He  was  State 
District  Attorney  from  1868  to  1881,  Secretary  of  the  Navy  in  1881  and  a 
U.  S.  Congressman  from  1884  to  1890. 

Goffe,  William  (1605-1679),  regicide,  was  born  in  England.  He  became 
a  major-general  in  the  English  army,  was  one  of  the  judges  who  sentenced 
Charles  I.  to  death,  and  was  prominent  in  political  affairs  during  the  Pro- 
tectorate. Upon  the  return  of  Charles  II.,  he  fled  to  America  in  1660,  landing 
at  Boston.  He  was  concealed  in  New  Haven  from  1661  to  1664,  when  he 
went  to  Hadley,  Mass.,  where  he  remained  until  just  before  his  death. 

Gold.  The  first  law  affecting  the  coinage  of  gold  into  lawful  money  was 
enacted  April  2, 1792.  By  this  law  any  person  could  have  gold  bullion  con- 
verted into  coin  eleven  parts  pure  to  one  part  alloy.  Its  ratio  to  silver  was 
fifteen  to  one,  and  gold  coins  were  legal  tender  to  any  amount.  In  March, 
1795,  a  charge  of  four  cents  per  ounce  was  made  for  coining  gold  bullion 
below  the  standard.  Under  the  law  of  April  21,  1800,  a  sum  was  retained 
for  coining  gold  below  the  standard.  January  18,  1837,  the  standard  gold 
coin  was  made  nine-tenths  piire  and  one-tenth  alloy.  February  21,  1853,  it 
was  enacted  that  gold  coins  were  to  be  exchanged  for  silver  coins  at  par  in 
sums  not  exceeding  $100,  and  a  charge  of  one-half  per  cent  was  made  for 
refining.  February  12,  1873,  it  was  enacted  that  one-fifth  of  one  per  cent 
was  to  be  charged  for  coining  standard  gold.  By  the  law  of  January  14, 
1875,  no  charge  was  to  be  made  for  converting  standard  gold  bullion  into 
coin.  For  the  history  of  the  individual  coins,  see  Double  Eagle,  Eagle,  Half 
Eagle,  Three-Dollar  Piece,  Quarter  Eagle  and  Dollar. 

Gold,  Production  of.  Up  to  1830  the  amount  of  gold  produced  in  the 
United  States  was  exceedingly  small.  In  the  next  two  decades  an  annual 
average  of  $700,000  was  obtained  from  the  mines  in  the  Southern  States. 
The  discovery  of  gold  in  California  raised  the  annual  product  to  $10,000,000 
in  1848,  to  $40,000,000  in  1849,  an(^  to  $50,000,000  in  1850.  In  1853  it 
reached  its  maximum,  $65,000,000.  In  the  decade  1861-70  it  averaged  $47- 
000,000;  in  the  decade  1871-80,  $40,000,000;  in  the  decade  1881-90,  about 
$34,000,000.  In  1892—93  it  was  $33,000,000. 


270  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Golden  Circle,  Knights  of  the,  an  organization  formed  among  the 
"  Copperheads  "  during  the  Civil  War  to  rescue  Confederate  prisoners  held 
by  the  United  States. 

"  Golden  Hind,"  the  vessel  which  accompanied  Sir  Humphrey  Gilbert's 
"Squirrel"  in  the  colonization  expedition  of  1583.  Gilbert  was  lost,  and 
Captain  Edward  Haies  returned  with  the  "  Golden  Hind  "  to  England  bear- 
ing the  news. 

Goldsborough,  Louis  M.  (1805-1877),  entered  the  navy  at  the  age  of 
seven,  served  in  the  Mediterranean  in  1827,  was  promoted  commander  in 
1841,  and  aided  in  the  bombardment  of  Vera  Cruz  in  1847.  In  1861  he  was 
in  command  of  the  North  Atlantic  squadron,  and  planned  the  capture  of 
Roanoke  Island  in  1862.  He  retired  in  1873,  as  rear-admiral,  having  been 
longer  in  the  service  than  any  other  officer. 

Gooch,  Sir  William  (1681-1751),  was  Governor  of  Virginia"  from  1727  to 
1747,  when  he  returned  to  England.  He  was  created  a  baronet  in  1746,  and 
was  appointed  major-general. 

Goodhue,  Benjamin  (1748-1814),  a  Massachusetts  member  of  the  Con- 
tinental Congress  from  1784  to  1789,  was  a  U.  S.  Congressman  from  1789  to 
1795,  and  a  (Federalist)  Senator  from  1796  to  1800.  He  drafted  many  of 
the  present  revenue  laws,  and  served  on  the  Committee  on  Commerce  in  the 
Senate. 

Goodrich,  Samuel  G.  (1793-1860),  served  in  the  Massachusetts  Senate  in 
1838  and  1839,  and  was  U.  S.  Consul  at  Paris  from  1851  to  1855.  He 
published  many  juvenile  and  educational  works,  usually  under  the  name  of 
Peter  Parley,  famous  among  which  was  a  popular  history  of  the  United 
States. 

Goodyear,  Charles  (1800-1860),  was  born  in  Connecticut.  By  persistent 
experiment  he  discovered  the  vulcanizing  process  by  which  he  rendered 
india-rubber  useful.  t 

Gordon,  John  B.,  born  in  1832,  was  promoted  lieutenant-general  in  the 
Confederate  service,  represented  Georgia  in  the  U.  S.  Senate  from  1873  to 
1880,  and  was  elected  Governor  of  Georgia  in  1886. 

Gordon,  William  (1730-1807),  an  Englishman,  emigrated  to  Massachu- 
setts in  1770,  and  was  active  in  Massachusetts  politics.  He  returned  to  Eng- 
land in  1786,  and  published  a  valuable  "  History  of  the  Rise,  Progress  and 
Establishment  of  the  Independence  of  the  United  States." 

Gorgeana,  a  town  incorporated  in  1642  under  the  grant  of  the  charter 
of  Maine  to  Sir  Ferdinando  Gorges  and  others.  The  grant  was  made 
December  2,  1631,  of  24,000  acres  on  both  sides  of  the  Acomenticus  River. 
Gorgeana  was  founded  in  1641  as  Acomenticus. 

Gorges,  Sir  Ferdinando  (15657-1647),  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
original  Plymouth  Company,  and  sent  out  a  number  of  unsuccessful  expedi- 
tions to  the  New  England  coast.  In  1620  he  became  a  member  of  the 
Council  for  New  England.  In  1622  he,  with  Mason,  obtained  a  grant  of 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  271 

Northern  New  England;  in  1629,  of  Western  Maine,  separately.  Under  a 
fuller  proprietary  grant  of  1639,  he  established  a  government  at  Saco,  Aco- 
menticus  and  Gorgeana. 

Gorman,  Arthur  P.,  born  in  1839,  was  a  page  in  the  U.  S.  Senate  from 
1852  to  1866,  served  in  the  Maryland  Legislature  from  1869  to  1879,  and 
has  been  a  U.  S.  Senator  from  1881  to  1897.  He  is  one  of  the  chief  Demo- 
cratic political  managers. 

Gorton,  Samuel  (1600  7-1677),  emigrated  to  America  from  England  in 
1636,  was  banished  from  Massachusetts  for  religious  reasons,  and  finally 
settled  in  Rhode  Island,  where  he  founded  a  religious  sect.  He  afterward 
named  the  place  Warwick,  in  honor  of  the  earl  from  whom  he  obtained 
redress  for  his  grievances,  when  in  1644-1647  he  was  persecuted  by 
Massachusetts. 

Gosnold,  Bartholomew,  died  in  1607,  an  English  navigator  appointed  by 
Lord  Southampton  to  found  a  colony  in  New  England.  He  landed  on  the 
coast  of  Maine,  sailed  around  Cape  Cod,  and  planted  an  unsuccessful  colony 
in  Buzzard's  Bay  on  the  island  of  Cuttyhunk.  He  sailed  on  another  expedi- 
tion with  Newport  in  1606,  and  assisted  in  founding  Jamestown. 

Gough,  John  B.  (1817-1886),  came  to  America  from  England  in  1829. 
He  led  a  dissipated  life  until  1842,  when  he  reformed  and  devoted  his  efforts 
to  temperance  reform.  He  relied  entirely  on  moral  influences  and  disre- 
garded organized  or  legislative  efforts.  He  was  famous  as  an  orator. 

Gould,  Hannah  F.  (1789-1865),  born  in  Massachusetts,  was  an  extensive 
contributor  of  verse  to  various  periodicals,  and  published  several  popular 
poetical  works. 

Gould,  Jay  (1836-1893),  first  engaged  in  surveying,  but  entered  the  broker- 
age business  in  1857  and  amassed  an  immense  fortune  through  railroad 
speculations.  He  was  said  to  control  nearly  one-eighth  of  the  railroad  mile- 
age in  the  United  States. 

Gourgues,  Dominique  de  (1537-1593),  a  French  soldier,  set  sail  in  1567, 
with  three  vessels  and  about  230  men,  to  punish  the  Spaniards  led  by 
Menendez,  for  killing  French  explorers  in  Florida.  He  enlisted  the  services 
of  the  Indians  and  attacked  Fort  San  Mateo  on  the  St.  John's  River,  Florida, 
completely  annihilated  the  garrison,  and  likewise  destroyed  the  fortifications 
at  the  mouth  of  the  river. 

Governor.  When  the  American  colonies  were  founded,  "  Governor  "  was 
used  in  two  senses  in  England, — to  denote  the  commander  of  a  fortified  post, 
like  Hull  or  Tangier,  and  to  denote  the  head  of  a  great  trading  corporation, 
like  the  East  India  Company  or  the  Massachusetts  Company.  The  Governor 
of  an  American  colony  got  his  name  by  derivation  from  both  these  sources, 
probably.  When  the  Revolution  broke  out  and  the  royal  Governors  fled,  the 
new  State  Constitutions  usually  made  provision  for  a  single  executive,  called 
the  Governor.  At  first  he  was  chosen  by  the  Legislatures  in  most  States 
south  of  New  York,  but  now  by  the  people,  In  the  colonial  period,  the 


272  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Governors  of  Rhode  Island,  of  Connecticut,  and  of  Massachusetts  down  to 
1691,  were  chosen  by  the  people;  those  of  proprietary  colonies  by  the  pro- 
prietors; those  of  royal  colonies  by  the  crown. 

Governor's  Island,  N.  Y.,  called  Nutten  Island  by  its  original  settlers, 
the  Dutch,  received  its  present  name  from  having  been  the  property  of 
Governor  Wouter  van  Twiller.  It  was  fortified  and  occupied  by  the  colonial 
troops  during  the  Revolution. 

Graduation  Act,  an  act  passed  by  Congress  in  1854  to  cheapen,  for  the 
benefit  of  actual  settlers  and  for  adjoining  farms,  the  price  of  lands  which 
had  been  long  on  the  market. 

Grady,  Henry  W.  (1851-1889),  journalist  and  orator,  became  associated 
with  the  Atlanta  Constitution  in  1880.  He  made  himself  the  spokesman  of 
the  "  New  South,"  and  delivered  a  famous  speech  on  "  The  New  South  "  in 
1886,  and  one  upon  "The  Future  of  the  Negro"  in  1889. 

Grafton,  Augustus  Henry  Fitzroy,  Duke  of  (1736-1811),  English  states- 
man, opposed  Townsend's  policy  of  taxing  the  American  colonies  in  1766. 
He  sought  to  prevent  the  war  with  the  colonies,,  and  opposed  the  measures 
of  Lord  North. 

Graham,  George  (i772?-i83o),  commanded  in  the  War  of  1812,  was  act- 
ing Secretary  of  War  from  1815  to  1817,  and  was  U.  S.  Land  Commissioner 
from  1823  to  ^o. 

Graham,  William  A.  (1804-1875),  represented  North  Carolina  in  the 
U.  S.  Senate  from  1840  to  1843,  was  Governor  of  the  State  from  1845  to 
1849,  Secretary  of  the  Navy  in  Fillmore's  Cabinet  from  1850  to  1853,  and 
Whig  candidate  for  Vice-President  in  1852. 

Grahame,  James  (1790-1842),  born  in  Scotland,  published  a  "History  of 
the  Rise  and  Progress  of  the  United  States  of  North  America  till  the  British 
Revolution  of  1688,"  which  was  recognized  as  a  thorough  and  authoritative 
work. 

Granby  Token,  a  private  or  unauthorized  coinage  issued  in  Connecticut 
in  1737  by  John  Higley,  of  Granby.  It  was  made  of  copper.  Obverse,  a 
deer  and  legend,  Value  Me  as  You  Please;  Roman  numerals  III.  and  crescent. 
Reverse,  three  hammers  upon  a  triangular  field,  each  bearing  a  crown.  Legend: 
I  Am  Good  Copper. 

Grand  Army  of  the  Republic,  organized  during  the  winter  of  1865-66  at 
Springfield,  111.,  chiefly  through  the  activity  of  Dr.  B.  F.  Stephenson,  late 
surgeon  of  the  Fourteenth  Illinois  Infantry.  The  first  post  was  established 
at  Decatur,  111.,  in  1866.  The  ritual  is  secret.  All  soldiers  and  sailors  of 
the  U.  S.  army,  navy  and  marine  corps  between  April  12,  1861,  and  April  9, 
1865,  are  eligible  for  membership,  provided  they  have  had  an  honorable 
discharge.  The  membership  in  1893  was  407,781.  National  conventions 
have  been  held  each  year.  The  first  commander-in-chief  was  Stephen  A. 
Hurlbut,  of  Illinois.  Grand  army  posts  have  been  established  in  nearly  every 
city  in  the  North  and  West 


DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  273 

Grand  Gulf,  Miss.,  assaulted,  during  Grant's  expedition  along  the  Missis- 
sippi, by  that  general  and  Admiral  Porter,  who  commanded  eight  Federal 
gunboats,  April  29,  1863.  Wade  held  the  place  with  a  small  Confederate 
force.  The  position  was  bombarded  for  some  hours  without  avail. 

Granger,  Francis  (1792-1868),  son  of  Gideon,  a  New  York  Assemblyman 
from  1826  to  1831,  was  National  Republican  candidate  for  Vice-President  in 
1836,  a  U.  S.  Congressman  from  1835  to  1837  and  from  1839  to  1843,  and 
was  Whig  Postmaster-General  in  1841. 

Granger,  Gideon  (1767-1822),  served  in  the  Connecticut  Legislature,  and 
was  one  of  the  originators  of  the  school  fund.  He  was  Postmaster-General 
of  the  United  States  from  1801  to  1814  in  the  Cabinets  of  Jefferson  and 
Madison,  and  was  a  member  of  the  New  York  Senate  from  1819  to  1821 
where  he  advocated  an  extensive  system  of  internal  improvements. 

Granger,  Gordon  (1821-1876),  active  in  the  Mexican  War  at  Vera  Cruz, 
Chapultepec  and  city  of  Mexico,  fought  on  the  Federal  side  during  the  Civil 
War  at  Island  No.  10,  Chattanooga,  Missionary  Ridge  and  Mobile,  and  was 
breve tted  major-general. 

Granger,  Robert  S.,  general,  born  in  1816,  promoted  captain  in  the  Mex- 
ican War,  had  commands  in  the  Civil  War  at  Lebanon,  Lawrenceburg,  in 
Nashville  and  Middle  Tennessee  in  1863,  and  Alabama  in  1864.  He  retired 
in  1873.  Died  1894. 

Grangers.  The  popular  name  for  the  "  Patrons  of  Husbandry,"  a  secret 
association  devoted  to  the  promotion  of  agricultural  interests,  organized  in 
Washington,  December  4,  1867.  By  the  end  of  1875  it  numbered  1,500,000 
members  in  every  section  of  the  United  States.  Its  organization  was  some- 
what similar  to  that  of  the  Freemasons,  but  both  men  and  women  were 
admitted  to  membership.  Though  fundamentally  non-political,  it  exerted 
considerable  political  influence  in  its  contests  with  railroad  corporations 
for  cheaper  rates. 

Grant,  James  (1720—1806),  met  with  a  severe  defeat  in  command  of  an 
expedition  against  Fort  Duquesne  in  1758.  He  commanded  two  brigades  of 
British  troops  at  Long  Island,  and  was  in  command  of  New  Jersey  during 
the  battles  of  Trenton  and  Princeton.  He  served  as  a  major-general  in  the 
battles  of  Brandywine  and  Germantown  in  1777,  and  defeated  Lee  at 
Monmouth  in  1778. 

Grant,  Julia  Dent,  born  in  1826,  married  General  Grant  in  1848,  was  with 
him,  when  practicable,  during  the  Civil  War,  and  accompanied  him  in  his 
travels. 

Grant,  Ulysses  S.  (1822-1885),  the  greatest  Federal  general  in  the  Civil 
War,  was  born  at  Point  Pleasant,  O.,  and  was  graduated  from  West  Point 
in  1843.  ^e  was  commissioned  a  lieutenant,  fought  in  the  battles  of  Palo 
Alto  and  Resaca  de  la  Palma,  and  was  brevetted  captain  in  1847  for  conduct 
at  Chapultepec.  In  1854  he  resigned  his  commission  and  engaged  in  business 
until  1 86 1,  Soon  after  the  outbreak  of  the  war  he  was  given  command  of 
18 


274  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

the  forces  at  Cairo,  111.,  and  in  1861  seized  Paducah.  In  1862  he  gained  pos- 
session of  Fort  Henry  and  Fort  Donelson,  strongly  contested  points,  the 
surrender  of  which  was  the  first  brilliant  victory  of  the  national  arms.  For 
this  success  he  was  commissioned  major-general.  In  conjunction  with  the 
forces  of  General  Buell  he  defeated  the  Confederates  at  Pittsburg  Landing 
and  soon  afterward  was  assigned  to  command  in  Tennessee.  He  defeated 
General  Price  (1863)  and  succeeded  in  taking  Vicksburg  from  Pendleton  after 
repeated  attacks.  Having  thus  secured  the  Mississippi,  he  was  appointed 
major-general  in  the  regular  army  and  placed  in  command  of  the  Western 
army.  He  gained  brilliant  victories  about  Chattanooga  and  was  appointed 
by  President  Lincoln  to  the  newly  revived  rank  of  lieutenant-general.  Leav- 
ing Sherman  to  conduct  the  chief  Western  army  from  Tennessee  to  the  sea, 
he  assumed  control  of  the  movements  against  the  Confederates  defending 
Richmond,  commanded  by  General  Lee.  With  dogged  persistence  and  at 
great  sacrifice  of  life  he  fought  the  battles  of  the  Wilderness,  Spottsylvania 
and  Cold  Harbor,  destroying  the  railroads  which  brought  supplies  to  the 
Confederates,  taking  Petersburg  in  1865  and  compelling  the  entire  command 
to  surrender  on  April  9  at  Appomattox  Court  House,  thereby  ending  the  war. 
In  the  period  of  reconstruction  which  followed  he  played  a  most  honorable 
part,  often  being  placed  in  difficult  positions  by  the  animosity  between  Presi- 
dent Johnson  and  Congress.  In  1868  he  was  unanimously  nominated  for 
President  by  the  Republicans,  was  elected  and  served  two  terms,  from  1868 
to  1876.  During  his  administration  occurred  the  passage  of  the  Fifteenth 
Amendment,  the  funding  of  the  national  debt,  civil  service  reform  was 
inaugurated,  the  Treaty  of  Washington  was  negotiated  with  Great  Britain, 
and  specie  payment  was  resumed  in  1875.  His  administration  as  President 
was  not  wholly  successful,  some  of  his  advisers  proving  most  unworthy.  He 
possessed  an  unassuming  manner,  yet  was  self-reliant  and  prompt  in  his 
decisions,  calm  and  patient  in  all  circumstances,  and  won  the  admiration  of 
all  by  his  moral  and  physical  courage.  He  published  "  Personal  Memoirs." 

Grasse,  Francois  J.  P.,  Count  de  (1723-1788),  born  in  France,  was 
appointed  commander  of  a  French  fleet  of  twenty-nine  vessels  and  3000 
men  to  aid  the  American  colonists  against  Great  Britain  in  1781.  He  aided 
in  the  siege  of  Yorktown,  blockading  the  York  and  James  Rivers,  and  sent 
troops  to  aid  in  the  decisive  engagement  by  which  Cornwallis  was  compelled 
to  surrender. 

Gray,  Asa  (1810-1888),  born  in  New  York,  was  recognized  both  in  this 
country  and  in  Europe  as  one  of  the  most  eminent  botanists  of  his  time. 
He  published  a  large  number  of  valuable  botanical  works. 

Gray,  Elisha,  born  in  1835,  is  a  successful  inventor  of  various  electrical 
appliances,  chiefly  for  the  telegraph  and  telephone,  among  them  being  his 
speaking  telephone  and  multiplex  telegraph. 

Gray,  George,  born  in  1840,  Attorney-General  of  Delaware  from  1879  to 
1885,  delegate  to  the  National  Democratic  Conventions  of  1876,  1880  and 
1884,  U.  S.  Senator  from  1885  to  1899.  Peace  Commissioner  in  1898,  U.  S. 
Circuit  Judge,  1899. 

Gray,  Horace,  born  in  1828,  reporter  of  the  Massachusetts  Supreme  Court 
from  185410  1861,  Associate  Justice  of  it  from  1864  to  1873,  then  Chief 
Justice.  He  was  appointed  a  Justice  of  the  U.  S.  Supreme  Court  in  1882, 


DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  275 

Gray,  Isaac  P.,  born  in  1828,  was  a  captain  in  the  Civil  War,  and  served 
in  the  Indiana  Senate  from  1868  to  1872,  when  he  was  elected  Lieutenant- 
Governor.  He  was  Governor  from  1885  to  1889,  as  a  Democrat.  Died  1895. 

Gray,  Robert  (1755-1806),  born  in  Rhode  Island,  traded  with  the  Indians 
on  the  northwest  coast,  and  returned  in  1790  via  China,  being  the  first  to 
carry  the  American  flag  around  the  world.  He  sailed  into  the  Columbia 
River  in  1792,  from  which  arose  the  American  claim  to  Oregon. 

"  Great  Awakening,"  a  religious  revival  between  1734  and  1744,  through 
Massachusetts  and  Connecticut,  induced  by  the  eloquence  of  Jonathan 
Edwards  and  George  Whitefield.  Edwards  had  a  parish  at  Northampton, 
Whitefield  was  an  Englishman.  Their  preaching  aroused  the  greatest 
religious  enthusiasm,  and  made  hundreds  of  converts.  The  awakening  was 
looked  upon  with  disfavor  in  England. 

Great  Bridge,  Va.,  an  engagement  of  the  Revolution,  occurring  Decem- 
ber 9,  1775,  near  the  Dismal  Swamp,  between  Lord  Dunmore,  commanding 
a  band  of  British  and  Tories,  and  Colonel  Woodford  leading  300  colonial 
soldiers.  Dunmore  attacked  Woodford's  camp,  and  was  defeated  with  the 
loss  of  100  men,  Woodford  sustaining  no  loss. 

Great  Britain.  (See  also  Revolution.)  The  definitive  treaty  of  peace 
which  ended  the  Revolutionary  War  between  the  United  States  and  Great 
Britain  was  concluded  September  3,  1783.  Failure  to  fulfill  some  of  the 
provisions  of  this  treaty — notably  the  evacuation  of  the  northern  frontier 
posts — led  to  the  negotiation  of  the  Jay  Treaty.  This  concession  (of  evacu- 
ation) with  some  doubtful  commercial  privileges  was  almost  the  only  advan- 
tage secured  by  the  new  treaty,  which  gave  more  than  it  gained,  and 'proved 
very  unpopular,  though  it  was  ratified.  British  orders  in  council,  damaging 
to  American  commerce,  and  the  arbitrary  impressment  of  American  seamen, 
resulted  in  the  War  of  1812-15  (see  next  art.),  which  was  ended  by  the 
treaty  of  peace  known  as  the  Treaty  of  Ghent,  which  provided  for  commis- 
sions to  settle  the  northern  boundary.  A  commercial  convention  was  con- 
cluded in  1815.  The  Convention  of  1818  reaffirmed  the  right  of  the  United 
States  to  the  enjoyment  of  the  northeastern  fisheries  subject  to  certain 
renunciations.  It  referred  to  arbitration  the  question  of  the  return  of  the 
slaves  captured  during  the  War  of  1812,  which  was  finally  decided  in  favor 
of  the  United  States,  and  an  indemnity  paid.  It  attempted  to  settle  the 
northwest  boundary.  The  Ashburton  Treaty  of  1842  determined  the  long- 
disputed  northeast  boundary  and  provided  for  the  mutual  suppression  of  the 
slave  trade.  The  acquisition  of  California  and  the  question  of  its  approaches 
across  the  Isthmus  led  to  new  difficulties  with  Great  Britain.  The  Clay- 
ton-Bui wer  Treaty  of  1850  was  concluded  to  settle  all  difficulties  as  to  Cen- 
tral American  rights,  but  a  difficulty  of  interpretation  led  to  the  conclusion 
of  the  Dallas-Clarendon  Treaty  of  1854,  which  failed  of  ratification,  and  the 
matter  was  not  satisfactorily  adjusted  for  several  years.  In  1853  a  claims 
convention  was  concluded,  a  reciprocity  treaty  in  1854,  and  a  treaty  for  the 


276  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

suppression  of  the  slave  trade  in  1862 — afterward  modified.  A  naturaliza- 
tion convention  was  concluded  in  1870.  A  treaty  (Treaty  of  Washington) 
was  concluded  May  8,  1871,  to  settle  questions  arising  from  the  American 
Civil  War.  It  provided  for  a  commission  of  arbitration  which  awarded 
$15,500,000  to  the  United  States,  and  settled  important  questions  of  inter- 
national law.  (See  "  Alabama  "  Claims  and  Geneva  Arbitration.)  This 
treaty  further  adjusted  differences  relating  to  the  northeastern  fisheries,  and 
$5,500,000  were  awarded  to  Great  Britain.  Also  the  northwestern  boundary 
dispute  (or  San  Juan  question)  was  referred  to  the  Emperor  of  Germany, 
who  decided  in  favor  of  the  United  States.  An  extradition  treaty  was  con- 
cluded in  1890.  The  latest  difficulty  between  the  two  nations  has  been  the 
Behring  Sea  dispute.  This  arose  over  the  right  to  take  seals  in  certain 
waters  claimed  by  the  United  States  as  tinder  its  exclusive  jurisdiction.  A 
treaty  of  arbitration  was  signed  February  29,  1892,  which  provided  for  a 
tribunal  of  arbitration.  It  met  in  Paris,  and  on  August  15,  1893,  signed 
an  agreement  which  denies  exclusive  American  jurisdiction  beyond  the 
three-mile  limit,  and  grants  damages  for  seizures  by  the  United  States,  but 
establishes  protective  regulations  binding  upon  both  nations.  In  1892  a 
reciprocity  treaty  was  concluded  respecting  the  British  West  Indies. 

Great  Britain,  Second  War  with.  The  war  between  England  and 
France,  resumed  in  1803,  resulted  in  innumerable  aggressions  upon  the 
commerce  of  neutrals.  The  Berlin  and  Milan  Decrees  and  the  orders  in 
council,  issued  by. the  two  combatants  in  the  effort  to  destroy  each  other's 
resources,  subjected  to  capture  on  the  one  hand  all  vessels  trading  with  Eng- 
land, and  on  the  other  hand  all  vessels  trading  with  France  or  regions  subject 
to  France — practically  nearly  the  whole  continent  of  Europe.  England, 
moreover,  insisted  on  the  impressment  of  seamen  and  the  exercise  of  the 
right  of  search.  The  Non-Importation  Act,  the  embargo  and  the  Non-Inter= 
course  Act  brought  neither  belligerent  to  terms,  and  negotiations  with  Eng- 
land failed  to  check  British  aggressions.  The  result  was  the  growth,  espe- 
cially in  the  West,  of  a  resolute  war  party,  led  by  Clay,  Calhoun,  Crawford, 
Grundy,  Cheves,  Lowndes  and  others,  who  succeeded  in  forcing  President 
Madison's  hand,  and  in  June,  1812,  brought  on  a  declaration  of  war  with 
England.  The  military  and  naval  forces  of  the  United  States  were  exceed- 
ingly small  in  comparison  with  those  of  Great  Britain,  the  country  disunited 
and  the  executive  weak.  The  theatre  of  land  operations  was  at  first  the 
Canadian  frontier.  In  1812  the  Americans  lost  Detroit  and  Chicago,  and 
were  checked  in  attempts  to  invade  Canada  by  way  of  Niagara.  In  1813 
Perry's  victory  on  Lake  Erie  secured  that  lake  and  Detroit,  but  in  the 
regions  of  Ontario  and  the  St.  Lawrence  an  American  occupation  of  Upper 
Canada  proved  temporary,  and  no  substantial  gains  were  made.  On  the  sea 
the  little  American  navy  won  brilliant  and  encouraging  victories  in'i8i2. 
In  1813  it  was  on  the  whole  unsuccessful,  but  privateers,  to  the  end  of  the 
war,  inflicted  enormous  damage  on  British  shipping.  In  1814  the  army  on 
the  Canadian  frontier,  better  commanded  than  heretofore,  won  victories  at 
Lundy's  Lane  and  Plattsburg.  But  the  abdication  of  Napoleon  left  England 
free  to  employ  more  troops  in  America.  A  force  which  landed  in  Chesapeake 
Bay  captured  Washington,  but  was  repulsed  from  Baltimore.  Meanwhile 


NAVAL  COMMANDERS   OF   WAR    1812. 

D.   Porter.  Stephen  Decatur. 

^William  Bainbridge. 
James  Lawrence.  Oliver  H.   Perry.  Charles  Stewart. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  277 

New  England  gave  violent  expression  to  its  dissatisfaction  with  the  war, 
especially  through  the  Hartford  Convention.  As  neither  nation  was  making 
substantial  gains,  negotiations  for  peace  were  begun,  and  finally  peace  was 
concluded  by  the  Treaty  of  Ghent  (1814).  The  treaty  said  nothing  of  either 
the  rights  of  neutrals  or  the  impressment  of  seamen.  Yet  the  effect  of  the 
war  had  been  to  increase  the  confidence  of  the  Americans  and  their  national 
feeling,  and  to  withdraw  the  country's  politics  permanently  from  dependence 
on  those  of  Europe.  Before  the  news  of  peace  arrived,  Jackson  won  a 
brilliant  victory  at  New  Orleans  over  a  formidable  British  force  which  had 
been  sent  to  occupy  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi  (1815). 

Great  Meadows.  Toward  the  end  of  May,  1754,  Washington  encamped 
with  150  men  on  a  meadow  near  the  Youghiogeny  River  between  the 
Alleghany  and  Laurel  Ridges.  His  instructions  were  to  advance  upon  Fort 
Duquesne,  which  had  been  seized  by  the  French  during  the  preceding  year. 
When  at  Great  Meadows  he  learned  that  a  body  of  French  were  in  his 
vicinity.  Taking  a  portion  of  his  force  and  an  Indian  guide  he  surprised 
the  French  who  were  hidden  in  a  hollow  in  the  forest,  and  at  once  opened 
fire.  Several,  among  whom  was  their  commander  Jumonville,  were  killed, 
and  over  twenty  taken  prisoners.  This  was  the  beginning  of  the  French 
and  Indian  War,  and  indeed  was  the  first  engagement  of  the  Seven  Years' 
War. 

Greece.  The  United  States  sympathized  with  the  efforts  of  the  Greeks 
to  throw  off  the  Turkish  yoke,  but  early  attempts  at  Governmental  action  in 
their  favor  were  frustrated.  A  commercial  treaty  was  concluded  in  1837. 

Greeley,  Horace  (1811-1872),  was  born  in  New  Hampshire.  In  1833  he 
edited  the  Evening  Post,  the  first  daily  penny  paper  ever  issued,  and  in 
1834  founded  the  New  Yorker.  He  was  editorially  connected  with  the 
Jeffersonian  and  the  Log  Cabin,  campaign  journals  of  considerable  popu- 
larity, and  in  1841  issued  the  first  number  of  the  Tribune,  which  he  con- 
tinued to  edit  until  his  death.  It  was  at  first  Whig,  then  Anti-Slavery  Whig, 
then  Republican,  employed  the  most  eminent  men  of  the  day  on  its  staff, 
proclaimed  the  most  popular  and  radical  views,  and  was  the  most  influential 
paper  in  America.  From  1848  to  1849  he  represented  New  York  in  the 
U.  S.  Congress,  where  he  redressed  abuses  of  the  mileage  system.  He 
earnestly  advocated  the  abolition  of  slavery  during  the  war,  and  made  most 
powerful  appeals  to  the  administration  through  the  columns  of  his  paper. 
During  the  period  of  reconstruction  he  advocated  universal  amnesty  and 
impartial  suffrage,  and  became  one  of  the  bondsmen  of  Jefferson  Davis  in 
1867.  I*1  I^72  ne  was  Presidential  candidate  for  the  Liberal  Republican 
and  Democratic  parties,  but  was  defeated  by  General  Grant.  Eccentric  in 
habit  and  in  thought,  frank  and  open-minded,  firm  in  his  convictions,  ever 
mindful  of  the  welfare  of  society,  he  was  called  by  John  G.  Whittier,  "  the 
later  Franklin." 

Greely,  Adolphus  W.,  born  in  Maine  in  1844,  was  brevetted  major  for 
services  in  the  Civil  War,  and  soon  afterward  entered  the  Signal  Service. 
In  1 88 1  he  commanded  an  expedition  of  twenty-five  men  which  established 


278  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

an  observation  station  at  the  farthest  point  north  yet  attained.  When  res- 
cued in  1884,  only  seven  men  had  survived.  He  was  chief  of  the  Signal 
Service  from  1887  to  1892.  In  1887  he  became  a  brigadier-general. 

Green,  Duff  (1780-1875),  an  influential  politician  who  edited  an  opposi- 
tion organ  during  John  Quincy  Adams'  administration,  and  the  U.  S.  Tele- 
graph  (an  " official"  organ)  during  Jackson's  first  term.  He  supported 
Clay  in  1832,  and  Calhoun  in  1836. 

Greenhalge,  Frederic  T.,  lawyer  and  statesman,  born  1842  in  England. 
Removed  to  Lowell,  Mass.,  educated  in  public  schools  and  Harvard  College. 
Studied  law,  admitted  to  bar  1865.  Mayor  of  Lowell  two  years,  one  year  in 
Legislature,  and  1889-90  in  U.  S.  Congress.  Governor  of  Massachusetts 
three  terms,  1894-95-96.  Died  in  office  March  5,  1896. 

"  Green  Bay  Intelligencer,"  first  newspaper  published  in  Wisconsin.  It 
was  founded  December  n,  1833,  by  Suydam  and  Ellis  at  Green  Bay.  In 
August,  1836,  it  was  united  with  the  Spectator  and  called  the  Wisconsin 
Democrat.  In  1840  it  was  removed  to  Southport  (Kenosha). 

Green  Briar  Creek,  Va.,  an  encampment  of  Confederate  forces  under 
Lee.  Reynolds,  the  Federal  commander  in  that  quarter,  left  his  camp  at 
Elkwater,  October  2,  1861,  with  5000  men  and  a  large  artillery  force  and 
advanced  against  the  Confederates.  Kimball  attacked  the  Confederates' 
front  and  right,  while  Milroy  cleared  the  Green  Briar  bridge.  The  fighting 
continued  fiercely  for  some  time,  but  there  was  no  decisive  victory,  for  Rey- 
nolds, having  gained  the  bridge,  sounded  the  recall. 

Green  Mountain  Boys,  a  band  of  Vermont  mountaineers  who,  led  by  Ethan 
Allen  and  Benedict  Arnold,  captured  Fort  Ticonderoga  May  10,  1776,  secur- 
ing fifty  British  prisoners  and  200  cannon.  They  rendered  effective  service 
throughout  the  Revolution. 

Greenback  Party,  organized  in  a  Greenback  Convention  at  Indianapolis, 
November  25,  1874,  which  assembled  to  adopt  resolutions  opposing  the 
specie  resumption  bill  proposed  at  that  time  in  Congress  and  passed  January 
14,  1875.  The  Greenback  party  platform  advocated  the  withdrawal  of  all 
national  and  State  bank  currency,  and  the  substitution  therefor  of  paper 
currency  issued  by  the  Government,  and  that  coin  should  only  be  used  in 
payment  of  interest  on  the  national  debt.  The  Greenback  Presidential  can- 
didate in  1876,  Peter  Cooper,  of  New  York,  received  81,740  votes,  chiefly 
from  the  Western  States. 

Greenback  Labor  Party,  an  outgrowth  of  the  Greenback  party,  formed 
in  Ohio  in  1875.  In  1878  a  union  of  the  Labor  Reform  and  the  remnants 
of  the  old  Greenback  party  was  effected  and  was  made  national  by  the  Con- 
vention of  February  22  of  that  year,  at  Toledo,  O.  The  platform  adopted 
was  similar  to  that  of  the  Greenback  party.  It  advocated  the  withdrawal  of 
currency  from  all  national  and  State  banks  and  corporations,  a  paper  currency 
issued  by  the  Government,  and  that  coin  should  only  be  paid  for  interest  on 
the  national  debt  when  so  specified.  They  also  demanded  an  eight-hour  law, 
the  prohibition  of  Chinese  immigration,  of  land  grants  to  railroads  and  of 
special  grants  to  corporations  and  bondholders.  In  1878  they  elected  fourteen 
Congressmen.  Their  national  convention  was  held  at  Chicago,  June  9, 1880, 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  279 

James  B.  Weaver,  of  Iowa,  and  B.  J.  Chambers,  of  Texas,  being  the  Presi- 
dential nominees.  Their  popular  vote  reached  308,578.  In  1884  the  Presi- 
dential candidate  of  the  party  was  B.  F.  Butler,  who  received  175,370  votes. 
In  1887  the  Union  Labor  party  was  organized. 

Greenbacks.  The  popular  name  for  the  legal-tender  Treasury  notes  which 
the  U.  S.  Government  issued  during  the  war.  Although  the  right  of  the 
Government  to  issue  "  bills  of  credit,"  legal-tender  notes,  was  disputed  by 
many,  the  necessities  of  the  Government  caused  the  passage  of  an  act  of 
that  effect  on  February  25, 1862.  This  authorized  the  issue  of  $150,000,000 
of  such  notes.  Acts  authorizing  further  issues  of  the  same  amount  were 
passed  on  June  n,  1862,  and  March  3,  1863.  The  legal-tender  notes 
rapidly  depreciated,  the  price  of  gold  averaging  220  throughout  1864,  and 
even  on  one  day  rising  to  285.  By  Act  of  1866  the  total  amount  outstand- 
ing was  reduced  to  $356,000,000  within  two  years.  Since  1878  it  has  been 
$346,681,016. 

Greenbriar  Company,  a  land  company  organized  October  29,  1757,  in 
opposition  to  the  Ohio  and  Loyal  Companies.  The  Greenbriar  Company 
obtained  a  grant  of  100,000  acres,  chiefly  along  the  Ohio  River. 

Greene,  Christopher  (1737-1781),  served  in  the  Rhode  Island  Legislature 
from  1772  to  1774,  was  appointed  commander  in  Arnold's  expedition  to  Quebec 
and  in  1777  made  a  brilliant  defence  of  Fort  Mercer  against  the  Hessians. 

Greene,  George  W.  (1811-1883),  U.  S.  Consul  at  Rome  in  1837,  served  in 
the  Rhode  Island  Legislature  from  1867  to  1869  and  wrote  a  history  of  the 
Revolution  and  a  life  of  General  Nathanael  Greene. 

Greene,  Nathanael  (1742-1786),  general,  born  in  Warwick,  R.  L,  served  in 
the  Rhode  Island  Assembly  in  1770.  He  joined  a  military  company  in  1774 
and  was  commissioned  brigadier-general  in  1775.  He  was  active  in  the 
engagement  at  Dorchester  Heights,  and  was  made  major-general  in  1776. 
He  fought  at  Trenton  and  at  Princeton  and  saved  the  American  forces  from 
defeat  at  Brandywine  by  a  rapid  march  and  skillful  management.  He  com- 
manded the  left  wing  at  Germantown,  skillfully  covering  the  retreat,  and  in 
1778  was  appointed  quartermaster-general  while  retaining  his  rank  in  the 
field.  He  presided  at  the  trial  of  Major  Andre*.  In  1780  he  succeeded  Gates 
in  command  of  the  Southern  forces.  One  of  his  detachments,  under  General 
Morgan,  having  gained  a  decisive  victory  at  Cowpens,  Greene  joined  him 
with  reinforcements  and  attacked  Cornwallis  at  Guilford  Court  House.  He 
then  began  a  brilliant  campaign  in  South  Carolina,  engaging  Lord  Rawdon 
at  Camden,  capturing  Forts  Watson,  Motte  and  Granby,  regaining  Orange- 
burg,  Augusta  and  Fort  Ninety-six,  and  winning  a  decisive  victory  at  Eutaw 
Springs.  Soon  afterward  a  detachment  under  General  Wayne  took  posses- 
sion of  Savannah  and  Greene  occupied  Charleston.  He  disbanded  his  troops 
in  1783.  By  his  skill  in  military  manoeuvres  he  proved  himself  one  of  the 
most  brilliant  generals  of  that  period,  second  only  to  Washington,  among 
those  of  the  Revolution. 

Greenough,  Horatio  (1805-1852),  designed  a  model  fnrr  rVich  Bunker 
Hill  Monument  was  made;  constructed  the  "Rescue,"  and  i  statue  of  Wash- 
ington, and  became  one  of  the  most  eminent  of  American  sculptors. 


28o  DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Greenway  Court,  the  home  of  Lord  Fairfax  in  a  valley  of  the  Virginia 
Mountains.  It  was  built  in  1745,  in  Frederick  County. 

Grenville,  George  (1712-1770),  became  a  member  of  the  English  Parlia- 
ment in  1741,  was  a  lord  of  the  Admiralty  in  1744,  a  lord  of  the  Treasury 
in  1747,  treasurer  of  the  navy  and  privy  councillor  in  1754,  leader  of  the 
House  of  Commons  in  1761,  secretary  of  state  and  first  lord  of  the 
Admiralty  in  1762,  and  was  first  lord  of  the  Treasury  (Prime  Minister)  and 
chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  from  1763  to  1765.  In  1765  he  secured  the 
passage  of  the  act  imposing  stamp  duties  on  America,  and  strenuously 
opposed  the  repeal  of  the  Stamp  Act  in  1766.  He  was  an  able  statesman, 
but  possessed  a  very  imperious  nature. 

Grenville,  Sir  Richard  (1540-1591),  an  English  navigator,  set  out  with 
seven  vessels  and  108  colonists  for  Carolina  on  a  colonizing  expedition  for 
Sir  Walter  Raleigh  in  1585.  He  landed  the  colonists  at  Roanoke  Island, 
but  they  soon  afterward  returned  to  England  on  account  of  troubles  with  the 
Indians.  In  1586  he  renewed  the  attempt.  In  1591,  with  only  one  ship,  he 
attacked  a  Spanish  fleet  of  fifty  vessels  and  sunk  four  of  them,  but  was 
mortally  wounded. 

Grenville  Act,  so  called  after  the  British  Minister,  George  Grenville;  an 
act  extending  the  navigation  acts,  placing  imposts  on  foreign  molasses,  an 
increased  duty  on  sugar,  regulating  English  manufactures,  and  prohibiting 
trade  between  America  and  St.  Pierre  and  MiqueLon,  two  small  French 
islands  off  Newfoundland. 

Gresham,  Walter  Q.,  born  in  1832,  was  a  member  of  the  Indiana  Legis- 
lature from  i86o  to  1861,  served  during  the  Civil  War,  and  was  promoted 
major-general  in  1865.  He  was  U.  S.  District  Judge  in  Indiana  from  1869 
to  1883,  when  he  was  appointed  Postmaster-General  in  Arthur's  Cabinet,  and 
in  1884  was  for  a  short  time  Secretary  of  the  Treasury.  From  1884  to  1893 
he  was  a  Judge  of  the  U.  S.  Circuit  Court  In  1893  he  became  Secret -ry 
of  State  in  Mr.  Cleveland's  Cabinet,  though  till  1892  a  Republican.  D.  1895. 

Grey,  Charles  (1729-1807),  major-general,  accompanied  Howe  from  Eng- 
land in  1775,  surprised  and  defeated  General  Wayne's  force  near  the  Schuyl- 
kill  on  September  20,  1777,  had  a  command  at  Germantown  and  Tappan, 
and  destroyed  the  shipping  and  stores  at  New  Bedford  in  1778. 

Greytown,  a  town  on  the  Mosquito  Coast  of  Nicaragua,  bombarded  and 
destroyed  in  1854  by  the  U.  S.  ship  "  Cyane."  A  negro  had  been  shot  by  a 
steamship  captain  in  May,  and  the  mayor  of  Greytown  ordered  the  captain's 
arrest.  The  passengers  resisted,  among  them  Borland,  the  U.  S.  Minister. 
The  next  day  Borland  was  assaulted  on  the  street.  In  July  the  "  Cyane  " 
was  despatched  to  the  town.  Commander  Hollins  sent  to  the  mayor  demand- 
ing immediate  payment  of  the  extortionate  demands  o,f  a  transit  company, 
with  which  the  town  authorities  had  quarreled. .  This  was  refused.  Hollins 
opened  fire  and  destroyed  the  town. 

Grier,  Robert  C.  (1794-1870),  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1817,  was  District 
Judge  of  Alleghany  from  1838  to  1846,  when  he  became  a  Justice  of  the 
U.  S.  Supreme  Court  and  served  until  1870. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  281 

Grierson,  Benjamin  H.,  born  in  1826,  conducted  a  successful  cavalry  raid 
from  La  Grange  to  Baton  Rouge  in  1863,  and  was  successively  promoted  for 
dashing  cavalry  exploits  until  appointed  a  major-general  of  the  U.  S.  army 
in  1866. 

Griffin,  Charles  (1826-1867),  fought  at  Bull  Run,  had  commands  at  Mal- 
vern  Hill,  Antietam,  Fredericksburg  and  Gettysburg,  took  a  prominent  part 
in  Grant's  Peninsular  campaign,  and  was  made  major-general  in  the  U.  S. 
army  in  1865. 

Griffin,  Simon  G.,  general,  born  in  1824,  in  1862  fought  at  Camden, 
Antietam  and  Fredericksburg,  and  assisted  in  taking  Vicksburg.  He  fought 
also  at  the  Wilderness,  Spottsylvania  and  Petersburg,  and  aided  in  the  defeat 
of  General  Lee  at  Appomattox. 

Grimes,  James  W.  (1816-1872),  Governor  of  Iowa  from  1854  to  1858, 
was  a  U.  S.  Senator  from  1859  to  1871,  and  chairman  of  the  Committee  on 
Naval  Affairs  from  1864  to  1871.  He  was  one  of  the  Republicans  who 
voted  "Not  guilty"  at  President  Johnson's  trial. 

Grinnell,  Henry  (1800-1874),  a  successful  merchant,  devoted  the  later 
years  of  his  life  to  the  extension  of  geographical  knowledge,  and  sent  out 
two  expeditions  to  the  polar  seas. 

"  Gripen,"  a  sloop  furnished  for  emigrants  in  the  Swedish  colonization 
expedition  of  1637.  It  reached  Delaware  Bay  in  March,  1638,  and  the  emi- 
grants formed  settlements  along  the  Delaware  River. 

Griswold,  Roger  (1762-1812),  represented  Connecticut  in  the  U.  S.  Con- 
gress from  1795  to  1805,  was  appointed  Judge  of  the  Connecticut  Supreme 
Court  in  1807,  and  chosen  Governor  in  1811. 

Griswold,  Rufus  W.  (1815-1857),  associate  editor  of  numerous  periodicals 
including  Grahatrfs  Magazine  and  the  International  Magazine,  was  the 
author  of  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  America  "  and  "  Prose  Writers  of  America." 

Griswold,  Fort,  Capture  of,  September  6,  1781.  In  view  of  the  siege  of 
Cornwallis  in  Yorktown,  Clinton  attempted  a  diversion  upon  Connecticut. 
Benedict  Arnold  commanded.  The  only  spirited  resistance  was  offered  by 
the  garrison  of  Fort  Griswold,  157  in  number.  After  losing  192  of  his  600 
regulars  Arnold  carried  the  fort.  No  quarter  was  given.  Only  twenty-six 
escaped.  New  London  was  laid  in  ashes,  and  before  sunset  the  enemy 
returned  up  the  Sound.  The  descent  was  wanton  and  useless. 

Groesbeck,  William  S.,  born  in  1815,  represented  Ohio  in  the  U.  S.  Con- 
gress from  1857  to  1859,  was  a  State  Senator  in  1862  and  of  counsel  for 
President  Johnson  in  the  impeachment  trial.  Died  in  1897. 

Gros  Ventres,  a  name  applied  to  two  Indian  tribes  of  different  origin:  the 
Gros  Ventres  of  the  Missouri  and  the  Gros  Ventres  of  the  prairie.  The  latter 
tribe,  after  wandering  east  and  joining  various  tribes  temporarily,  finally 
settled  about  1824  near  Milk  River  with  the  Blackfeet.  Treaties  were  made 
with  them  in  1851,  1853  an(^  ^65,  and  the  Indians  have  since  continued 
friendly.  They  have  suffered  considerably  from  hostilities  with  other  tribes. 
They  now  occupy  a  reservation  in  Montana. 


282  DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Grover,  Cuvicr  (1829-1885),  a  lieutenant-colonel  at  Williamsburg  and 
Fair  Oaks,  commanded  a  division  in  the  Shenandoah  campaign  and  was 
brevetted  major-general  for  services  at  Fisher's  Hill  in  1864. 

Grover,  Lafayette,  born  in  1823,  chairman  of  the  Oregon  Democratic 
Committee  from  1866  to  1870,  was  Governor  of  Oregon  from  1870  to  1878. 
He  decided  for  the  Democratic  elector  in  the  disputed  Presidential  election 
of  1876,  and  was  a  U.  S.  Congressman  from  1877  to  1883. 

Grow,  Galusha  A.,  born  in  1824,  represented  the  "Wilmot  district"  in 
Pennsylvania  in  the  U.  S.  Congress  as  a  Whig  and  Republican  from  1851  to 
1863  and  was  Speaker  of  the  House  from  1861  to  1863.  He  served  on  the 
Committees  on  Indian  Affairs,  Agriculture  and  Territories,  being  chairman  of 
this  committee  for  four  years.  He  was  a  delegate  to  the  Republican  National 
Conventions  of  1864  and  1868.  In  1894  he  was  elected  Congressman-at- 
large  by  an  enormous  majority  (188,000).  He  still  serves  (1899). 

Grundy,  Felix  (1777-1840),  born  in  Virginia,  was  a  member  of  the  Ken- 
tucky Constitutional  Convention  of  1799,  and  a  member  of  the  State  House 
of  Representatives  from  1800  to  1806.  He  represented  Tennessee  in  the 
U.  S.  Congress  from  1811  to  1814  and  was  a  member  of  the  Tennessee  House 
of  Representatives  from  1815  to  1819.  He  was  a  U.  S.  Senator  from  1820 
to  1838,  and  was  Attorney-General  in  Van  Buren's  Cabinet  from  1838  to  1839, 
when  he  again  became  a  U.  S.  Senator  and  served  until  his  death. 

Guadalupe  Hidalgo,  Treaty  of,  was  negotiated  with  Mexico  by  Nicholas 
P.  Trist  for  the  United  States  in  1848,  at  the  conclusion  of  the  Mexican  War. 
By  this  treaty  Mexico  ceded  to  the  United  States  the  territory  of  Texas,  New 
Mexico  and  Upper  California,  and  agreed  upon  the  Rio  Grande  River  as  the 
boundary  between  herself  and  Texas.  The  United  States  agreed  to  pay 
Mexico  $15,000,000  and  to  assume  all  claims  of  its  citizens  against  Mexico 
arising  before  the  treaty.  It  reserved  to  Mexicans  in  the  ceded  territory  the 
option  to  remove  or  remain  and  assured  protection  of  their  rights  of  property. 

Guatemala.  One  treaty  has  been  concluded  between  the  United  States 
and  Guatemala — a  treaty  of  peace,  amity,  commerce  and  navigation,  con- 
cluded March  3, 1849.  Requisite  notice  having  been  given  this  treaty  ceased 
to  operate  November  4,  1874.  A  reciprocity  treaty  was  concluded  in  1892. 

"  Guerriere,"  frigate.     (See  "  Constitution.") 

Guess,  George,  or  Sequoyah  (1770-1843),  an  Indian  half-breed  who 
devised  the  alphabet  used  by  the  Cherokees.  It  consists  of  eighty-five  char- 
acters, mostly  borrowed  from  the  English,  each  representing  a  single  sound. 

Guilford  Court  House,  Battle  of,  March  15,  1781.  After  the  battle  of 
Cowpens  Morgan  turned  north  and  Corn  wall  is  pursued.  Greene  resolved  to 
crush  Cornwallis,  thus  separated  from  his  base  of  supplies.  In  person  he 
joined  Morgan  in  the  Catawba  Valley,  and  finally  his  main  force  effected  a 
conjunction  with  Morgan  at  Guilford  Court  House,  N.  C.  Cornwallis  was 
anxious  for  an  engagement,  but  Greene  crossed  into  Virginia,  hoping  to  get 
reinforcements.  Not  succeeding,  and  fearing  that  the  people  of  North  Car- 
olina might  think  their  cause  deserted,  he  marched  south  again.  By  a 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  283 

number  of  marches  and  countermarches  he  eluded  Cornwallis  until  he  found 
himself  in  a  position  to  fight  at  Guilford  Court  House.  His  force  was  4404. 
Cornwallis  had  2213,  all  veterans.  Greene  placed  in  front  his  North  Caro- 
lina militia,  in  his  second  line  his  Virginia  militia,  and  in  his  third  line  his 
Maryland  and  Virginia  regulars.  The  first  line  soon  broke,  but  the  second 
was  pushed  back  only  after  a  desperate  struggle.  In  the  third  line  the  right 
wing  was  victorious,  but  the  left  was  beaten  for  a  while,  until  Colonel  Wash- 
ington's cavalry  restored  it.  Cornwallis  was  now  reduced  to  the  defensive. 
He  retired  in  good  order  and  took  position  on  a  hill  near  Guilford  Court 
House.  All  attempts  to  dislodge  him  were  vain.  At  evening  Greene  retired 
with  a  loss  of  400.  The  British  had  fought  bravely,  losing  600.  They 
were  too  crippled  to  act,  and  Cornwallis  could  only  retreat.  He  had  been 
outgeneraled.  It  was  a  strategic  victory  for  the  Americans  and  Cornwallis 
was  forced  .to  abandon  the  Carolinas. 

Gunboats.  The  "gunboat  system"  was  inaugurated  during  Jefferson's 
administration,  $50,000  being  appropriated  at  his  suggestion,  February  28, 
1803,  to  build  gunboats.  In  1806,  $60,000  more  were  appropriated  for  the 
building  of  240  gunboats  for  the  defence  of  fifteen  principal  harbors.  The 
seamen  of  the  towns  were  to  be  trained  to  man  them,  and  they  were  to  be 
drawn  up  under  sheds  when  not  in  use.  The  gunboat  question  speedily 
became  a  political  issue,  the  Federalists  opposing  it  and  favoring  a  strorfg 
navy,  the  Republicans  favoring  it.  The  last  appropriation  was  made  in 
1813.  The  gunboats  were  used  to  some  extent  during  the  War  of  1812. 

Gunston  Hall,  Fairfax  County,  Va.,  the  home  of  George  Mason,  of  Revo- 
lutionary fame.  This  old  mansion  continued  in  the  possession  of  the  Mason 
family  until  after  the  Civil  War. 

Guntown,  Miss.  Here,  June  10,  1864,  while  the  Confederate  cavalry- 
man Forrest  was  raiding  through  Mississippi,  Kentucky  'and  Tennessee,  he 
was  met  by  Sturgis  leading  a  force  of  8000  Federals.  Forrest  had  1000 
men.  He  attacked  Grierson,  who  led  the  Federal  van,  speedily  routing  him. 
Sturgis  hurried  up,  but  his  troops  were  wearied  out  and  not  prepared  for 
battle.  They  were  put  to  flight  and  200  baggage  wagons  were  captured  by 
the  Confederates. 

Gustavus  Adolphus  (1594-1632),  King  of  Sweden  from  1611  to  1632,  in 
1624  granted  a  charter  to  the  Swedish  West  India  Company  founded  by 
William  Usselinx,  and  pledged  himself  to  subscribe  400,000  daler  of  the 
royal  treasury  to  the  company's  stock. 

Guthrie,  James  (1792-1869),  was  a  member  of  the  Kentucky  Senate  from 
1831  to  1840,  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  in  Pierce's  Cabinet  from  1853  to  1857, 
and  a  U.  S.  Senator  from  1865  to  1868. 

Guyot,  Arnold  (1807-1884),  came  to  America  from  Switzerland  in  1848, 
was  a  professor  at  Princeton  from  1854  to  1884,  and  became  eminent  as  a 
promoter  of  geographical  and  meteorological  science. 

Gwin,  William  W.  (1805-1885),  represented  Mississippi  in  the  U.  S. 
Congress  from  1841  to  1843,  and  was  a  U.  S.  Senator  from  California  from 


284  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

1850  to  1 86 1,  during  which  time  he  served  on  the  Finance  and  Naval  Com- 
mittees.    He  was  a  pro-slavery  Democrat. 

Gwinnett,  Button  (1732-1777),  came  to  America  from  England  in  1770, 
represented  Georgia  in  the  Continental  Congress  from  1775  to  1776,  and 
signed  the  Declaration  of  Independence. 

Gwynn's  Island,  Va.  Here  in  1776  Lord  Dunmore  was  entrenched  with 
his  British  and  Tory  troops.  December  8  the  colonial  troops,  under  Lewis 
and  Stephen,  attacked  and  dislodged  him,  forcing  him  to  take  to  his  ships, 
which  were  shelled  as  they  sailed  away.  Dunmore  was  wounded. 


H. 

Habeas  Corpus,  Suspension  of.  On  July  5,  1861,  Attorney-General  Bates 
gave  an  opinion  in  favor  of  the  President's  power  to  declare  martial  law  and 
suspend  the  writ  of  habeas  corpus.  A  special  session  of  Congress  approved 
this  opinion.  Thereafter  many  arbitrary  arrests  were  made,  arousing  much 
indignation.  September  24,  1862,  the  suspension  was  made  general  by  the 
President  so  far  as  it  might  affect  persons  arrested  by  military  authority  for 
disloyal  practices.  An  act  of  Congress,  March  3,  1863,  again  authorized  the 
suspension  of  the  writ  by  the  President  in  cases  of  prisoners  of  war,  deserters, 
those  resisting  drafts  and  offenders  against  the  military  or  naval  service.  The 
arrest  of  Vallandigham,  in  Ohio,  and  of  Milligan,  in  Indiana,  caused  great 
excitement.  The  case  of  the  latter  being  brought  before  the  Supreme  Court 
of  the  Union,  that  body  decided  that  Congress  could  not  give  to  military 
commissions  the  power  of  trial  and  conviction,  and  that  the  suspension  of  the 
privilege  of  habeas  corpus  did  not  suspend  the  writ  itself.  In  the  case  of  the 
Ku-Klux  rebellions  there  was  a  brief  suspension  of  habeas  corpus  in  1871. 

Habersham,  Joseph  (1751-1815),  was  a  prominent  patriot  in  Georgia  dur- 
ing the  Revolution.  He  was  Postmaster-General  in  the  administrations  of 
Washington,  Adams  and  Jefferson  from  1795  to  1801. 

Hadley,  Mass.,  settled  in  1659,  became  the  refuge  of  the  two  English 
regicides,  Goffe  and  Whalley,  in  1664.  The  town  was  attacked  by  Indians 
during  King  Philip's  War.  The  savages  were  repulsed  by  the  townspeople 
under  the  leadership  of  Colonel  Goffe,  one  of  the  regicides,  who  suddenly 
came  from  his  hiding-place  for  that  purpose. 

"  Hail  Columbia,"  a  stirring  national  song.  The  music  was  composed  in 
1798  by  Pfyles,  leader  of  the  orchestra  at  the  John  Street  Theatre,  New 
York,  and  was  for  a  time  known  as  the  "  President's  March."  The  words 
were  composed  the  same  year  by  Judge  Hopkinson,  after  which  the  air 
became  immensely  popular,  it  having  been  produced  in  a  period  of  great 
political  excitement. 

Hakluyt,  Richard  (1553-1616),  English  author,  in  1582  published  "  Divers 
Voyages  Touching  the  Discovery  of  America,"  and  as  a  result  of  further 
investigations  in  France  wrote  "  A  Particular  Discourse  covering  Western 


DICTIONARY   OF  UNITED  STATES   HISTORY.  285 

Discoveries."  In  1587  he  produced  the  "  History  of  Four  Voyages  made  by 
French  Captains  into  Florida,"  and  in  1589  published  "The  Principal  Navi- 
gations, Voyages  and  Discoveries  made  by  the  English  Nation."  In  1606  he 
appealed  to  the  king  for  a  charter  for  the  colonization  of  Virginia,  and  was 
one  of  the  members  of  the  South  Virginia  Company. 

Hale,  Edward  Everett,  born  in  Massachusetts  in  1822,  has  been  pastor 
of  the  South  Congregational  Church  since  1856.  He  is  a  popular  orator  and 
author,  and  has  done  considerable  historical  work,  being  an  authority  on 
Spanish-American  affairs,  has  contributed  to  histories  of  the  United  States, 
and  published  "  Franklin  in  France." 

Hale,  Eugene,  born  in  1836,  was  a  member  of  the  Maine  Legislature  in 
1867  and  1868,  a  U.  S.  Congressman  from  1869  to  1879,  and  has  been  a 
Republican  Senator  from  1861  to  the  present  time  (1897). 

Hale,  John  P.  (1806-1873),  born  in  Rochester,  N.  H.,  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1830.  He  was  a  member  of  the  New  Hampshire  House  of  Represen- 
tatives in  1832,  and  was  appointed  U.  S.  Attorney  for  the  district  of  New 
Hampshire  from  1834  to  1840.  He  represented  New  Hampshire  in  the 
U.  S.  Congress  from  1843  to  1845.  He  was  a  U.  S.  Senator  from  1847 
to  1853,  being  the  first  zealous  opponent  of  slavery  in  that  body,  and  was 
nominated  in  1852  as  the  Presidential  candidate  of  the  Free-Soil  party.  He 
was  again  a  U.  S.  Senator  from  1855  to  1865,  and  was  appointed  Minister 
to  Spain  by  President  Lincoln,  serving  from  1865  to  1869. 

Hale,  Nathan  (1755-1/76),  born  in  Connecticut,  joined  a  volunteer  com- 
pany at  the  first  news  of  the  Revolutionary  War,  participated  in  the  siege 
of  Boston,  and  was  made  captain  in  1776.  He  captured  the  British  supply 
ship  "  Asia,"  and  volunteered  to  reconnoitre  the  position  of  the  British  forces. 
He  was  apprehended  and  hanged  as  a  spy,  his  last  words  being,  "  I  only 
regret  that  I  have  but  one  life  to  lose  for  my  country." 

Hale,  Nathan  (1784-1863),  editor  of  the  Boston  Daily  Advertiser  from 
1814  to  1863,  was  one  °f  tne  founders  of  the  North  American  Review,  and 
was  active  in  promoting  industrial  improvement. 

Half-breeds,  a  term  applied  in  New  York  State,  especially  about  1880- 
1884,  to  those  members  of  the  Republican  party  who  would  not  fully  sup- 
port, first,  General  Grant's  candidacy  for  a  third  term,  and  second,  the 
system  of  the  spoilsmen  and  machine  politicians  of  their  own  party.  (See 
"  Stalwarts.") 

Half  Cent,  a  copper  coin,  the  coinage  and  issue  of  which  were  authorized 
by  Congress  in  1792.  The  weight  of  this  coin  was  132  grains,  but  this  was 
changed  to  104  grains  when,  in  1793,  its  coinage  was  again  authorized.  This 
coin  was  not  issued  during  the  years  1798,  1799,  1801,  1812  to  1824  inclusive, 
1827,  l83°>  l837  to  l848  inclusive,  and  1852.  It  was  discontinued  in  1857. 

Half  Dollar,  silver  coin.  Its  coinage  was  authorized  (at  weight  208 
grains)  in  April,  1792,  and  begun  in  1794.  Its  weight  was  reduced  in  1853 
to  192  grains.  This  coin  is  a  legal  tender  to  the  amount  of  ten  dollars. 
There  were  no  issues  during  the  years  1798,  1799,  1800,  1816. 


286  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Half  Eagle,  a  gold  coin  of  the  value  of  five  dollars,  stamped  upon  the 
reverse  with  a  figure  of  the  national  bird,  and  hence  the  name.  Its  coinage 
was  authorized  in  1792,  and  begun  in  1795.  The  first  return  of  gold  coins 
was  made  July  31,  1795,  744  half  eagles.  Authorized  a  second  time  in 
1837;  legal  tender  to  an  unlimited  amount  No  coinage  1816-17. 

Half-King,  the  name  by  which  the  English  called  a  chieftain  of  Indians 
on  the  Ohio,  friendly  to  the  English,  who  assisted  Washington  on  his  expe- 
dition of  1753  and  took  part  with  him  in  the  affair  of  the  Great  Meadows  in 
I754- 

"  Half  Moon,"  the  vessel  in  which  Henry  Hudson,  under  the  auspices  of 
the  East  India  Company,  discovered  and  explored  in  1609  the  river  which 
bears  his  name. 

Half-Pay  Question.  At  the  close  of  the  Revolution  it  was  the  first  care 
of  Congress  to  cut  down  the  expenses.  April  26,  1778,  by  a  majority  of  one 
State,  half-pay  had  been  voted  for  life  to  the  officers  as  a  means  of  keeping 
the  army  together.  In  the  four  years  following  five  different  votes  were 
passed,  each  annulling  the  former  one.  In  1782  it  was  proposed  to  remit 
the  whole  matter  to  the  States.  Finally  in  1783,  after  the  appearance  of  the 
Newburgh  addresses,  it  was  decided  to  commute  the  half-pay  for  life  into 
five  years'  full  pay  in  one  gross  sum,  certificates  to  be  issued  therefor  at  six 
per  cent.  This  measure  was  unpopular. 

Half-way  Covenant,  a  concession  made  on  the  part  of  the  Church  by  the 
New  England  Synod  convened  at  Northampton  in  1657,  mainly  in  order  to 
secure  a  more  facile  working  in  relation  to  the  State.  The  requirements  for 
church  membership  were  relaxed  in  order  that  certain  civil  privileges  might 
be  obtained  by  those  who  had  neither  the  ability  nor  willingness  to  make 
profession  of  religious  experience.  Such  persons  were  admitted  on  grounds 
of  baptism,  but  were  still  denied  the  Lord's  Supper.  This  half-way  cove- 
nant aroused  much  controversy,  and  was  later  opposed  by  Jonathan  Edwards 
and  his  followers. 

Halifax  Commission.  Under  the  provisions  of  the  fisheries  treaty  of 
1871  between  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States,  the  fishermen  of  the  latter 
country  were  allowed  to  take  fish  along  the  shores  of  Canada  and  New- 
foundland. The  inhabitants  of  these  States  complained,  and  accordingly  a 
commission  of  representatives  from  each  country  met  at  Halifax,  Nova  Scotia, 
in  1877,  to  determine  the  amount  of  compensation  to  be  paid  by  the  United 
States  for  the  fishing  privileges  accorded  them.  The  sum  of  $5,500,000  was 
awarded  Great  Britain. 

Hall,  Asaph,  born  in  1829,  ^ias  been  connected  with  all  the  astronomical 
observations  of  the  U.  S.  Government  since  1863.  In  1877  he  discovered 
the  satellites  of  Mars,  and  has  made  important  observations  of  double  stars. 

Hall,  Charles  F.  (1821-1871),  made  Arctic  expeditions  fitted  out  by  Henry 
Grinnell  in  1860  and  1864,  and  commanded  a  U.  S.  Government  expedition 
to  the  polar  region  in  1871,  making  many  valuable  scientific  observations. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  289 

York  by  a  Deputy  U.  S.  Marshal  as  a  fugitive  slave  of  Mary  Brown,  of  Balti- 
more, and  after  a  hasty  examination  surrendered  in  accordance  with  the 
law.  Indignation  was  aroused  and  he  was  finally  redeemed. 

Hamlin,  Hannibal  (1809-1893),  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1833.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  Maine  legislature  from  1836  to  1840  and  in  1847, 
being  chosen  Speaker  in  1837, 1839  and  1840.  He  was  a  Democratic  Repre- 
sentative in  Congress  from  1842  to  1846,  was  elected  a  U.  S.  Senator  in 
1848  and  served  till  1857.  He  changed  his  party  affiliation  on  account  of 
anti-slavery  sentiments,  and  was  chosen  Governor  by  the  Republicans  in  1857. 
He  resigned  and  served  in  the  U.  S.  Senate  from  1857  to  1861,  when  he  was 
elected  Vice-President  of  the  United  States  on  the  ticket  with  Abraham^ 
Lincoln,  and  was  a  member  of  the  Senate  from  1869  to  1881,  when  he  was! 
appointed  Minister  to  Spain  and  served  one  year. 

Hammond,  James  H.  (1807-1864),  editor  of  the  Southern  Times,  a  nullifi- 
cation paper,  represented  South  Carolina  in  Congress  from  1835  to  1836,  was 
Governor  of  the  State  from  1842  to  1844,  and  a  U.  S.  Senator  from  1857  to 
1861,  when  he  delivered  the  pro-slavery  speech  which  won  for  him  the  name 
of  "  Mudsill  Hammond."  He  published  "  The  Pro-Slavery  Argument "  and 
"  Sketch  of  the  Life  of  Calhoun." 

Hampden-Sidney  College,  in  Prince  Edward  County,  Va.,  was  founded 
as  Prince  Edward  Academy,  in  1776,  by  Presbyterians,  and  chartered  as  a 
college  eight  years  later.  Near  by  is  the  Presbyterian  Union  Theological 
Seminary,  which  was  chartered  in  1866.  From  1837  to  1850  it  had  a 
medical  school. 

Hampton,  Wade  (1754-1835),  represented  South  Carolina  in  Congress 
from  1795  to  1797  and  from  1803  to  1805,  and  commanded  on  the  Northern 
frontier  from  1813  to  1814.  He  owned  3000  slaves. 

Hampton,  Wade,  born  in  1818,  was  in  his  early  life  successively  a  mem- 
ber of  the  South  Carolina  House  of  Representatives  and  Senate.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  Civil  War  he  enlisted  in  the  Confederate  service  and  after- 
ward commanded  a  force  known  as  Hampton's  Legion  of  Cavalry,  wliich 
distinguished  itself  at  Bull  Run,  Seven  Pines,  Gettysburg  and  Trevillion's 
Station.  He  was  very  successful  in  raids  and  in  detachment  service.  In 
1876  he  was  the  Democratic  candidate  for  Governor  of  South  Carolina  against 
D.  H.  Chamberlain  and  gained  the  disputed  office.  He  was  elected  to  the 
U.  S.  Senate  in  1879  and  served  until  1891. 

Hampton,  Va.,  was  attacked  out  of  revenge  by  Admiral  Warren,  after  his 
defeat  at  Craney  Island.  A  battery  and  500  Virginia  militia  defended  the 
village.  Some  2500  British  were  landed,  and  soon  drove  the  militia  in 
defeat.  The  Americans  lost  thirty  men,  the  British  fifty.  The  village  was 
then  pillaged  and  several  women  outraged.  Deep  indignation  was  aroused 
on  both  sides  of  the  sea,  and  an  investigation  was  made  by  a  British 
commission. 

Hampton  Roads,  Va.,  or  the  "  Monitor  "  and  "  Merrimac"  fight,  the  most 
famous  naval  battle  of  the  Civil  War,  occurring  March  8-9,  1862.    March  8 
19 


290  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

the  Confederate  iron-clad  "  Merrimac,"  commanded  by  Franklin  Buchanan, 
was  sent  to  raise  the  blockade  of  James  and  Elizabeth  rivers  "by  destroying 
the  Union  war-vessels.  The  Union  frigate  "Cumberland"  was  utterly 
destroyed  and  sunk  by  the  "  Merrimac,"  which  next,  aided  by  three  wooden 
Confederate  steamers,  attacked  and  burned  the  "  Congress."  March  9  the 
"  Monitor,"  a  Union  iron-clad  of  a  new  type,  appeared,  and  a  fight  of  four 
hours  followed.  Captain  Worden,  of  the  "  Monitor,"  was  temporarily  blinded 
and  Lieutenant  Greene  took  command.  The  "  Merrimac  "  was  finally  com- 
pelled to  withdraw. 

Hancock,  John  (1737-1793))  born  in  Massachusetts,  was  a  member  of  the 
Massachusetts  Legislature  from  1766  to  1772.  It  was  his  ship,  the  "  Liberty," 
which  caused  a  riot  when  seized  by  the  royal  customs  officials  for  an  alleged 
evasion  of  the  laws,  and  he  was  one  of  the  commissioners  who  demanded  the 
removal  of  the  British  troops  after  the  Boston  massacre.  In  1774  he  was 
elected  to  the  Provincial  Congress  at  Concord,  Mass.,  and  together  with 
Samuel  Adams,  was  exempted  from  pardon  in  Governor  Gage's  proclamation 
of  1775.  He  represented  Massachusetts  in  the  Continental  Congress  from 
1775  to  1780  and  from  1785  to  1786,  being  chosen  president  from  1775  to 
1777,  and  was  a  signer  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  his  name  stand- 
ing first  upon  that  document.  In  1776  he  was  commissioned  major-general 
of  the  Massachusetts  militia,  and  in  1780  commanded  the  State  troops  in  the 
expedition  against  Rhode  Island.  He  was  a  delegate  to  the  Massachusetts 
Constitutional  Convention  of  1780,  and  was  Governor  of  the  State  from  1780 
to  1785  and  from  1787  to  1792,  and  in  the  Presidential  election  of  1789 
received  four  electoral  votes.  He  was  a  man  of  strong  and  popular  character, 
of  courtly  and  pleasing  manner  and  liberally  used  his  large  fortune  for  benev- 
olent purposes. 

Hancock,  Winfield  S.  (1824-1886),  born  in  Pennsylvania,  graduated  from 
the  U.  S.  Military  Academy  in  1844.  He  was  brevetted  first  lieutenant  for 
gallantry  at  Contreras  and  Churubusco  during  the  Mexican  War.  He  was 
appointed  brigadier-general  of  volunteers  in  1861,  and  joined  the  Army  of 
the  Potomac.  He  served  under  General  McClellan  in  the  Peninsular  cam- 
paign, commanding  at  Yorktown,  Williamsburg  and  Savage's  Station,  and 
was  promoted  colonel  U.  S.  army  for  his  meritorious  service.  He  led  his 
brigade  at  South  Mountain  and  Antietam,  commanded  as  major-general  at 
Fredericksburg,  Chancellorsville  and  Gettysburg,  and  was  prominent  at  the 
Wilderness,  Spottsylvania,  Cold  Harbor  and  Petersburg.  In  1865  he  received 
command  of  the  Army  of  the  Shenandoah,  and  in  1866  was  made  a  major- 
general  in  the  regular  army.  He  was  the  Presidential  candidate  of  the 
Democratic  party  in  1880,  but  was  defeated  by  James  A.  Garfield.  General 
Grant  said  of  him,  "  Hancock  stands  the  most  conspicuous  figure  of  all  the 
general  officers  who  did  not  exercise  a  separate  command.  He  commanded 
a  corps  longer  than  any  other  one,  and  his  name  was  never  mentioned  as 
having  committed  in  battle  a  blunder  for  which  he  was  responsible." 

Hanging  Rock,  Battle  of,  August  6,  1780.  At  this  place  General  Sumter 
surprised  the  British  post.  The  Tory  regiment  fled,  and  its  panic  was  communi- 
cated to  the  British  regulars.  At  the  outset  no  American  had  more  than  ten 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  291 

bullets,  but  before  the  close  of  the  engagement  they  armed  themselves  from 
the  dead  and  wounded.  Among  those  engaged  was  Andrew  Jackson.  This 
success  strengthened  the  patriot  cause  in  all  parts  of  South  Carolina. 

Hanover.  Commercial  treaties  were  concluded  between  the  United  States 
and  Hanover  in  1840,  1846  and  1861,  and  an  extradition  treaty  January  18, 
1855.  All  are  now  obsolete. 

Hanover  Court  House,  Va.,  an  engagement,  May  27,  1862,  between  the 
rear  ranks  of  Porter's  column  of  McClellan's  army  and  a  Confederate  brigade 
commanded  by  Branch.  The  latter  attacked  MorelPs  division  with  consider- 
able success,  but  Porter,  hearing  the  firing,  immediately  wheeled  and  came 
to  the  rescue.  The  Confederates  retreated  rapidly,  leaving  a  large  number 
of  prisoners  and  small  arms. 

Hanseatic  Republics.  A  convention  of  friendship,  commerce  and  navi- 
gation was  concluded  between  the  United  States  and  the  Free  Hanseatic 
Republics  of  Liibeck,  Bremen  and  Hamburg  in  1827,  and  a  consular  conven- 
tion in  1852.  (See  Bremen.; 

Hard  Cider.     (See  Log  Cabin.) 

Hardee,  William  J.  (1817-1873),  born  in  Georgia,  was  brevetted  major 
and  lieutenant-colonel  for  gallant  conduct  in  the  Mexican  War.  In  1856  he 
produced  a  work  for  the  Government  on  the  tactics  of  infantry,  known  as 
"  Hardee's  Tactics."  In  1861  he  enlisted  in  the  Confederate  service  as  a 
colonel  at  Fort  Morgan,  and  was  soon  afterward  made  brigadier-general.  He 
gained  a  success  at  Shiloh,  was  prominent  in  the  campaign  about  Murfrees- 
boro,  and  fought  at  Chattanooga.  He  surrendered  with  General  Johnston's 
army  at  Durham  Station  in  1865. 

Hards,  in  the  political  history  of  New  York,  a  faction  of  the  Democratic 
party,  existent  from  1852  to  1860,  which  inclined  to  alliance  with  the  pro- 
slavery  Democracy  elsewhere,  as  distinguished  from  the  "softs."  In  part 
the  "  hards  "  or  "  hardshells  "  were  identical  with  the  "  hunkers  "  of  preceding 
years. 

Harlan,  James,  born  in  1820,  represented  Iowa  in  the  U.  S.  Senate  from 
1855  to  1865,  when  he  became  Secretary  of  the  Interior  in  Lincoln's  Cabinet, 
serving  until  1866.  He  was  again  a  U.  S.  Senator  from  1866  to  1873. 

Harlan,  John  M.,  born  in  1833,  served  in  the  Union  army  from  1861  to 
1867,  was  Attorney-General  of  Kentucky  from  1863  to  1867,  was  a  member 
of  the  Louisiana  Commission  appointed  by  Hayes,  and  became  a  Justice  of 
the  U.  S.  Supreme  Court  in  1877.  In  1893  he  was  a  member  of  the  Court 
of  Arbitration  on  the  Behring  Sea  dispute. 

Harlem  Plains,  a  battle  in  the  Revolutionary  War,  on  September  16,  1776. 
Just  after  Howe's  occupation  of  New  York  his  advanced  guard  of  English 
and  Highland  troops,  under  Colonel  Leslie,  came  into  conflict  with  some 
troops  of  Virginia  under  Major  Leitch,  and  of  Connecticut  under  Knowlton. 
Both  sides  were  reinforced,  fcnowlton^attempting  to  flank  the  British,  was 
killed.  The  Americans  retreated,  under  orders  from  Washington,  with  a 
loss  of  sixty  killed  and  wounded. 


292  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Harmar,  Josiah  (1753-1813),  born  in  Philadelphia,  served  during  the 
Revolutionary  War,  attaining  the  rank  of  lieutenant-colonel,  and  was  com- 
mander-in-chief  of  the  U.  S.  army  from  1789  to  1792. 

Harmonists,  a  socialistic  community  founded  upon  a  religious  basis  by 
George  Rapp,  of  Wiirttemberg,  in  the  Connoquenessing  Valley,  twenty-five 
miles  from  Pittsburgh,  in  1803.  There  they  built  houses,  churches,  mills 
and  manufactories,  and  by  1805  there  were  750  persons  settled  there  who 
formed  the  Harmony  Society.  After  two  years  they  decided  to  adopt  celibacy, 
and  prohibited  the  use  of  tobacco.  This  caused  the  withdrawal  of  certain  of 
their  people.  In  1814  the  Harmonists  purchased  30,000  acres  of  land  in  Posey 
County,  Indiana,  settling  there  in  1815.  There  they  remained  until  1824, 
calling  their  settlement  "  Harmony."  In  1824  they  removed  to  their  present 
location,  on  the  Ohio  River,  not  far  from  Pittsburgh.  In  1831,  a  German 
adventurer,  Bernhard  Miiller,  settling  among  them,  caused  dissensions  and  a 
split  in  the  society.  Their  numbers  have  decreased  to  less  than  200. 

Harnett,  Cornelius  (1723-1781),  was  prominent  in  the  North  Carolina 
Provincial  Assembly  from  1770  to  1771,  aided  in  drafting  a  State  Constitu- 
tion in  the  Provincial  Congress  at  Halifax  in  1776  and  served  in  Congress 
from  1777  to  1780. 

Harney,  William  S.  (1800-1889),  joined  the  U.  S.  army  in  1818,  was 
brevetted  major-general  in  1865  for  long  and  faithful  service,  and  at  the 
time  of  his  death  was  the  oldest  officer  in  the  U.  S.  army. 

Harper,  Robert  Goodloe  (1765-1825),  born  in  Virginia,  was  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  1786.  He  represented  South  Carolina  in  the  U.  S.  Congress  from 
1795  to  1801,  was  promoted  major-general  for  services  in  the  War  of  1812, 
and  was  elected  a  U.  S.  Senator  from  Maryland  in  1816.  He  published 
various  pamphlets  upon  diplomatic  subjects  of  the  day  which  won  great 
popularity. 

Harper,  William  R.,  born  in  1856,  and  editor  of  Hebraica  and  the  Old 
Testament  Student,  was  professor  of  Semitic  languages  at  Yale  from  1886  to 
1891,  when  he  was  chosen  president  of  Chicago  University. 

Harper's  Ferry,  Va.  In  July,  1859,  Jonn  Brown  settled  near  Harper's 
Ferry  and  began,  with  the  aid  of  some  Kansas  associates,  the  forcible  libera- 
tion of  slaves.  October  17  he  seized,  with  seventeen  whites  and  five  negroes, 
the  United  States  arsenal  at  Harper's  Ferry,  and  spent  the  next  eighteen 
hours  in  freeing  slaves,  cutting  telegraph  wires,  preparing  defences  and 
making  prisoners  of  fifty  white  men.  October  18,  1500  militia  and  marines 
arrived.  They  surrounded  the  armory  engine  house,  burst  open  the  door 
and  captured  Brown,  three  other  whites,  and  half  a  dozen  negroes.  Eight  of 
the  insurgents  were  killed.  Brown  was  taken  to  Charlestown,  Va.,  and 
there  hanged,  December  2,  1859. 

Harper's  Ferry,  Va.  (1862),  was  in  possession  of  the  Union  troops,  and 
captured  by  Stonewall  Jackson  September  15.  The  Union  leaders,  Miles  and 
White,  held  the  town  with  11,000  men.  Miles  had  posted  a  few  regiments 
upon  the  heights  commanding  the  town,  but  these  were  easily  driven  away 


DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  293 

by  McLaws,  while  Jackson  approached  and  bombarded  the  town,  which  sur- 
rendered as  he  was  about  to  attack  it.  Miles  was  mortally  wounded.  The 
garrison  was  captured. 

"  Harper's  Magazine,"  founded  in  1850  by  the  Harper  Brothers.  It  was 
originally  an  eclectic  magazine  containing  the  choicest  contributions  to  Eng- 
lish periodicals.  This  purely  eclectic  character  was  soon  abandoned,  and 
nearly  every  contemporaneous  American  and  English  writer  of  note  has 
contributed  to  its  pages. 

Harris,  Isham  G.,  born  in  Tennessee  in  1818,  devoted  his  evenings  to  the, 
study  of  law,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1841.  He  was  elected  to  the 
Legislature  of  Tennessee  from  1849  to  1853,  and  served  as  Governor  of  the 
State  from  1857  until  the  occupation  of  Tennessee  by  the  national  army. 
He  was  an  aide  on  General  Johnston's  staff,  and  served  in  the  West  through- 
out the  war.  He  was  elected  a  U.  S.  Senator  in  1877,  and  has  served  until 
the  present  time  (1897).  Died  July  8,  1897. 

Harris,  Joel  Chandler,  born  in  Georgia  in  1848,  was  admitted  to  the  bar 
and  is  editor  of  the  Atlanta  (Ga.)  Constitution.  He  is  the  author  of  "  Uncle 
Remus,  His  Songs  and  Sayings,"  and  other  stories  of  Southern  life. 

Harris,  William  T.,  born  in  1835,  founder  and  editor  of  the  Journal  of 
Speculative  Philosophy,  is  prominent  in  educational  circles,  and  from  1889  to 
1893  was  chief  of  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education. 

Harrisburg,  Pa.,  capital  of  the  State  since  1812.  The  town  was  laid  out 
in  1785  and  called  Louisbourg.  In  1791  it  was  incorporated  under  its  pres- 
ent name.  It  became  a.  jity  in  1860. 

Harrisburg  Convention.  In  1827  a  high  tariff  bill,  known  as  the 
"  Woolen  Bill,"  was  introduced  into  Congress-  by  Clay  and  his  adherents. 
It  passed  the  House,  but  was  defeated  in  the  Senate  by  the  casting  vote  of 
the  Vice-President.  Accordingly  the  protectionist  faction,  in  1828,  called  a 
convention  at  Harrisburg.  The  delegates  were  chiefly  from  New  England 
and  the  Middle  States.  The  convention  presented  the  cause  of  protection 
to  the  people,  and  decided  to  seek  an  increased  duty,  not  only  on  woolens, 
but  on  other  specified  articles  of  manufacture.  This  resulted  in  the  passage 
of  the  high  tariff  bill  of  1828. 

Harrison,  Benjamin  (1740-1791),  born  in  Virginia,  was  a  member  of  the 
House  of  Burgesses  in  1764,  a  member  of  the  Correspondence  Committee  in 
1773,  and  a  delegate  to  the  Continental  Congress  from  1774  to  1778.  From 
1778  to  1782  he  was  Speaker  of  the  Virginia  House  of  Burgesses,  and 
ardently  advocated  united  opposition  to  Great  Britain.  He  was  Governor 
of  the  State  from  1782  to  1784,  and  when  a  delegate  to  the  State  Conven- 
tion of  1788  opposed  the  ratification  of  the  Constitution  as  being  a  national 
and  not  a  Federal  document. 

Harrison,  Benjamin,  born  August  20,  1833,  twenty-third  President  of  the 
United  States,  was  the  grandson  of  President  William  Henry  Harrison,  and 
was  born  at  North  Bend,  Ohio.  He  was  graduated  at  Miami  University  in 
1852,  and  settled  as  a  lawyer  in  Indianapolis,  He  was  elected  reporter  of  the 


294  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Indiana  Supreme  Court  in  1860,  but  his  term  was  interrupted  by  the  war. 
He  volunteered  in  1862  and  was  colonel  of  an  Indiana  regiment;  in  the 
battles  of  Resaca  and  Peach  Tree  Creek  in  1864  he  won  distinction.  Leaving 
the  army  with  the  brevet  of  brigadier-general,  he  resumed  his  position  of 
Supreme  Court  reporter.  General  Harrison  was  a  successful  lawyer  and 
campaign  orator,  and  in  1876  he  received  the  Republican  nomination  for 
Governor,  being  defeated  by  a  small  majority.  His  name  was  presented  to 
the  Republican  National  Convention  of  1880.  Elected  to  the  U.  S.  Senate, 
he  served  from  1881  to  1887.  At  the  National  Convention  of  1888  he  was 
a  leading  candidate  from  the  start,  received  the  nomination,  and  was  elected 
over  President  Cleveland  in  a  campaign  in  which  protection  was  the  prin- 
cipal issue.  In  his  Cabinet,  Elaine  in  the  State  and  Windom  in  the 
Treasury  Department  were  national  figures.  Proctor,  and  later  Elkins,  was 
in  the  War  Department,  B.  F.  Tracy  in  the  Navy,  Noble  in  the  Interior, 
Rusk  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  Miller  Attorney-General,  and  Wanamaker 
Postmaster-General.  The  administration  was  marked  politically  by  the 
McKinley  Tariff  Act  in  1890,  with  the  attendant  feature  of  reciprocity;  the 
foreign  relations  with  Chili  and  Hawaii  were  matters  of  interest.  In  1892 
the  President  was  a  candidate  for  renomination,  and  received  the  gift  over 
his  powerful  rival,  Elaine,  who  resigned  from  the  Cabinet  during  the  contest. 
President  Harrison  was  in  the  election  again  confronted  with  Cleveland. 
The  Democratic  reaction,  very  marked  in  1890,  proved  to  be  still  in  force, 
and  the  President  was  defeated  and  retired  from  office  in  1893. 

Harrison,  Caroline  Lavinia  (Scott),  born  in  Ohio,  became  the  wife  of 
Benjamin  Harrison  in  1854,  and  was  a  worthy  and  willing  helpmeet  in  the 
struggles  and  perplexities  of  his  career.  She  died  during  his  Presidency,  in 
1892. 

Harrison,  William  Henry  (February  9,  i773~April  4,  1841),  ninth  Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States,  was  born  in  Virginia,  and  was  son  of  Benjamin 
Harrison,  a  signer  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence.  He  was  educated  at 
Hampden  Sidney  College,  entered  the  army,  and  fought  at  Wayne's  victory 
of  1794.  In  1798  he  became  Secretary  of  the  Northwest  Territory,  and  in 
1799  delegate  to  Congress.  In  1800  he  was  appointed  Governor  of  the  new 
Indiana  Territory.  He  was  still  Governor  when  the  Indian  outbreak 
occurred,  and  his  victory  at  Tippecanoe,  November  7,  1811,  gave  to  him  a 
national  reputation  and  an  epithet  for  life.  In  the  War  of  1812  he  was 
major-general,  first  of  Kentucky  militia,  and  then  in  the  regular  army.  He 
defended  Fort  Meigs  against  the  British  in  1813,  and  on  October  5  of  the 
same  year  he  achieved  his  second  noted  military  exploit  by  defeating  Proctor 
and  Tecumseh  at  the  battle  of  the  Thames.  General  Harrison  resigned 
from  the  army  in  1814.  From  1816  to  1819  he  was  Congressman,  from 
1825  to  1828  U.  S.  Senator,  and  U.  S.  Minister  to  the  United  States  of 
Colombia  1828-1829.  As  the  Whig  candidate  for  President  in  1836  he  was 
defeated  by  Van  Buren.  In  December,  1839,  the  Whig  Convention  put 
Harrison  again  before  the  country,  and  Van  Buren  was  again  his  antagonist. 
The  campaign  of  1840  was  without  precedent  or  successor.  The  "  log  cabin 
and  hard  cider  "  charged  by  his  opponents  against  his  early  record,  became  a 
tower  of  strength  to  him;  a  "campaign  ball "  was  set  rolling  across  the 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  295 

country;  and  "  Tippecanoe  and  Tyler  too  "  were  fairly  "  sung  into  the  White 
House."  In  his  Cabinet  Webster  as  Secretary  of  State  was  the  ablest  mem- 
ber. Fatigue  and  exposure  and  importunities  of  office-seekers  caused  his 
death  after  a  month  of  service, — the  first  death  of  a  President  while  in 
office.  General  Harrison,  though  by  no  means  brilliant,  was  an  able  admin- 
istrator, and  a  man  of  good  sense. 

Harrison,  Fort,  Ind.,  a  small  fort,  commanded  by  Captain  Zachary  Taylor 
with  fifty  men,  attacked  September  5,  1812,  by  Indians  and  partly  burned. 
The  fort  was  saved  by  reinforcements  with  the  loss  of  only  three  men. 

Harrison,  Fort,  Va.,  wrested  from  the  Confederates  by  a  small  detach- 
ment of  Grant's  Federal  army,  September  28,  1864,  during  the  campaign  in 
the  vicinities  of  Richmond  and  Petersburg. 

Harrodsburg,  Ky.,  the  oldest  town  in  the  State.  The  first  cabin  was  built 
here  in  1774  by  Captain  James  Harrod. 

Hart,  John  (1708-1780),  known  as  "  Honest  John  Hart,"  represented  New 
York  in  the  Continental  Congress  from  1774  to  1777,  signed  the  Declaration 
of  Independence,  and  in  1777-1778  was  chairman  of  the  New  York  Com- 
mittee of  Safety. 

Harte,  Francis  Bret,  born  in  New  York  in  1839,  was  associated  with  the 
San  Francisco  Golden  Era  in  1857,  edited  for  a  short  time  the  Californian, 
and  in  1868  established  the  Overland  Monthly.  He  has  mostly  written 
sketches  of  American  frontier  life.  From  1880  to  1885  he  was  U.  S.  Consul 
at  Glasgow. 

Hartford,  Conn.,  was  settled  in  1635  by  emigrants  from  eastern  Massa- 
chusetts, under  the  lead  of  Thomas  Hooker.  The  Constitution  for  the  colony, 
the  first  framed  in  America,  was  written  here  in  1639.  It  became  the  capital 
of  the  colony.  In  1687  Sir  E.  Andros  demanded  the  charter  from  the 
assembly  in  session  in  the  city,  but  it  was  concealed,  it  is  said,  in  the  "  Charter 
Oak."  Trinity  College  was  founded  in  Hartford  in  1823. 

Hartford,  Convention  at.  In  November,  1780,  a  convention  of  delegates 
from  all  the  Northern  States  was  held  at  Hartford,  which  sought  methods  of 
furnishing  men  and  supplies  for  continuing  the  War  of  Independence.  They 
passed  resolutions  in  favor  of  a  better  financial  system  and  a  stronger  Federal 
government. 

Hartford  Convention  met  at  Hartford,  Conn.,  December  15,  1814, 
and  adjourned  January  5,  1815.  It  consisted  of  delegates  from  Massachtb- 
setts,  Connecticut  and  Rhode  Island  and  was  the  outgrowth  of  the  opposi- 
tion of  the  New  England  Federalists  to  the  war  with  Great  Britain  which 
was  then  in  progress  and  which  was  especially  injurious  to.  the  commercial 
interests  of  New  England.  The  New  England  States  strongly  denounced 
the  policy  of  the  Democratic  administration  in  the  conduct  of  the  war, 
especially  in  respect  to  forcible  drafts.  The  convention  was  held  in  secret 
and  a  report  was  falsely  circulated  that  it  looked  toward  a  dissolution  of  the 
Union.  The  general  aim  of  the  convention  seems  to  have  been  to  propose 
certain  reforms  in  the  direction  of  States'  rights.  Its  proceedings  brought 
UDon  the  New  England  Federalists  great  odium. 


296  DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

* 

Hartranft,  John  F.  (1830-1889),  entered  the  army  in  1861,  had  commands 
at  Roanoke,  Antietam  and  Fredericksburg,  was  brigadier-general  at  the 
Wilderness,  Spottsylvania  and  Petersburg  and  brevetted  major-general  in 
1865.  He  was  Governor  of  Pennsylvania  from  1872  to  1878. 

Harvard,  John  (1607-1638),  was  born  in  London,  England.  He  was 
ordained  a  clergyman,  but,  being  a  Puritan,  emigrated  to  New  England  in 
1637  and  became  a  freeman  of  the  Massachusetts  colony.  At  his  death  he 
bequeathed  half  of  his  property  or  about  750  pounds,  and  his  entire  library 
of  320  volumes,  to  the  college  which  bears  his  name. 

Harvard  University,  the  oldest  college  in  the  United  States,  at  Cambridge, 
Mass.  It  was  founded  in  1636,  and  chartered  in  1650  by  the  General  Court. 
In  1638  it  was  named  after  Rev.  John  Harvard,  who  left  "it  probably  ^750. 
Its  first  class,  consisting  of  nine,  was  graduated  in  1642.  It  received  State 
aid,  in  addition  to  private  benefactions,  till  1814,  but  its  official  connection 
with  the  commonwealth  continued  till  1865,  after  which  time  the  control  of 
the  university  was  vested  in  its  alumni.  Besides  its  academic  department  it 
has  schools  of  theology,  law,  medicine,  science  and  dental  surgery,  founded 
respectively  in  1819,  1817,  1782,  1848  and  1868. 

Hatcher's  Run,  Va.,  scene  of  two  severe  engagements  during  the  Civil 
War,  while  Grant  and  Lee  were  manoeuvring  about  Richmond  and  Peters- 
burg. October  27,  1864,  Grant  endeavored  to  force  a  passage  of  Hatcher's 
Run  and  move  against  the  South  Side  Railroad.  Finding  no  assailable  point 
in  the  Confederate  lines  he  decided  to  withdraw,  when  suddenly  the  Con- 
federates fell  furiously  upon  Hancock's  rear  ranks.  Hancock  turned  and 
drove  them  back  to  their  fortifications.  From  February'  5  to  7,  1865,  there 
was  also  some  severe  fighting  about  Hatcher's  Run  between  Hancock,  who 
was  endeavoring  to  push  the  Federal  lines  to  that  stream,  and  the  Con- 
federates under  Gordon  and  Hill.  Hancock  was  successful. 

Hatteras  Inlet,  N.  C.,  location  of  two  Confederate  forts  commanded  by 
Samuel  Barron,  and  deemed  a  valuable  passage  for  landing  the  ammunition 
and  supplies  of  the  Confederacy,  and  for  sending  cotton  out  of  the  country. 
General  Butler  and  Commodore  Stringham  fitted  out  an  expedition  against 
these  forts,  Clark  and  Hatteras,  and  sailed  from  Hampton  Roads  August  26, 
1861,  with  ten  vessels  carrying  158  guns  and  900  men.  Fort  Clark,  the 
weaker  position,  was  speedily  reduced,  August  27,  by  the  guns  of  the  Federal 
ships  "  Minnesota,"  "  Wabash "  and  "  Susquehanna,"  and  Hatteras  was 
captured  after  protracted  bombardment  the  next  day.  Barron  and  700  Con- 
federates were  made  prisoners. 

Hatton,  Frank  (1846-1894),  was  Assistant  Postmaster-General  from  1881 
to  1884,  when  he  was  made  Postmaster-General  in  Arthur's  Cabinet,  being 
the  youngest  officer  ever  in  a  U.  S.  Cabinet  except  Alexander  Hamilton. 

Havemeyer,  William  F.  (1804-1874),  mayor  of  New  York  City  from  1845 
to  1851,  and  from  1872  to  1874,  was  president  of  the  Bank  of  North  America 
from  1851  to  1 86 1,  and  very  prominent  in  the  overthrow  of  the  Tweed  ring. 

Haverford  College,  Pa.,  was  founded  by  the  Friends  in  1833. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITKD  STATES  HISTORY.  297 

Haw,  Battle  of  the,  February  25,  1781.  About  400  loyalists  had  col- 
lected near  the  Haw.  Henry  Lee,  by  passing  for  Tarleton's  force,  got 
among  them.  The  trick  was  discovered  and  a  hot  fight  followed  in  which 
ninety  loyalists  were  slain  and  many  wounded.  Lee's  loss  was  light 

Hawaii.  A  treaty  of  commerce  and  for  the  extradition  of  criminals  was 
concluded  between  the  United  States  and  Hawaii  in  1849,  and  a  reciprocity 
treaty  in  1875,  extended  by  the  Convention  of  1887.  Treaty  rights  were 
further  confirmed  by  Act  of  Congress  in  1891.  The  coup  diktat  of  January, 
1893,  a^pjjdd.  uie  ^u^-cu  and.  cscaunsiieu  a  republic,  with  Sanford  B.  Dole  as 
president,  annexation  to  United  States  requested.  An  annexation  treaty  was 
concluded  February  14,  1893,  providing  for  the  cession  to  the  United  States 
of  all  rights  of  sovereignty  in  the  Hawaiian  Islands  and  their  dependencies; 
for  reference  to  the  U.  S.  Congress  of  all  questions  of  administration,  the 
provisional  government  meanwhile  to  continue  under  United  States  guidance; 
for  the  assumption  by  the  United  States  of  the  Hawaiian  debt  to  the  limit 
of  $3,250,000;  for  the  regulation  of  Chinese  immigration;  and  for  the  support 
of  deposed  royalty.  The  close  of  the  session  of  Congress  prevented  its  rati- 
fication by  that  body,  and  the  incoming  administration  proving  hostile  to  the 
treaty  it  was  not  ratified.  Annexation  treaty  ratified  July  7,  1898. 

Hawkins,  Sir  John  (1520-1595),  an  Elizabethan  navigator  who  was 
engaged  in  the  West  India  slave  trade.  His  first  voyage  was  made  in  1562. 
In  1565  he  captured  a  cargo  of  slaves  in  Guinea  and  traded  along  the  coast 
of  Florida.  His  last  voyage  was  made  in  1567  with  Sir  Francis  Drake. 
He  was  knighted  in  I58C  for  services  against  the  Spanish  Armada. 

Hawks,  Francis  L.  (1798-1866),  of  North  Carolina,  for  a  time  a  success- 
ful lawyer,  entered  the  Episcopal  ministry  and  became  eminent  in  his  pro- 
fession. He  is  the  author  of  numerous  political  and  ecclesiastical  works, 
and  of  a  history  of  North  Carolina. 

Hawley,  Joseph  R.,  born  in  1826,  was  admitted  to  the  Connecticut  bar 
in  1850.  In  1857  he  became  editor  of  the  Hartford  Evening  Press,  which 
advanced  the  interests  of  the  Republican  party.  He  was  the  first  Connec- 
ticut volunteer  in  the  Civil  War,  enlisted  as  a  captain,  and  was  mustered  out 
as  brevet  major-general  in  1865.  In  1866  he  was  elected  Governor  of  Con- 
necticut, and  in  1868  was  president  of  the  National  Republican  Convention, 
in  that  of  1872  secretary  of  the  Committee  on  Resolutions  and  its  chairman 
in  1876.  He  was  a  U.  S.  Congressman  from  1872  to  1881,  when  he  was 
chosen  Senator,  serving  until  the  present  time  (1897).  **e  *s  a  Phasing 
speaker  and  a  strong  Republican. 

Hawthorne,  Nathaniel  (1804-1864),  was  born  at  Salem,  Mass.  He  con- 
tributed his  early  productions  to  periodicals  such  as  the  New  England  Maga- 
zine, the  American  Magazine,  the  Democratic  Review  and  the  Token.  In 
1837  appeared  his  "Twice  Told  Tales,"  and  in  1849  he  published  the 
"  Scarlet  Letter,"  which  at  once  brought  him  into  prominence.  In  1853  he 
was  appointed  Consul  at  Liverpool  by  President  Pierce,  and  served  until 
1857.  He  is  the  greatest  romance-writer  that  America  has  produced. 


298  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Hay,  John,  born  in  1838,  was  assistant  secretary  to  President  Lincoln  in 
1861.  He  served  several  months  in  the  Civil  War,  and  from  1865  to  1867 
was  secretary  of  legation  to  Paris,  charge"  d'affaires  at  Vienna  until  1868, 
and  secretary  at  Madrid  until  1870.  He  became  associated  with  the  New 
York  Tribune,  and  from  1879  to  1881  was  First  Assistant  Secretary  of  State. 
He  is  widely  known  for  his  dialect  sketches  and  poems,  and  for  Nicolay  and 
Hay's  life  of  Lincoln.  Became  Ambassador  to  England  May,  1897,  which 
office  he  resigned  and  became  Sec.  of  State,  McKinley's  cabinet,  Sept.  30, 1898. 

Hayburn  vs.  State.  Attorney-General  Randolph  in  1792  moved  that  the 
Supreme  Court  issue  a  mandamus  to  the  Circuit  Court  of  Pennsylvania  to 
admit  Hayburn  of  that  State  to  the  United  States  pension  list.  Randolph 
declared  he  made  the  motion  ex  officio  with  a  view  to  seeing  the  provisions 
of  the  Act  of  Congress  of  March  23,  1792,  relating  to  pensions,  executed. 
The  court  would  not  allow  this,  so  he  next  pleaded  the  merits  of  the  case. 
Judgment  was  postponed  and  never  given,  since  the  Act  of  Congress  of  1793 
provided  for  pensioners  in  another  way.  Whether  the  Act  of  1792  was  con- 
stitutional was  not  decided  by  the  court;  but  the  judges  were  individually 
of  that  opinion,  and  this  gives  the  case  a  certain  importance,  being  a  very 
early  one,  among  those  involving  such  considerations. 

Hayden,  Ferdinand  V.  (1829-1887),  born  in  Massachusetts,  was  a  surgeon 
in  the  Civil  War.  He  has  superintended  geological  and  geographical  surveys 
of  the  territories  of  the  United  States,  and  has  published  valuable  reports. 

Hayes,  Isaac  I.  (1832-1881),  made  three  voyages  of  exploration  to  the 
Arctic  regions,  served  as  surgeon  during  the  Civil  War,  and  was  a  member 
of  the  New  York  Assembly  from  1865  to  1870. 

Hayes,  Lucy  Ware  (Webb),  married  President  R.  B.  Hayes  in  1852,  was 
renowned  for  her  sympathetic  devotion  to  the  soldiers  wounded  in  the  Civil 
War,  and  for  her  efforts,  while  occupying  the  White  House,  to  promote  the 
interests  of  temperance  and  other  good  causes. 

Hayes,  Rutherford  Birchard  (October  4,  i822-January  17,  1893),  nine- 
teenth President  of  the  United  States,  was  born  at  Delaware,  O.,  and  graduated 
at  Kenyon  College  in  1842.  He  practiced  law  in  Fremont,  O.,  and  became 
city  solicitor  in  Cincinnati.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  war  he  volunteered,  and 
rose  from  major  of  Ohio  infantry  to  brigadier-general  and  brevet  major- 
general.  He  was  wounded  at  the  battle  of  South  Mountain,  and  distin- 
guished himself  in  the  Shenandoah  campaign  of  1864  at  Winchester, 
Fisher's  Hill  and  Cedar  Creek.  He  entered  Congress  in  1865,  and,  having 
been  elected  Governor  of  his  State,  he  occupied  that  position  from  1868  to 
1872.  He  was  defeated  for  Congressman  in  1872,  but  elected  fVivernor  in 
1875  on  the  "  honest  money  "  issue,  after  a  campaign  which  attracted  national 
attention.  It  was  this  success  which  caused  Governor  Haves'  name  to  be 
presented  to  the  Republican  National  Convention  of  1876.  The  two  leading 
candidates,  Elaine  and  Bristow,  were  set  aside,  and  Hayes  was  nominated  on 
the  seventh  ballot.  (For  the  doubtful  result  and  final  settlement  of  this 
extraordinary  Hayes-Tilden  campaign,  see  Electoral  Commission.)  Mr. 
Hayes  was  declared  elected  March  2,  1877,  and  inaugurated  March  5.  He 


STATESMEN    OF  THE    MIDDLE    PERIOD. 

Thomas  H.   Benton.  Robert  Winthrop. 

Stephen  A.    Douglas.  Edward   Everett. 

Silas  Wright. 

John   C.   Calhoun.  Daniel   Webster. 

Henry  Clay.  W.    L.    Marcy. 


DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  299 

selected  Evarts  for  the  State  Department,  Sherman  for  the  Treasury,  McCrary 
for  War,  R.  W.  Thompson  for  the  Navy,  Schurz  for  the  Interior,  Devens 
Attorney-General  and  D.  M.  Key  Postmaster-General.  During  his  adminis- 
tration occurred  the  great  railroad  strikes  of  1877,  and  the  resumption  of 
specie  payments  in  1879.  President  Hayes  favored  civil  service  reform,  a 
conciliatory  policy  in  the  South,  vetoed  the  Bland  bill  and  vetoed  a  Chinese 
restriction  bill.  After  the  close  of  his  term,  in  1881,  he  lived  in  retirement 
in  Ohio. 

Haymarket  Massacre  (Chicago),  an  Anarchist  riot,  originating  in  labor 
troubles  which  culminated  in  an  open-air  meeting  in  Haymarket  Square 
May  4,  1886.  Violent  speeches  were  made  by  the  Anarchists  Spies,  Parsons 
and  Fielden.  A  bomb  was  thrown  among  the  police,  causing  great  loss  of 
life.  Spies,  Parsons,  Fischer,  Engel,  Schwab,  Lingg  and  Neebe  were  arrested 
and  tried.  The  first  four  were  hanged  November  n,  1887.  Fielden  and 
Schwab  were  imprisoned  for  life.  Lingg  committed  suicide.  Governor 
Altgeld,  of  Illinois,  pardoned  Fielden  and  Schwab  in  1893. 

Hayne,  Isaac  (1745-1781),  born  in  South  Carolina,  entered  the  colonial 
army  at  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolution,  and  when  the  British  took  posses- 
sion of  Charleston  in  1780  was  paroled.  In  1781  he  made  an  incursion 
against  the  British,  was  pursued  by  a  superior  force  and  taken  prisoner. 
He  was  sentenced  to  death  by  the  British  without  a  trial  and  hanged. 

Hayne,  Paul  H.  (1830-1886),  "The  Laureate  of  the  South,"  editor  of 
numerous  periodicals,  exerted  a  powerful  influence  upon  the  literary  life  of 
the  South,  and  published  a  great  number  of  poems. 

Hayne,  Robert  Young  (1791-1839),  served  during  the  War  of  1812,  and 
was  a  member  of  the  South  Carolina  Legislature  from  1814  to  1818,  in  which 
year  he  was  Speaker.  From  1818  to  1822  he  was  Attorney-General  of  the 
State,  and  in  1823  was  sent  to  the  U.  S.  Senate,  where  he  strenuously  opposed 
the  protective  system,  denying  its  constitutionality.  He  asserted  that  under 
the  Constitution  a  State  had  the  right  to  arrest  the  operation  of  such  Federal 
enactments  as  she  considered  unconstitutional.  This  led  to  the  famous 
debate  between  Webster  and  Hayne  in  1830,  respecting  State  rights  and 
nullification.  He  was  chairman  of  the  State  Convention  in  1832,  which 
reported  the  celebrated  ordinance  of  nullification,  and  was  Governor  of 
South  Carolina  from  1832  to  1834,  when  that  State  prepared  to  enforce  the 
nullification  ordinance  and  make  armed  resistance  against  the  Federal 
authority;  but  the  tariff  bill  of  Henry  Clay  compromised  the  difficulties. 
Hayne  was  a  brilliant  speaker. 

Hays,  Alexander  (1819-1864),  enlisted  in  the  Civil  War  as  a  colonel  in  the 
Maryland  campaign,  fought  at  Chancellorsville  and  Gettysburg,  was  bre- 
vetted  colonel  U.  S.  A.,  and  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  the  Wilderness. 

Hayti.  It  was  not  until  November  3,  1864,  that  a  treaty  of  amity,  com- 
merce and  navigation,  and  for  the  extradition  of  criminals,  was  concluded 
between  the  two  nations.  The  attitude  of  the  United  States  up  to  that 
time  toward  this  negro  republic  was  fixed  by  considerations  growing  out  of 
the  slavery  question. 


300 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 


Hayward,  a  town  officer  appointed  in  the  early  New  England  colonies  to 
look  after  hedges  and  boundaries  of  private  property  and  prevent  encroach- 
ment. Also  his  office  was  akin  to  that  of  the  impounder  and  common 
driver. 

Hazelwood,  John  (17267-1800?),  born  in  England,  was  a  commodore  in 
the  Pennsylvania  navy  in  1776,  and  while  commander  of  the  State  navy  in 
1777  and  of  the  Continental  vessels  on  the  Delaware  River,  became  promi- 
nent for  skill  and  success. 

Hazen,  William  B.  (1830-1887),  commanded  in  the  Mexican  War,  led  a 
brigade  at  Shiloh,  Chickamauga  and  Missionary  Ridge,  was  promoted  major- 
general,  and  was  afterward  prominent  in  the  Signal  Service,  of  which  he 
was  chief  from  1880  to  1887. 

Headley,  Joel  T.,  born  in  1813,  became  an  assistant  editor  of  the  New 
York  Tribune  in  1846,  and  has  written  numerous  popular  works  of  history 
and  biography,  including  a  life  of  Washington.  Died  1897. 

Heath,  William  (1737-1814),  was  chosen  captain  of  the  Suffolk  regiment 
before  the  Revolution,  and  commanded  the  Boston  artillery  in  1770.  He 
was  a  Massachusetts  Assemblyman^  in  1761  and  from  1771  to  1774,  and  a 
member  of  the  Committee  of  Safety  and  of  the  Provincial  Congress  from 
1774  to  1775.  He  was  made  brigadier-general  in  1774  for  meritorious  ser- 
vices, and  was  promoted  major-general  in  1775.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
convention  which  ratified  the  Constitution,  was  a  State  Senator  from  1791 
to  1792,  and  a  probate  judge  from  1793. 

Heintzelman,  Samuel  P.  (1805-1880),  graduated  at  West  Point,  served  as 
a  captain  in  the  Mexican  War,  and  was  brevetted  major  for  bravery.  He 
was  commissioned  colonel  in  the  Civil  War,  and  afterward  commanded  as 
brigadier-general  at  Alexandria,  Bull  Run,  Yorktown,  Williamsburg  and 
Fair  Oaks,  and  in  1863  commanded  the  Northern  Department.  He  was 
retired  in  1869  with  the  full  rank  of  major-general  U.  S.  A. 

Heister,  Leopold  Philip  von  (1707-1777),  Hessian  lieutenant-general  and 
commander  of  all  the  Hessians  in  America,  landed  at  Long  Island  in  com- 
mand of  two  Hessian  brigades  in  1776,  and  aided  the  British  against  the 
colonies  at  that  place  and  at  White  Plains.  In  1777  he  was  recalled,  at  the 
desire  of  Howe. 

Helena,  capital  of  Montana,  was  settled  in  1864. 

Helena,  Mo.,  fortified  and  occupied  by  4500  Federals  under  Prentiss  in 
1863.  The  Confederates,  Holmes,  Price  and  Marmaduke,  assaulted  this 
position  July  4  with  8000  soldiers.  Charge  after  charge  was  made,  but  all 
proved  ineffectual.  The  National  batteries  inflicted  terrible  losses  upon  the 
assaulting  troops. .  Holmes  ordered  a  retreat  about  noon,  having  lost  fully 
twenty  per  cent  of  his  army. 

Helper,  Hinton  R.,  born  in  1829,  author  of  "The  Impending  Crisis  of  the 
South,"  a  book  which,  in  the  anti-slavery  struggles  just  before  the  war,  made 
a  profound  impression,  as  presenting  the  views  of  the  non-slaveholding  whites 
of  the  South.  He  was  U.  S.  Consul  at  Buenos  Ayres  from  1861  to  1867. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  301 

Helps,  Sir  Arthur  (1817-1875),  is  the  English  author  of  "Conquerors  of 
the  New  World  and  Their  Bondsmen,"  "  The  Spanish.  Conquest  in  America 
and  its  Relation  to  the  History  of  Slavery,"  and  lives  of  Columbus,  Pizarro 
and  Cortez. 

Henderson,  David  B.,  born  in  1840,  served  in  the  Civil  War,  member  of 
Congress  since  1883,  will  probably  be  next  Speaker  (1899). 

Henderson,  John  B.,  born  in  1826,  was  a  member  of  the  Missouri  Legis- 
lature in  1848  and  1856,  and  while  a  U.  S.  Senator  from  1863  to  1869  was 
one  of  the  Republicans  who  opposed  the  impeachment  of  President  Johnson. 

Henderson,  Richard  (1734-1785),  a  Judge  in  the  North  Carolina  Supreme 
Court  in  1769,  organized  the  "Transylvania  Land  Company"  in  1775,  and 
established  a  government  over  that  Western  region,  but  was  declared  guilty 
of  an  infringement  of  the  rights  of  Virginia  by  the  Legislature  of  that 
State. 

Henderson,  Thomas  J.,  born  in  1824,  was  a  member  of  the  Illinois 
Legislature  from  1855  to  1860,  was  brevetted  brigadier-general  in  1865  for 
services  in  the  Civil  War,  and  was  a  U.  S.  Congressman  from  1875  to  the 
present  time  (1894). 

Hendrick  (1680  7-1755),  a  Mohawk  chief  who  represented  the  Six  Nations 
at  a  treaty  congress  in  1754  at  Albany,  and  who  faithfully  aided  the  British 
against  the  French. 

Hendricks,  Thomas  A.  (1819-1885),  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1843. 
He  was  elected  to  the  Indiana  House  of  Representatives  in  1848,  and  became 
a  State  Senator  in  1849.  In  1850  he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  conven- 
tion to  revise  the  State  Constitution,  and  represented  Indiana  in  the  Congress 
of  the  United  States  from  1851  to  1855.  He  was  appointed  by  President 
Pierce  Commissioner  of  the  General  Land  Office,  serving  from  1855  to  1859, 
and  from  1863  to  1869  was  a  U.  S.  Senator.  He  was  Governor  of  Indiana 
from  1872  to  1877,  and  in  1876  was  the  Democratic  candidate  for  Vice-Presi- 
dent  of  the  United  States  on  the  ticket  with  Samuel  J.  Tilden.  He  was  the 
unanimous  choice  of  the  Democratic  party  for  Vice-President  in  1884,  and 
was  elected  on  the  ticket  with  Grover  Cleveland  for  President,  but  died 
during  his  first  year  of  office. 

Hening's  Statutes,  the  first  complete  collection  ever  published  of  the 
laws  of  any  colony  and  State,  with  inclusion  of  those  obsolete  and  repealed. 
Hening's  "  Statutes  at  Large  of  Virginia  "  was  published,  beginning  in  1809, 
by  W.  W.  Hening,  largely  at  the  instance  of  President  Jefferson.  It  is  of 
great  value  as  a  source  of  history.  (13  vols.) 

Hennepin,  Louis  (i64o?-i7oi),  a  missionary  of  the  Order  of  Recollets 
of  St.  Francis,  was  born  in  Belgium.  He  came  to  Canada  in  1673,  and 
founded  a  convent  at  Fort  Frontenac  in  1676.  He  accompanied  La  Salle's 
expedition  to  the  West  and  to  the  Niagara  and  the  Upper  Lakes  in  1678, 
and  constructed  Fort  Crevecceur  in  Illinois.  Hennepin  and  his  followers 
proceeded  down  the  Mississippi  until  captured  by  the  Sioux  in  1680.  On 
his  return  to  Europe  he  published  his  "  Description  de  la  Louisiane  nouvelle- 
ment  decouverte  au  sud-ouest  de  la  Nouvelle  France,"  and  in  1697  his 
"  Nouvelle  decouverte  -d'un  tres-grand  pays  situe"  dans  l'Ame*rique,  entre  le 
Nouveau-Mexique  et  la  mer  Glaciale."  He  claimed  to  be  the  first  to  descend 
to  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi,  but  this  is  open  to  dispute. 


302  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Henry  VII.  (1457-1509),  King  of  England  from  1485  to  1509,  granted 
on  March  5,  1495,  to  John  Cabot,  his  three  sons,  their  heirs  and  assigns,  a 
patent  for  the  discovery  of  unknown  lands  in  the  Eastern,  Western  and 
Northern  seas,  with  a  right  to  occupy  such  territories  and  to  have  exclusive 
commerce  with  them,  paying  to  the  king  one-fifth  part  of  all  the  profits. 
The  enterprise  was  to  be  "  at  their  own  proper  cost  and  charge."  In  his 
book  of  private  expenses  for  1497  there  is  an  item,  "  To  him  that  found  the 
new  isle,  ^10,"  no  doubt  referring  to  Cabot. 


Henry,  John.  In  1809  John  Henry  was  sent  by  Sir  John  Craig,  Governor 
of  British  North  America,  to  report  upon  the  state  of  affairs  and  political 
feeling  in  the  New  England  States.  Hoping  for  a  reward,  Henry  painted 
the  New  England  disaffection  to  the  Union  in  very  high  colors  in  all  his 
correspondence  with  Craig.  Failing  of  his  reward  he  returned  to  the  United 
States  and  sold,  in  1812,  the  whole  correspondence  to  President  Madison. 
The  latter  sent  the  documents  to  Congress  in  the  belief  that  they  proved  an 
attempt  on  Great  Britain's  part  to  annex  New  England.  Nothing  of  the  sort 
was  proved. 

Henry,  Joseph  (1797-1878),  physicist,  made  highly  valuable  contributions 
to  science,  particularly  in  the  line  of  electricity,  magnetism  and  meteorology. 
He  was  director  of  the  Smithsonian  Institute. 

Henry,  Patrick  (May  29,  1736-June  6,  1799),  was  born  in  Hanover  County, 
Va.  He  failed  in  farming  and  trading,  and  started  his  career  as  a  lawyer, 
with  somewhat  slender  equipment,  in  1760.  He  attracted  attention  by  a 
noted  speech  in  1763,  and  in  1765  he  entered  the  House  of  Burgesses  and 
uttered  his  famous  arraignment  of  the  Stamp  Act.  He  was  a  leader  in 
organizing  the  committees  of  correspondence,  and  was  a  delegate  to  the  first 
Continental  Congress.  In  1775  occurred  his  "liberty  or  death"  speech,  and 
he  was  active  in  the  beginning  of  hostilities  as  a  colonel  and  commander  of 
Virginia  troops.  He  took  the  lead  in  organizing  the  Virginia  State  Govern- 
ment, and  was  its  first  Governor,  being  elected  in  1776,  1777  and  1778,  and 
in  1784  and  1785.  His  jealousy  of  State  privileges  and  devotion  to 
democracy  led  him  to  oppose  the  Federal  Constitution  of  1787.  He  was 
the  Anti-Federalist  leader  in  the  State,  and  was  prominent  in  the  ratifying 
convention  of  1788.  For  a  short  time,  1794—1795,  he  was  U.  S.  Senator, 
was  finally  a  Federalist,  and  was  for  many  years  a  member  of  the  Virginia 
Legislature.  Patrick  Henry  was  noted  for  eloquence,  but  did  not  in  con- 
structive statesmanship  compare  with  some  of  the  other  great  Virginians. 
His  life  has  been  recently  written  by  William  Wirt  Henry.  There  are  other 
lives  by  Wirt  and  M.  C.  Tyler. 

Henry,  Cape,  Va.,  named  in  April,  1607,  by  Admiral  Newport,  in  honor 
of  Henry,  Prince  of  Wales,  son  of  James  I.  of  England. 

Henry,  Fort,  Tenn.,  captured  February  6,  1862,  by  the  Federals,  Com- 
modore Foote  and  General  Grant,  commanding  seven  Union  gunboats  and  a 
land  force  of  17,000.  Fort  Henry  and  Fort  Heiman,  a  neighboring  Confed- 
erate stronghold,  were  held  by  General  Tilghman  with  2734  men.  Heiman 
was  early  abandoned.  Foote  was  to  reduce  Fort  Henry  and  Grant  to  cut  off 


DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  303 

the  retreat  of  the  garrison.  The  Union  gunboats  commenced  firing  at  six 
thousand  yards,  gradually  nearing  the  fort.  Tilghman  held  out  bravely,  but 
the  bursting  of  a  twenty-four-pounder  gun,  wounding  many  of  his  men,, 
forced  him  to  surrender  his  staff  and  himself.  By  his  orders  Colonel  Hei- 
man  had  been  directed  to  attempt  a  retreat  with  the  main  body  of  the  garri- 
son. This  move  was  accomplished  through  Grant's  late  arrival,  owing  to 
recent  floods. 

Henshaw,  David  (1791-1852),  a  Massachusetts  Senator  in  1826,  and  a 
Representative  in  1839,  was  appointed  Secretary  of  the  Navy  by  President 
Tyler,  but,  being  soon  afterward  rejected  by  the  Senate,  served  only  from 
1843  to  1844. 

Henson,  Josiah  (1787-1881),  whose  life  furnished  the  basis  for  "Uncle 
Tom's  Cabin,"  was  a  negro  slave  in  Maryland,  but  gained  his  freedom  by 
flight  to  Canada,  and  became  pastor  of  a  church. 

Hepburn  vs.  Griswold,  one  of  the  "legal-tender  cases"  in  the  U.  S. 
Supreme  Court,  decided  1864.  In  1860  Mrs.  Hepburn  promised  to  pay 
Griswold  on  February  20,  1862,  $11,250,  legal  tender  at  that  time  (1860) 
being  gold  and  silver  only.  In  1862,  during  the  Civil  War,  the  United 
States  issued  $150,000,000  of  its  own  notes  to  be  received  as  lawful  money 
in  payment  of  public  and  private  debts  within  the  United  States.  Mrs. 
Hepburn's  note  being  overdue,  suit  was  brought  by  Griswold  in  the  Court 
of  Chancery  of  Kentucky  in  1864.  Mrs.  Hepburn  tendered  United  States 
notes  in  payment,  which  were  refused,  though  the  court  declared  the  debt 
absolved.  The  Court  of  Appeals  reversed  this  judgment,  and,  it  being 
brought  to  the  U.  S.  Supreme  Court,  that  body  confirmed  the  judgment  of 
the  Court  of  Appeals  of  Kentucky,  on  the  ground  that  the  Act  of  1862  was 
not  intended  to  impair  contracts  made  prior  to  its  passage.  This  decision 
was  reversed  in  Knox  vs.  Lee  and  Julliard  vs.  Greenman. 

"  Herald  of  Freedom."  The  first  issue  of  this  newspaper  was  made  Octo- 
ber 21,  1854,  in  Wakarusa,  Kansas,  but  it  was  really  printed  in  Pennsylvania. 
It  was  the  first  newspaper  of  Kansas.  It  was  afterward  established  at 
Lawrence,  January  6,  1855.  After  this  the  office  was  destroyed  and  the 
paper  suspended  for  a  time.  It  was  soon  renewed,  however,  and  continued 
until  1859,  when  it  was  finally  suspended. 

Herbert,  Hilary  A.,  was  born  in  South  Carolina  in  1834,  and  was  admitted 
to  the  bar.  He  enlisted  in  the  Confederate  army  as  a  captain,  and  was 
promoted  colonel.  He  was  wounded  in  the  battle  of  the  Wilderness  in  1864. 
He  represented  Alabama  in  the  Congress  of  the  United  States  from  1877  to 
1893,  when  he  became  Secretary  of  the  Navy  in  the  Cabinet  of  President 
Cleveland. 

Herkimer,  Nicholas  (1715-1777),  was  appointed  a  colonel  of  militia  in 
1758,  and  commanded  at  Fort  Herkimer  against  the  French  and  Indians. 
He  was  appointed  brigadier-general  of  militia  by  the  State  Convention  in 
1776,  and  marched  against  Sir  John  Johnson's  force  of  Tories  and  Indians. 
He  was  mortally  wounded  at  Oriskany  in  an  expedition  for  the  relief  of  Fort 
Stanwix,  which  was  besieged  by  St.  Leger  in  1777. 


304 


DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 


Hermitage,  the  home  of  Andrew  Jackson,  at  Nashville,  Tenn.,  to  which 
he  moved  from  Hunter's  Hill  about  1804.  The  house  in  which  he  lived 
during  the  last  twenty-five  years  of  his  life  was  not  built  until  1819. 

Herndon,  William  L.  (1813-1857),  entered  the  navy  in  1828,  explored  the 
Amazon  for  the  U.  S.  Government  in  1851  and  1852,  and  bravely  died  while 
aiding  passengers  on  the  sinking  mail  steamer,  "  Central  America." 

Herrera,  Jose  Joaquin  (1792-1854),  became  president  of  Mexico  in  1845, 
but  was  deposed  for  favoring  the  independence  of  Texas.  He  was  second  in 
command  during  the  war  with  the  United  States.  He  was  again  president 
from  1848  to  1851. 

Herrman,  Augustine  (i6o5?-i686),  established  the  Virginia  tobacco  trade 
about  1629.  He  was  prominent  in  the  affairs  of  New  Netherlands.  He  was 
created  Lord  of  Bohemia  Manor,  a  large  tract  of  land  southwest  of  the  Dela- 
ware, in  1662. 

Hesse.  A  convention  for  the  abolition  of  droit  d*1  aubaine  and  taxes  on 
emigration  was  concluded  between  the  United  States  and  Hesse  in  1844. 

Hessians.  Early  in  1776,  the  British  Government  made  treaties  with  var- 
ious German  petty  princes,  by  which  it  obtained  mercenaries  for  the  war  in 
America.  Under  these  treaties,  the  Landgrave  of  Hesse-Cassel  sent  17,000 
troops,  the  Duke  of  Brunswick  6000,  the  Count  of  Hesse-Hanau  2400,  the 
Margrave  of  Anspach  2400,  the  Prince  of  Waldeck  and  the  Prince  of 
Anhalt-Zerbst  about  1000  each.  In  all,  England  paid  the  princes  about 
;£i, 800,000.  The  Hessians  on  the  whole  fought  well.  Some  of  them 
settled  in  this  country  and  Nova  Scotia.  About  17,000  returned  to  Germany. 

Hewes,  George  R.  T.  (1751-1840),  was  one  of  the  foremost  among  the 
patriots  in  the  "  Boston  Tea  Party  "  in  1773.  He  afterward  joined  the  army 
and  was  stationed  at  West  Point 

Hewes,  Joseph  (1730—1779),  served  in  the  North  Carolina  Senate  in  1763. 
He  was  a  prominent  member  of  the  Continental  Congress  in  1774,  and 
signed  the  Declaration  of  Independence. 

Hewitt,  Abram  S.,  born  in  1822,  represented  New  York  in  the  U.  S. 
Congress  from  1874  to  1886,  except  one  term,  and  advocated  a  moderate 
tariff  and  honest  money.  He  was  one  of  the  scientific  commissioners  sent 
by  the  United  ^States  to  the  French  Exposition  of  1867.  He  was  chairman 
of  the  Democratic  National  Committee  in  1876.  He  was  chosen  mayor  of 
New  York  City  in  1886,  and  served  one  term. 

Heyward,  Thomas,  Jr.  (1746-1809),  a  member  of  the  first  South  Carolina 
Committee  of  Safety,  was  a  delegate  to  Congress  from  1775  to  1778,  and 
signed  the  Declaration  of  Independence.  In  1780,  he  commanded  a  battalion 
in  the  siege  of  Charleston. 

Hickey  Plot,  a  conspiracy  in  1776  to  assassinate  General  Washington  at 
New  York.  Thomas  Hickey,  one  of  the  general's  life  guards,  was  the  ring- 
leader. He  was  hanged  in  June,  1776.  David  Matthews,  mayor  of  New 
York,  was  implicated,  and  Qpveruor  Tryon.  was  suspected.  Matthews  was, 
imprisoned. 


DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  305 

Hickory,  Old,  a  nickname  given  to  General  Jackson,  on  account  of  his 
toughness  and  powers  of  resistance. 

Hicks,  Elias  (1748-1830),  a  celebrated  preacher  of  the  Society  of  Friends, 
denied  the  divinity  of  Christ  and  a  vicarious  atonement,  thereby  causing  a 
division  of  the  Society  into  Orthodox  and  "Hicksite"  Quakers. 

Hicksites,  a  body  that  seceded  from  the  Society  of  Friends  in  the  year 
1827  under  the  leadership  of  Elias  Hicks,  of  Jericho,  L.  I.  They  still  retain 
the  name  of  "  Friends,"  but  hold  Socinian  views  in  regard  to  the  Trinity 
and  the  atonement.  Number  of  members  in  1890,  22,000. 

Higginson,  Francis  (1588-1630),  came  as  pastor  to  Massachusetts  from 
England  in  1629,  settled  at  Salem,  and  wrote  "New  England's  Plantations, 
or  a  Short  and  True  Description  of  the  Commodities  and  Discommodities  of 
the  Country." 

Higginson,  Thomas  Wentworth,  was  born  in  1823.  He  was  early  iden- 
tified with  the  anti-slavery  cause.  He  left  the  ministry  in  1858,  and  has 
since  devoted  himself  to  literature.  He  enlisted  in  the  Civil  War  in  1862, 
was  made  colonel  of  the  first  regiment  of  colored  troops,  and  captured 
Jacksonville.  He  was  a  Massachusetts  Congressman  in  1880  and  1881.  He 
is  an  earnest  advocate  of  woman  suffrage.  He  has  contributed  largely  to 
current  literature,  and  has  published  two  histories  of  the  United  States. 

"  Higher  Law."  During  the  controversy  in  Congress,  in  1850,  over  the 
admission  of  California  as  a  free  or  slave  State,  Senator  Seward,  of  New 
York,  representing  the  Free-Soil  Whigs,  declared  the  common  domain  devoted 
to  justice  and  liberty,  not  only  by  the  Constitution,  but  by  a  "  higher  law 
than  the  Constitution,"  and  that  California  must  be  admitted  with  no  com- 
promise. 

Highlanders.  After  the  troubles  of  1715  and  1745  bodies  of  Highlanders 
came  to  the  colonies  and  settled  in  the  back  districts  of  South  Carolina  as 
Indian  traders  and  farmers.  When  Oglethorpe  came  over  in  1733  with  his 
letters  patent  for  the  district  afterward  called  Georgia,  he  found  numerous 
settlements  of  Highlanders  occupying  portions  of  his  territory.  They  gave 
him  invaluable  aid  in  his  difficulties  with  the  Spaniards  and  the  unfriendly 
Indians.  The  Highlanders  were  opposed  to  the  introduction  of  negroes. 

High-minded  Federalists,  a  name  given  in  ridicule  to  a  set  of  New  York 
Federalists,  supporters  of  DeWitt  Clinton,  because  of  their  overfrequent  use 
of  that  adjective. 

Higley  Token  (see  Granby  Token),  a  private  or  unauthorized  coinage 
issued  in  Connecticut  by  John  Higley,  of  Granby,  in  1737.  It  was  made  of 
copper.  The  obverse  bore  a  deer  and  a  legend,  Value  Me  As  You  Please,  the 
Roman  numerals  III.  and  a  crescent;  the  reverse,  three  hammers  on  a  trian- 
gular field,  each  bearing  a  crown;  legend,  I  Am  Good  Copper. 

Hildreth,  Richard  (1807-1865^,  in  1832  became  associate  editor  of  the 
Boston  Atlas,  which  attained  considerable  eminence  as  a  daily  Whig  journal. 
In  1837  he  published  articles  opposing  the  annexation  of  Texas,  and  while 
residing  in  the  South  published  the  anti-slavery  novel,  "Archy  Moore," 

9Q 


306  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

republished  as  "  The  White  Slave."  In  1840  he  published  "  Despotism  in 
America,"  in  1843  a  "Theory  of  Politics,"  and  in  1854  "The  Legal  Basis 
of  Slavery."  He  is  most  prominent  as  author  of  a  history  of  the  United 
States  in  six  volumes,  which  is  brought  down  to  the  close  of  Monroe's  first 
term,  and  is  of  excellent  quality,  though  of  warm  Federalist  sympathies. 

Hill,  Ambrose  P.  (1825-1865),  graduated  from  theU.  S.  Military  Academy 
in  1847  and  served  during  the  Mexican  War.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil 
War  he  was  appointed  a  colonel  in  the  Virginia  volunteers  and  fought  at 
Bull  Run.  He  was  promoted  brigadier-general  for  bravery  and  commanded 
at  Williamsburg,  and  was  afterward  promoted  major-general.  He  took  a 
prominent  and  aggressive  part  in  the  battles  around  Richmond,  had  important 
commands  at  Antietam,  Fredericksburg  and  Chancellors vi lie,  and  was 
brevetted  lieutenant-general.  He  led  a  corps  at  Gettysburg,  and  met  his 
death  in  defence  of  Petersburg. 

Hill,  Benjamin  Harvey  (1823-1882),  born  in  Georgia,  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1845.  He  was  elected  to  the  Georgia  House  of  Representatives  in 
1851,  1859  and  1860.  He  was  a  Unionist  member  of  the  State  secession 
convention  and  strenuously  opposed  the  ordinance  of  secession,  but  after  its 
passage  supported  the  Confederacy.  He  was  a  delegate  from  Georgia  to  the 
Confederate  provisional  Congress,  and  was  a  member  of  the  Confederate 
Senate  till  1865.  He  published  "  Notes  on  the  Situation,"  ably  opposing  the 
reconstruction  measures.  He  earnestly  supported  Horace  Greeley  for  the 
Presidency  in  1872.  He  served  in  the  U.  S.  Congress  from  1875  to  1877, 
and  on  the  Electoral  Commission,  and  was  a  member  of  the  U.  S.  Senate 
from  1877  to  1882. 

Hill,  David  B.,  politician,  born  in  1843,  was  a  member  of  the  New  York 

Assembly  in   1871  and   1872.     He  was  president  of  the  Democratic  State 

Conventions  of  1877  and  1881.    He  was  Lieutenant-Governor  of  New  York 

in  1882,  and  Governor  from  1885  to  1891.  He  was  in  1891  elected  U.  S. 
Senator  for  the  term  expiring  in  1897. 

Hill,  Daniel  H.  (1821-1889),  general,  was  born  in  South  Carolina.  He  was 
graduated  from  West  Point  in  1842.  He  was  brevetted  major  for  gallant 
service  at  Chapultepec  during  the  Mexican  War.  He  enlisted  in  the  Con- 
federate service  in  1861,  gained  a  victory  at  Big  Bethel,  and  was  promoted 
major-general  in  1862.  He  gained  distinction  in  the  "Seven  Days'  "  battles 
about  Richmond  and  at  Boonesboro  and  Fredericksburg.  He  commanded  in 
North  Carolina  and  at  Richmond  and  Petersburg.  He  was  engaged  at 
Chickamauga,  and  surrendered  in  1865. 

Hill,  Nathaniel  P.,  born  in  1832,  has  been  prominent  in  the  development 
of  mining  industries  in  the  West.  He  was  a  U.  S.  Senator  from  Colorado 
from  1879  to  1885,  and  was  the  leading  advocate  of  bimetallism. 

Hill,  Thomas  (1818-1891),  president  of  Harvard  from  1862  to  1868, 
accompanied  Agassiz  on  the  exploring  expedition  to  South  America.  He 
published  numerous  mathematical  works. 

Hillard,  George  S.  (1808-1879),  scholar  and  lawyer,  was  a  delegate  to  the 
Massachusetts  Constitutional  Convention,  of  1853.  He  was  a  U.  S.  District 


DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  307 

Attorney  from  1866  to  1870.     He  was  the  author  of  "  Six  Months  in  Italy  " 
and  numerous  biographies. 

Hillhouse,  James  (1754-1832),  Senator,  was  a  captain  in  the  Revolution- 
ary War.  He  was  a  Representative  in  the  Connecticut  Legislature  from 
1786  to  1789.  He  represented  Connecticut  in  the  U.  S.  Congress  as  a 
Federalist  from  1791  to  1795,  and  from  1796  to  1810  was  a  U.  S.  Senator. 
From  1810  to  1825  he  was  commissioner  of  the  Connecticut  School  Fund. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Hartford  Convention. 

Milliard,  Henry  W.,  born  in  1808,  author  of  the  "Junius  Brutus"  papers, 
represented  Alabama  in  the  U.  S.  Congress  from  1845  to  1851.  He  was  a 
brigadier-general  in  the  Confederate  army.  He  was  Minister  to  Brazil  from 
1877  to  1881. 

Hillsboro,  N.  C.,  an  encampment  of  Sherman's  Federal  army  of  85,000 
men  in  1865,  during  his  pursuit  of  Johnston's  Confederate  troops  45,000 
strong.  April  14  Sherman  ordered  his  army  to  move  from  Hillsboro,  which 
is  near  Raleigh,  to  cut  off  Johnston's  retreat  toward  Charlotte.  As  this 
movement  was  about  to  be  begun  Johnston  sent  to  negotiate  a  surrender  by 
conditional  treaty  for  all  Confederates  under  arms.  This  treaty  was  drawn 
up  April  1 8. 

Hindman,  Thomas  C.  (1818-1868),  was  a  lieutenant  in  the  Mexican  War. 
He  represented  Mississippi  in  Congress  as  a  Democrat  from  1858  to  1861. 
He  was  a  brigadier-general  in  the  Western  Confederate  army,  and  became 
major-general.  He  was  assassinated  for  having  exacted  too  severe  discipline. 

Hindoos,  a  nickname  applied  to  the  Know-Nothing  party  in  consequence 
of  their  candidate  for  the  Presidency,  Daniel  Ullman,  who  was  alleged  to 
have  been  a  native  of  Calcutta. 

Hiscock,  Frank,  Senator,  born  in  1834,  was  a  New  York  District  Attorney 
from  1860  to  1863.  He  was  a  U.  S.  Congressman  from  1877  to  1886,  when 
he  became  a  U.  S.  Senator  for  the  term  ending  in  1893. 

"  Historical  Magazine,"  an  important  periodical,  devoted  to  American 
history,  and  edited  by  Henry  B.  Dawson.  The  full  title  was  "  The  Historical 
Magazine  and  Notes  and  Queries  Concerning  the  Antiquities,  History  and 
Biography  of  America."  Eighteen  volumes  were  published,  from  1857  to 

1873- 

Historical  Societies.  The  first  such  in  the  United  States  was  the  Massa- 
chusetts Historical  Society,  founded  in  1791.  The  New  York  Historical 
Society  was  established  in  1809,  the  American  Antiquarian  Society  in  1812, 
the  American  Historical  Association  in  1884. 

Hitchcock,  Edward  (1793-1864),  an  eminent  American  geologist,  pub- 
lished "  Report  on  the  Geology  of  Massachusetts "  and  "  The  Religion  of 
Geology."  He  was  prominent  for  his  labors  on  the  fossils  of  the  Connecticut 
Valley. 

Hitchcock,  Ethan  Allen,  born  in  1835,  successful  business  man,  Ambas- 
sador to  Russia  in  1897,  Secretary  of  the  Interior  in  1898,  under  McKinley. 

Hoar,  Ebenezer  R.,  b9rn  in  1816,  was  a  Judge  of  the  Court  of  Common 
Pleas  of  Massachusetts  from  1849  t°  ^55  and  of  the  Massachusetts  Supreme 
Court  from  1859  to  1869.  He  was  Attorney-General  of  the  United  States 


3o8  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

from  1869  to  1870  in  Grant's  Cabinet.  He  was  a  member  of  the  commission 
which  negotiated  the  Treaty  of  Washington.  He  represented  Massachusetts 
as  a  Republican  in  the  U.  S.  Congress  from  1873  to  1875.  Died  1895. 

Hoar,  George  F.,  born  in  1826,  was  a  member  of  the  Massachusetts 
Legislature  in  1852  and  1857.  He  represented  Massachusetts  in  the  U.  S. 
Congress  as  a  Republican  from  1869  to  1877,  and  in  the  Senate  from  1877  to 
the  present  time  (1897).  He  was  a  delegate  to  the  Republican  National 
Conventions  of  1876,  1880,  1884  and  1888.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Elec- 
toral Commission  in  1877. 

Hobart,  Augustus  C.  (Hobart  Pasha)  (1822-1886),  entered  the  British 
navy  in  1836.  During  the  Civil  War  he  commanded  the  "  Don,"  a  success- 
ful blockade  runner  off  the  coast  of  North  Carolina.  He  was  placed  in 
command  of  the  Turkish  fleet  in  the  war  of  Turkey  against  Russia  in  1877. 

Hobart  College,  Geneva,  N.  Y.,  was  chartered  in  1825  by  Episcopalians. 

Hobkirk's  Hill,  Battle  of,  April  25,  1781.  Greene,  being  unable  to  assault 
or  invest  Camden,  S.  C.,  took  his  position  ten  miles  north  at  Hobkirk's  Hill. 
Here  Lord  Rawdon  attacked  him.  Greene  had  nearly  won  when  victory 
slipped  from  his  grasp.  The  famous  Maryland  brigade  fell  into  disorder 
through  misunderstanding  of  orders  and  deranged  Greene's  plan.  He  was 
driven  from  his  post  and  forced  to  retire. 

Hobart,  Garret  A.,  lawyer ;  born  1844  in  New  Jersey.  Served  in  State 
Legislature.  Was  speaker  of  House  and  president  of  Senate.  Elected  Vice- 
President  November  3,  1896. 

Hobson,  Richmond  Pearson,  the  "  Hero  of  the  Merrimac,"  born  in  Ala- 
bama, 1870.  As  naval  constructor  planned  the  sinking  of  the  collier  "  Mer- 
rimac" across  inlet  to  Santiago  harbor,  which  he  did  June  3,  1898,  with 
seven  volunteer  assistants. 

Hodge,  Charles  (1797-1878),  professor  of  theology  at  Princeton  from  1822 
to  1878,  founded  the  Princeton  Review,  which  he  edited  until  it  was  combined 
with  the  Presbyterian  Quarterly  in  1871.  He  was  author  of  a  "  Systematic 
Theology,"  and  of  great  influence  upon  Presbyterian  theological  thought. 

Hoe,  Richard  M.  (1812-1886),  born  in  New  York,  invented  a  rotary  press 
known  as  "  Hoe's  lightning  press,"  which  in  one  minute  will  print,  cut  and 
fold  a  sheet  of  paper  800  feet  long. 

Hoffman,  Charles  Fenno  (1806-1884),  of  New  York,  was  editorially  con- 
nected with  the  Knickerbocker  Magazine,  the  American  Monthly  Magazine 
and  the  Literary  World.  He  was  an  author  of  poems  and  popular  songs. 

Hoffman,  John  T.,  born  in  New  York  in  1828,  became  a  member  of  Tarn 
many  in  1858.  He  was  mayor  of  New  York  City  from  1865  to  1869,  and 
Governor  of  New  York  State  from  1869  to  1873. 

Holden,  Edward  S.,  born  in  1846,  was  connected  with  the  U.  S.  Naval 
Observatory-  from  1873  to  1886,  when  he  became  director  of  the  Lick  Obser- 
vatory. He  is  the  author  of  a  life  of  Sir  William  Herschel. 

Holden,  William  W.,  born  in  1818,  edited  the  Raleigh  Standard  from 
1843  to  1868.  He  signed  the  ordinance  of  secession  in  1861.  While  Gov- 
ernor of  North  Carolina  in  1868  he  was  prominent  in  suppressing  the  Ku 
Klux  outrages. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITSD  STATES  HISTORY.  309 

Holland,  Josiah  G.  (1819-1881),  an  editor  of  the  Massachusetts  Repub- 
lican from  1849  to  1866,  published  a  "History  of  Western  Massachusetts" 
and  a  "Life  of  Abraham  Lincoln."  In  1870  he  established  Scribner>s 
Monthly. 

Holland.     (See  Netherlands.) 

Holland  Land  Company,  an  association  of  Dutch  capitalists  to  whom 
Robert  Morris  sold  in  1792-93  the  greater  part  of  a  valuable  tract  of  land, 
west  of  the  Genesee  River,  which  he  had  purchased  the  year  before  from  the 
State  of  Massachusetts. 

Holland  Patent,  the  first  land-grant  in  the  present  county  of  Orange, 
New  York.  It  was  made  to  six  Dutch  patentees  by  Governor  Dongan,  of 
New  York,  in  1686.  The  land  was  to  be  held  in  free  and  common  socage  of 
King  James  II. 

Holley,  Myron  (1779-1841),  while  in  the  New  York  Assembly  from  1816 
to  1824,  advocated  the  construction  of  the  Erie  Canal.  He  was  prominent 
among  the  Anti-Masons,  and  afterward  labored  in  behalf  of  the  Liberty 
party. 

Hollins,  George  N.  (1799-1878),  naval  officer,  served  in  the  Algerian  War 
in  1815.  By  his  unauthorized  bombardment  of  Nicaragua  in  1855  he  nearly 
involved  the  United  States  in  difficulties  with  Great  Britain.  A  Confederate 
naval  officer  during  the  Civil  War,  he  commanded  the  naval  forces  below  New 
Orleans  which  Farragut  defeated  in  April,  1863. 

Holly  Springs,  Miss.,  held  by  the  Federals  under  Colonel  Murphy  as 
General  Grant's  hospital  and  depot  of  supplies.  It  was  captured  by  the  Con- 
federate leader,  Van  Dorn,  December  20, 1862,  and  the  entire  store  of  ordnance 
and  medical  supplies,  besides  100  barrels  of  gunpowder,  was  destroyed.  Grant 
had  telegraphed  Murphy  to  fortify  his  position  and  hold  out  until  he  could 
send  reinforcements,  but  the  latter  -was  forced  to  yield. 

Holman,  William  S.,  of  Indiana,  born  in  1822,  was  a  judge  of  probate 
from  1843  to  1846  and  prosecuting  attorney  from  1847  to  1849.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  Indiana  Constitutional  Convention  in  1850,  and  served  in  the 
State  Legislature  from  1851  to  1852.  He  represented  Indiana  in  the  U.  S. 
Congress  as  a  Democrat  from  1859  to  1865,  from  1867  to  1877  and  from  1879 
to  the  present  time  (1894),  obtaining  the  name  of  the  "Great  Objector"  by 
his  opposition  to  many  expenditures.  Died  1897. 

Holmes,  Abiel  (1763-1837),  a  Massachusetts  clergyman,  was  the  author 
of  a  life  of  Ezra  Stiles  and  "  Annals  of  America,"  brought  down  to  1820, 
which  is  a  standard  authority;  father  of  Dr.  O.  W.  Holmes. 

Holmes,  Isaac  E.  (1796-1867),  served  in  the  South  Carolina  Legislature 
in  1826  and  1832,  where  he  proposed  the  nullification  acts.  He  was  a  Demo- 
cratic U.  S.  Congressman  from  1838  to  1851. 

Holmes,  John  (1773-1843),  was  a  member  of  the  Massachusetts  Legisla- 
ture from  1802  to  1803  and  from  1813  to  1817.  He  was  a  Democratic  U.  S. 
Congressman  from  1817  to  l827  and  from  l829  to  l833 


3io  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Holmes,  Oliver  Wendell,  born  in  Massachusetts  in  1809,  is  an  eminent 
physician,  but  is  famed  chiefly  in  literature.  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of 
the  Atlantic  Monthly  in  1857.  In  this  periodical  appeared  his  "  Autocrat  of 
the  Breakfast  Table,"  "  Professor  at  the  Breakfast  Table,"  "  Elsie  Venner," 
etc.  He  has  written  many  most  popular  poems,  and  is  author  of  memoirs 
of  John  Lothrop  Motley  and  Ralph  Waldo  Emerson.  Died  October  7,  1894. 

Holmes,  Theophilus  H.  (1804-1880),  was  brevetted  major  for  services  in 
the  Mexican  War.  He  organized  the  North  Carolina  troops  in  1861,  and 
commanded  in  the  Confederate  army  in  Northern  Virginia  and  in  the  Trans- 
Mississippi  Department. 

Holmes  vs.  Walton,  New  Jersey.  This  seems  to  have  been  the  first 
instance  of  an  American  court's  assuming  the  authority  to  pronounce  upon 
the  constitutionality  of  an  act  of  the  Legislature.  The  Legislature  of  New 
Jersey  had,  in  1779,  passed  an  act  making  lawful  a  trial  before  a  jury  of  six 
men.  In  the  case  of  Holmes  vs.  Walton  the  constitutionality  of  this  act 
was  questioned,  and  upon  its  being  decided  unconstitutional  by  the  Court  of 
Appeals,  the  act  was  repealed  and  a  constitutional  jury  of  twelve  men 
substituted. 

Hoist,  Hermann  E.  von,  historian,  was  born  in  Livonia  in  1841.  From 
1867  to  1872  he  was  engaged  in  literary  work  in  America.  He  is  the  author  of 
a  standard  work  on  "  The  Constitutional  History  of  the  United  States,  1750- 
1861."  Also  has  written  a  life  of  John  C.  Calhoun  and  "  The  Constitutional 
Law  of  the  United  States."  In  1872  he  became  a  professor  at  Strasburg,  in 
1874  at  Freiburg,  whence  he  was  called  to  the  University  of  Chicago  in 
1891. 

Holt,  Joseph,  born  in  Kentucky  in  1807,  was  appointed  by  President 
Buchanan  Commissioner  of  Patents  in  1857,  an(^  Postmaster-General  in 
1859,  and  succeeded  John  B.  Floyd  as  Secretary  of  War  in  1860.  Although 
previously  a  Democrat  he  supported  the  administration  -of  President  Lincoln, 
who  appointed  him  judge  advocate  of  the  army.  In  1865  he  was  brevetted 
major-general  U  S.  A.  for  services  in  bureau  of  military  justice.  Died  1894. 

Homestead  Law,  securing  to  any  citizen  the  right  to  enter  upon  160  acres 
•of  unappropriated  lands  at  $1.25  an  acre,  and  after  five  years'  actual  resi- 
.dence  to  own  it,  was  passed  May  20,  1862.  It  has  proved  of  immense  value 
:in  stimulating  the  settlement  of  the  West. 

Homestead  Riots.  On  the  final  refusal  of  the  workingmen's  association 
to  accept  certain  changes  in  the  wage  scale,  the  proprietors  of  the  Carnegie 
Steel  Mills,  at  Homestead,  Pa.,  closed  the  works  July  i,  1892.  The 
^employes  declared  a  strike  about  the  same  time.  A  mob  prevented  the 
sheriff  from  placing  pickets  in  the  mills.  July  6  a  body  of  300  Pinkerton 
(detectives  arrived.  A  bloody  fight  between  these  men  and  the  strikers 
'immediately  took  place,  resulting  in  considerable  loss  on  both  sides.  The 
Pinkertons  surrendered.  The  Pennsylvania  militia  was  then  ordered  out 
and  remained  at  Homestead  until  September  to  protect  the  mills.  Many 
<of  the  strikers  were  arrested  and  indictments  were  found  against  them. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATKS  HISTORY.  311 

Honduras.  A  commercial  treaty  was  concluded  between  the  United 
States  and  Honduras  in  1864.  By  Art.  XIV.  the  United  States  guaranteed 
the  neutrality  of  an  interoceanic  railway  in  return  for  concessions  by  Hon- 
duras. A  reciprocity  treaty  was  concluded  in  1892. 

Honey  Springs,  Ind.  Terr.  Here,  July  17,  1863,  General  Blunt  with 
3000  Federal  troops  destroyed  Cooper's  command  of  6000  Confederates. 
This  force  was  lying  in  wait  for  Blunt,  and  the  latter  learning  this,  charged 
upon  them. 

Hood,  John  Bell  (1831-1879),  bora  in  Kentucky,  graduated  at  the  U.  S. 
Military  Academy  in  1853.  He  enlisted  in  the  Confederate  service  in  1861, 
and  soon  after  was  appointed  brigadier-general  of  the  Texas  brigade.  He 
was  brevetted  major-general  for  gallant  service  at  Games'  Mill.  He  served 
in  the  Maryland  campaign  and  fought  at  Bull  Run,  Boonesboro,  Fredericks- 
burg,  Antietam  and  Gettysburg.  He  reinforced  General  Bragg  at  Chicka- 
mauga,  and  in  1864  commanded  a  corps  under  General  Johnston.  He 
succeeded  Johnston  in  command  and  attempted  to  crush  Sherman  in  his 
march  to  the  sea,  but  was  unsuccessful.  He  was  soon  afterward  defeated  by 
General  Thomas  at  Franklin  and  at  Nashville.  He  was  succeeded  by  General 
Richard  Taylor. 

Hooker,  Charles  E.,  born  in  1825,  was  a  Mississippi  Congressman  from 
1859  to  1 86 1.  He  was  a  colonel  in  the  Confederate  service.  He  served  in 
the  U.  S.  Congress  as  a  Democrat  from  1875  to  1883  and  from  1887  to  the 
present  time  (1894). 

Hooker,  Joseph  (1814-1879),  born  in  Massachusetts,  was  graduated  from 
West  Point  in  1837.  He  was  brevetted  lieutenant-colonel  for  his  very  gallant 
service  during  the  Mexican  War  from  1846  to  1848.  He  was  appointed  a. 
brigadier-general  of  the  National  forces  in  1861,  and  commanded  a  division. 
in  1862  in  the  Army  of  the  Potomac.  He  was  brevetted  major-general  for 
services  at  Yorktown,  Williamsburg  and  Malvern  Hill.  He  had  important 
commands  at  South  Mountain,  Antietam  and  Fredericksburg.  In  1863  he 
succeeded  Burnside  in  command  of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac,  and  conducted 
the  battle  of  Chancellorsville,  but,  being  unsuccessful,  was  soon  after  suc- 
ceeded by  General  Meade.  He  was  assigned  command  in  the  Army  of  the 
Cumberland,  and  fought  at  Lookout  Mountain  and  Missionary  Ridge.  He 
accompanied  Sherman  in  his  march  through  Georgia  until  after  the  siege  of 
Atlanta.  He  was  brevetted  major-general  in  the  regular  army  in  1865,  and 
retired  in  1868.  He  was  a  brave  and  skillful  tactician,  but  had  not  the 
abilities  requisite  for  commander-in-chief. 

Hooker,  Thomas  (1586-1647),  fled  from  England  to  Holland  in  1630  on 
a  charge  of  non-conformity.  He  escaped  to  New  England  in  1633,  and  was 
chosen  pastor  at  Newtown  (now  Cambridge)  of  the  eighth  church  established 
in  the  Massachusetts  colony.  With  one  hundred  members  of  the  commu- 
nity he  emigrated  to  Connecticut  in  1636,  and  founded  the  town  of  Hart- 
ford. He  was  chosen  pastor  of  the  church  at  that  place  and  was  very 
prominent  in  all  the  affairs  of  the  colony.  He  was  author  of  "  Survey  of 
the  Summe  of  Church  Discipline." 


3i2  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITKD  STATES  HISTORY. 

Hooper,  Samuel  (1808-1875),  was  a  member  of  the  Massachusetts  Legis- 
lature from  1851  to  1854,  and  of  the  U.  S.  Congress  as  a  Republican  from 
1861  to  1875.  He  served  on  the  Committees  of  Ways  and  Means,  Banking 
and  Currency,  and  War  Debts. 

Hooper,  William  (1742-1790),  was  a  member  of  the  North  Carolina  Leg- 
islature in  1773,  and  of  the  Continental  Congress  from  1774  to  1777.  He 
signed  the  Declaration  of  Independence.  He  was  author  of  the  "  Hampden  " 
essays  in  1773. 

Hopkins,  Edward  (1600-1657),  came  to  America  from  England  in  1637. 
He  was  Governor  of  Connecticut  in  the  even  years  from  1640  to  1654.  He 
aided  in  forming  the  union  of  the  New  England  colonies  in  1643. 

Hopkins,  Esek  (1718-1802),  of  Rhode  Island,  was  appointed  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  navy  by  the  Continental  Congress  in  1775.  In  1776,  in 
command  of  the  first  colonial  fleet,  he  captured  the  British  ships  "  Hawke  " 
and"Bolton."  He  was  retired  in  1777  for  neglect  to  appear  before  the 
Naval  Committee  on  a  charge  of  unnecessary  delays.  He  afterward  was 
prominent  in  Rhode  Island  politics. 

Hopkins,  Johns  (1795-1873),  was  the  founder  of  Johns  Hopkins  Univer- 
sity at  Baltimore,  which  he  endowed  with  about  $3,500,000.  He  also  gave 
an  equal  sum  for  the  foundation  of  a  hospital  at  Baltimore. 

Hopkins,  Lemuel  (1750-1801),  aided  by  Trumbull,  Humphreys,  Barstow 
and  others,  called  the  "  Hartford  Wits,"  published  "  The  Anarchiad,"  which 
advocated  an  efficient  Federal  constitution.  He  wrote  satirical  poems 
entitled  the  "  Echo,"  "  The  Political  Greenhouse,"  and  "  The  Hypocrite's 
Hope." 

Hopkins,  Mark  (1802-1887),  born  in  Massachusetts,  was  professor  of  moral 
philosophy  from  1836  to  1887  at  Williams  College,  and  its  president  from 
1836  to  1872.  He  was  author  of  the  "Law  of  Love"  and  an  "Outline 
Study  of  Man." 

Hopkins,  Samuel  (1721-1803),  theologian,  was  born  in  Connecticut.  He 
was  ordained  in  1743,  and  became  a  pastor  at  Newport,  R.  I.,  in  1770.  He 
was  prominent  in  the  Rhode  Island  anti-slavery  movements  in  1774.  His 
religious  views  exerted  a  powerful  influence.  He  wrote  "  A  System  of 
Doctrines." 

Hopkins,  Stephen  (1707—1785),  was  a  member  of  the  Rhode  Island 
Assembly  during  most  of  the  years  from  1732  to  1752,  and  was  Speaker  at 
various  sessions,  1738-1749.  He  was  one  of  the  committee,  at  the  Albany 
Convention  of  1754,  which  drafted  a  plan  of  colonial  union.  He  was  Gover- 
nor of  Rhode  Island  from  1755  to  1757,  from  1758  to  1762,  from  1763  to 
1765  and  from  1767  to  1768.  He  was  a  Rhode  Island  delegate  to  the  Con- 
tinental Congress  from  1774  to  1780,  and  signed  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence. In  1765  he  published  "  The  Grievances  of  the  American  Colonies 
Candidly  Examined."  He  was  the  most  eminent  Rhode  Island  statesman 
of  the  last  century. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITKD  STATES  HISTORY.  313 

Hopkinsianism,  the  doctrine  advocated  by  Samuel  Hopkins,  minister  at 
Newport  from  1770,  as  an  addition  to  Calvinism,  that  holiness  consisted  in 
pure,  disinterested  benevolence,  and  that  all  self-seeking  was  necessarily  sin- 
ful. It  exerted  a  liberalizing  influence  on  the  theology  of  the  day. 

Hopkinson,  Francis  (1737-1791),  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1761.  He 
was  a  New  York  Councilman  from  1774  to  1776.  He  was  a  delegate  to  the 
Continental  Congress  from  1776  to  1777,  serving  on  the  committee  to  draft 
articles  of  confederation  and  advocating  and  signing  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence. He  was  appointed  head  of  the  Navy  Department  in  1775.  He 
aided  the  cause  of  liberty  by  witty  satires  and  popular  poems  and  songs. 
He  was  Judge  of  Admiralty  for  Pennsylvania  from  1779  to  1789,  and  a  U.  S. 
DistriJ-  Judge  from  1790  to  1791. 

Hopkinson,  Joseph  (1770-1842),  was  one  of  the  counsel  in  the  Pennsyl- 
vania insurgents'  trials,  and  defended  Judge  Chase  in  his  impeachment  trials. 
He  represented  Pennsylvania  in  the  U.  S.  Congress  as  a  Federalist  from 
1815  to  1819.  He  was  a  U.  S.  District  Judge  from  1828  to  1842,  and  a 
member  of  the  Pennsylvania  Constitutional  Convention  of  1837.  He  com- 
posed "  Hail  Columbia." 

"  Hornet,"  eighteen  guns,  Captain  Lawrence,  off  Brazil  on  February  24, 
1813,  attacked  the  "  Peacock,"  a  British  brig,  eighteen  guns.  Within  fifteen 
minutes  the  "  Peacock  "  was  sinking,  and  struck  her  colors.  Before  all  the 
wounded  could  be  moved  she  sank,  carrying  nine  British  and  three  Ameri- 
can seamen  with  her.  On  March  23,  1815,  in  the  South  Atlantic,  the  British 
brig  "  Penguin,"  of  eighteen  guns,  challenged  the  "  Hornet."  The  battle 
lasted  twenty-three  minutes.  The  "  Penguin  "  was  boarded  and  captured, 
losing  among  others  her  commander.  After  scuttling  the  prize  the  "  Hor- 
net" returned  to  the  United  States.  In  the  latter  part  of  April,  1815,  the 
"Hornet"  was  chased  by  the  "  Cornwallis,"  seventy-four  guns,  and  only 
escaped  capture  by  throwing  overboard  all  its  guns  save  one,  its  anchors, 
boats  and  heavy  stores. 

Horry,  Peter,  a  brigadier-general  under  General  Francis  Marion  during 
the  Revolutionary  War,  wrote  a  "  Life  of  Marion  "  in  conjunction  with  Rev. 
Mason  L.  Weems. 

Horse-Shoe  Bend,  Ala.,  a  battle,  March  29,  1814,  between  General 
Andrew  Jackson's  army  of  3000  whites,  chiefly  Tennessee  militia,  and 
friendly  Cherokee  Indians,  and  700  or  800  Creek  warriors.  The  Creeks  had 
fortified  themselves  in  the  horse-shoe  of  the  Tallapoosa  River.  Jackson 
advanced  his  cannon  to  within  200  yards  of  the  barricade  and  began  firing, 
while  the  Cherokee  allies  swam  the  river  and  attacked  the  Creeks  in  the 
rear.  An  assault  was  then  ordered  and  the  fort  carried,  about  500  Creeks 
being  killed,  and  an  equal  number  of  women  and  children  being  captured. 

Horsford,  Eben  N.  (1818-1893),  chemist,  was  one  of  the  originators  of 
the  Lawrence  Scientific  School,  at  Cambridge,  Mass.  He  made  liberal 
endowments  to  Wellesley  College,  and  wrote  extensively  upon  the  Norse  and 
other  early  voyages  to  America. 


314  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Hosmer,  Harriet,  born  in  Massachusetts  in  1830,  is  a  prominent  Ameri- 
can sculptor.  Her  best  works  are  "  The  Sleeping  Fawn,"  "  Puck,"  "  Zenobia 
in  Chains  "  and  "  Beatrice  Cenci." 

Hotchkiss,  Benjamin  B.  (1830-1885),  was  considered  at  the  time  of  his 
death  the  first  artillery  engineer  in  the  world.  He  invented  among  others, 
a  machine  gun  and  a  magazine  rifle. 

Houdon,  Jean  Antoine  (1740-1828),  French  sculptor,  visited  the  United 
States  in  1785,  and  modeled  the  statue  of  Washington  which  is  in  the  capitol 
at  Richmond  and  is  regarded  as  the  best  likeness  of  Washington. 

House  of  Representatives,  a  term  first  employed  in  colonial  and  State 
Legislatures  to  denote  the  lower  or  popula<-  branch.  In  the  Randolph  plan, 
brought  before  the  Convention  of  1787,  the  lower  branch  of  the  Federal 
Legislature  is  called  simply  the  "  first  branch."  The  name  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives first  appears  in  the  report  of  the  committee  of  detail.  (See  arts. 
Apportionment,  Slave  Representation,  Previous  Question,  Mace,  etc.)  The 
House  has  twice  chosen  the  President,  in  1801  (Jefferson),  and  in  1825  (J.  Q. 
Adams).  The  chief  law  regulating  elections  of  Representatives  was  passed 
in  1875. 

Houston,  Samuel  (1793-1863),  enlisted  in  the  U.  S.  army  in  1813,  and 
was  promoted  lieutenant  for  bravery  in  the  Creek  War,  1813-1814.  He 
represented  Tennessee  in  the  U.  S.  Congress  as  a  Democrat  from  1823  to 
1827,  and  was  Governor  of  Tennessee  from  1827  to  1829.  He  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Texas  Constitutional  Convention  in  1833.  As  commander-in-chief 
of  the  Texan  army  he  secured  the  independence  of  Texas.  He  was  presi- 
dent of  Texas  from  1836  to  1838  and  from  1841  to  1844,  secured  the  annex- 
ation of  Texas  to  the  United  States  and  represented  it  in  Congress  from  1845 
to  1859.  He  was  again  chosen  Governor  of  Texas  in  1859  an(^  served  until 
he  refused  to  espouse  the  Confederate  cause  in  1861. 

Howard,  Jacob  M.  (1805-1871),  was  a  member  of  the  Michigan  Legisla- 
ture in  1838  and  represented  that  State  in  the  U.  S.  Congress  from  1841  to 
1843.  He  drafted  the  first  Republican  platform  in  1854  and  gave  the  party 
its  name.  He  was  a  U.  S.  Senator  from  1862  to  1871. 

Howard,  John  Eager  (1752-1827),  colonel,  joined  the  Revolutionary  army 
at  the  outbreak  of  the  war,  and  was  a  captain  under  General  Mercer  at 
White  Plains  in  1776.  He  commanded  as  major  at  Germantown  and  Mon- 
mouth,  fought  at  Camden  in  1780  with  the  rank  of  lieutenant-colonel,  and 
won  great  fame  at  Cowpens  in  1781.  He  was  Governor  of  Maryland  from 
1789  to  1792.  In  1796  he  declined  the  portfolio  of  Secretary  of  War  in 
Washington's  Cabinet.  He  was  a  U.  S.  Senator  from  1796  to  1803. 

Howard  of  Effingham,  Lord,  Governor  of  Virginia  from  1683  to  1688. 
He  succeeded  Lord  Culpepper,  and  was  very  unpopular  for  his  extortions, 
usurpations,  dissolving  of  the  assembly,  multiplication  of  fees  and  arbitrary 
imprisonments.  Colonel  Ludwell  was  sent  to  England  to  make  complaints 
against  him. 

Howard,  Oliver  Otis,  born  in  1830,  was  graduated  from  the  U.  S.  Mili- 
tary Academy  in  1854.  He  was  appointed  colonel  of  a  Maine  regimen,t  in 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  315 

1861.  He  commanded  a  brigade  at  Bull  Run,  and  for  his  gallant  service 
was  promoted  brigadier-general.  In  1862  he  fought  at  Fair  Oaks  and 
Antietam,  and  was  promoted  major-general.  He  served  at  Fredericksburg, 
Gettysburg,  Lookout  Mountain  and  Missionary  Ridge.  In  1863  ne  was 
assigned  command  in  the  Army  of  the  Cumberland,  and  later  in  the  Army 
of  the  Tennessee.  He  accompanied  Sherman  in  his  march  to  the  sea,  and 
was  present  at  Johnston's  surrender  in  1865.  He  was  Commissioner  of  the 
Freedmen's  Bureau  from  1865  to  1874.  In  1886  he  was  commissioned 
major-general,  and  assigned  to  the  Pacific  Division;  in  1888  he  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  Atlantic  Division.  Retired  1894. 

Howard's  Reports,  twenty-four  volumes  of  law  reports  by  Benjamin  C. 
Howard,  containing  cases  from  the  U.  S.  Supreme  Court  of  the  years  1843— 
1860. 

Howe,  Elias  (1819-1867),  born  in  Massachusetts,  was  the  inventor  of  the 
first  successful  sewing-machine,  in  1846.  He  served  in  a  Connecticut  regi- 
ment during  the  Civil  War,  and  aided  the  Government  by  large  loans. 

Howe,  George  A.,  Viscount  (1724-1758),  came  to  America  from  England 
in  command  of  a  regiment  in  1757.  He  was  promoted  brigadier-general  and 
in  1758  served  under  Commander-in-chief  Abercrombie  at  Fort  Ticonderoga, 
where  he  met  his  death.  He  was  a  very  able  and  popular  officer  and  exerted 
a  powerful  influence  over  his  subordinates. 

Howe,  Henry,  born  in  Connecticut  in  1816,  was  author  of  "Our  Whole 
Country  "  and  "  Historical  Collections  "  of  New  York,  New  Jersey,  Ohio  and 
Virginia,  in  which  much  material  was  preserved. 

Howe,  Julia  Ward,  born  in  1819,  composed  the  "Battle  Hymn  of  the 
Republic"  in  1861.  She  is  an  earnest  advocate  of  woman  suffrage  and  has 
been  prominent  in  many  reform  movements. 

Howe,  Richard  (Earl  Howe)  (1725-1799),  a  British  rear-admiral,  was 
appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  naval  forces  in  North  America  in  1776. 
In  conjunction  with  his  brother,  Sir  William  Howe,  he  was  commissioned  to 
conciliate  the  colonies,  but  found  this  impossible.  He  then  took  possession 
of  Long  Island  and  New  York  in  1776  and  of  Philadelphia  in  1777.  In 
1778  he  encountered  the  French  fleet,  under  Count  d'Estaing,  off  the  coast 
of  Rhode  Island;  both  fleets  were  badly  shattered  by  a  storm  which  prevented 
a  decisive  engagement.  He  resigned  his  charge  to  Admiral  Byron  soon 
afterward  and  returned  to  England.  He  published  "  Narrative  of  the  Trans- 
actions of  the  Fleet"  in  1780,  vindicating  his  conduct  during  his  command 
in  America.  He  afterward  became  an  admiral,  and  won*the  great  victory  of 
June  i,  1794,  over  the  French. 

Howe,  Robert  (1732-1785),  was  a  member  of  the  North  Carolina  Assem- 
bly from  1772  to  1773.  He  was  a  delegate  to  the  Colonial  Congress  in  1774. 
He  was  appointed  colonel,  and  aided  in  expelling  Governor  Dunmore  from 
Virginia.  He  was  excepted  in  Sir  William  Howe's  proclamation  of  royal 
clemency.  He  commanded  the  North  Carolina  troops  in  the  defence  of 
Charleston,  and  fought  at  Savannah.  He  commanded  at  West  Point  in 
1780. 


ji6  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Howe,  Samuel  G.  (1801-1876),  founded  a  school  for  the  blind  in  1832, 
subsequently  called  the  Perkins  Institution,  of  which  he  was  superintendent 
till  1876,  and  at  which  Laura  Bridgman  was  educated.  From  1851  to  1853 
he  edited  the  Commonwealth.  When  commissioner  to  Santo  Domingo  in 
1871  he  advocated  annexation  to  the  United  States.  He  was  author  of  an 
"  Historical  Sketch  of  the  Greek  Revolution,"  in  which  he  had  participated. 

Howe,  Timothy  O.  (1816-1883),  was  a  member  of  the  Maine  Legislature 
in  1845.  From  1850  to  1855  he  was  a  Judge  of  the  Circuit  and  Supreme 
Courts  of  Wisconsin.  He  represented  Wisconsin  in  the  U.  S.  Senate  as  a 
Republican  from  1861  to  1879,  and  served  on  the  Committees  of  Finance, 
Commerce,  Pensions  and  Claims.  He  advocated  the  right  of  the  National 
Government  to  establish  territorial  governments  in  the  seceded  States.  He 
was  a  delegate  to  the  International  Monetary  Conference  in  1881.  He  was 
appointed  Postmaster-General  in  Arthur's  Cabinet  in  1881  and  served  until 
his  death. 

Howe,  Sir  William  (1729-1814),  served  under  General  Wolfe  at  Quebec 
in  1759.  In  1775  he  succeeded  General  Gage  as  commander-in-chief  of  the 
British  forces  in  America.  He  commanded  the  British  troops  at  Bunker  Hill. 
In  conjunction  with  his  brother,  Richard,  he  defeated  the  colonial  armies  at 
Long  Island  and  at  White  Plains  in  1776,  and  captured  Forts  Washington 
and  Lee.  He  defeated  Washington  at  Brandywine  in  1777,  and  entered 
Philadelphia.  After  repulsing  the  American  attack  at  Germantown  he  went 
into  winter  quarters  in  Philadelphia,  and  was  accused  of  spending  his  time 
in  the  pursuit  of  pleasure.  He  was  removed  from  command  in  1778,  and 
superseded  by  Sir  Henry  Clinton.  He  was  a  well-educated  general  and  a 
favorite  with  his  officers,  but  unsuccessful  in  strategy  and  incapable  of  man- 
aging a  large  army.  He  is  described  by  General  Henry  Lee  as  "  the  most 
indolent  of  mortals,  who  never  took  pains  to  examine  the  merits  or  demerits 
of  a  cause  in  which  he  was  engaged." 

Howells,  William  Dean,  born  in  Ohio  in  1837,  was  Consul  to  Venice 
from  1861  to  1865.  He  became  an  editor  of  the  Atlantic  Monthly  in  1866, 
and  was  editor-in-chief  from  1872  to  1881.  He  is  perhaps  the  most  promi- 
nent of  American  novelists.  He  is  an  advocate  of  the  modern  "realistic 
fiction  "  which  portrays  life  as  it  actually  is.  He  has  written  lives  of  Abra- 
ham Lincoln  and  Rutherford  B.  Hayes. 

Hoxie,  Vinnie  R.,  sculptor,  born  in  1846,  designed  the  marble  statue  of 
Abraham  Lincoln  in  the  Capitol  at  Washington,  and  modeled  the  bronze 
statue  of  Admiral  I^rragut  in  Washington. 

Huamantla,  Mexico.  Here,  October  9,  1847,  General  Santa  Anna  endeav- 
ored to  cut  off  and  destroy  a  convoy  commanded  by  General  Lane,  of  the 
American  army,  en  route  from  El  Pinal  to  Puebla.  The  attempt  was  unsuc- 
cessful. 

Hubbard,  Lucius  F.,  born  in  1836,  fought  at  Vicksburg  and  Nashville 
during  the  Civil  War,  and  was  brevetted  brigadier-general.  He  was  elected 
to  the  Minnesota  Legislature  by  the  Republicans  in  1872  and  1874,  and  was 
Governor  of  Minnesota  from  1882  to  1887. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATSS  HISTORY.  31? 

Hubbard,  Samuel  D.  (1799-1855),  represented  Connecticut  in  the  U.  S. 
Congress  as  a  Whig  from  1845  to  1849.  He  was  Postmaster-General  in 
Fillmore's  Cabinet  from  1852  to  1853. 

Hubbard,  William  (1621-1704),  came  to  America  from  England  in  1630. 
He  was  a  pastor  at  Ipswich,  Mass.,  from  1665  to  1703.  He  was  author  of  a 
"  History  of  New  England "  and  "  A  Narrative  of  Troubles  with  the 
Indians." 

Hubbardton,  Battle  of,  July  7,  1777.  The  fugitive  garrison  from  Ticon- 
deroga  was  overtaken  by  Fraser  with  900  men  at  Hubbardton,  Vt.  He  was 
checked  until  Riedesel,  with  1000  men,  came  up  and  put  the  Americans  to 
flight.  This  was  an  episode  in  Burgoyne's  invasion. 

Hubbell,  Jay  A.,  born  in  1829,  of  Michigan,  served  in  the  U.  S.  Congress 
as  a  Republican  from  1873  to  1883.  As  chairman  of  the  Republican  Con- 
gressional Committee  in  the  campaign  of  1880,  he  was  noted  for  his  pursuit 
of  assessments  from  office-holders. 

Hudde,  Andreas  (1600?— 1663),  came  to  America  from  Holland  in  1629, 
and  was  employed  in  New  Netherlands  by  the  Dutch  West  India  Company. 
He  was  Governor  of  the  Dutch  colony  on  the  Delaware  from  1645  to  J^55- 

Hudson,  Henry,  was  born  in  the  latter  part  of  the  sixteenth  century. 
He  made  two  voyages  under  the  direction  of  the  Muscovy  Company  in 
search  of  a  northwest  passage.  In  the  first  expedition  made  in  1607  he 
explored  the  coast  of  Greenland,  and  was  the  first  to  suggest  the  existence 
of  an  open  polar  sea.  His  second  voyage  in  1608  was  unsuccessful.  In 
1609  he  commanded  an  expedition  for  the  Dutch  East  India  Company. 
After  coasting  along  Labrador  he  sailed  southward,  touching  at  Newfound- 
land, Penobscot  Bay,  Cape  Cod  and  the  Chesapeake.  He  sailed  up  the 
Hudson  as  far  as  the  present  site  of  Albany.  On  his  last  voyage  in  1610  he 
entered  the  strait  and  bay  which  bear  his  name.  His  crew  became  mutinous 
because  of  severe  hardships  and  set  Hudson  adrift  in  a  small  boat.  Nothing 
was  ever  heard  from  him  or  his  seven  companions.  He  wrote  "  Divers  Voy- 
ages and  Northern  Discoveries  "  and  "  A  Second  Voyage." 

Hudson  Bay  Company,  chartered  by  Charles  JI.  May  16,  1670,  for  the 
"  discovery  of  a  new  passage  to  the  South  Sea,  and  for  the  finding  of  some 
trade  for  furs,  minerals  and  other  considerable  commodities."  Adopting  the 
suggestion  of  Sir  Alexander  Mackenzie,  it  combined  with  the  Northwest 
Company  in  1821,  and  obtained  a  more  extensive  charter.  It  was  ever  the 
most  formidable  rival  of  the  United  States  as  a  claimant  of  the  northwest 
regions.  Despite  the  treaty  of  1783,  which  granted  that  territory  to  the 
United  States,  the  company  persisted  in  making  settlements,  and,  being  on 
the  disputed  ground,  it  had  the  advantage  of  our  Government.  Every  pos- 
sible means  was  employed,  and  for  a  long  time  successfully,  to  prevent 
immigration  from  the  States.  The  Selkirk  settlement  in  Oregon  was  made  in 
1811-12,  and  later  it  was  decided  to  seize  and  hold  Oregon  by  force,  turning 
over  the  Indians  to  the  Jesuits  and  furnishing  troops  to  protect  the  priests 
and  repel  intruders.  The  boundary  settlement  of  1846  finally  excluded  the 
company. 


3i 8  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Huger,  Isaac  (1742-1797),  was  appointed  lieutenant-colonel  of  the  first 
South  Carolina  regiment  in  the  Revolution.  He  was  commissioned  briga- 
dier-general in  the  U.  S.  army  in  1779,  and  engaged  in  all  the  important 
battles  of  the  Southern  army.  He  fought  at  Stono,  Savannah,  Charleston, 
Guilford  Court  House  and  Hobkirk's  Hill. 

Hughes,  John  (1797-1864),  prelate,  born  in  Ireland,  came  to  America  in 
1817.  He  was  ordained  a  priest  in  1826.  He  was  made  Bishop  of  New 
York  in  1842.  He  is  the  founder  of  St.  John's  College.  In  1850  he  was 
made  Archbishop  of  New  York.  He  was  prominent  in  the  Catholic  contro- 
versies regarding  the  public-school  system  of  New  York  and  the  tenure  of 
church  property. 

Huguenots.  The  first  Huguenots  to  settle  in  this  country  were  a  small 
band  who  had  been  induced  to  emigrate  under  the  charter  of  the  Carolinas 
granted  to  Sir  Robert  Heath  in  1630.  Upon  reaching  Virginia  means  of 
transportation  failed,  so  they  remained  in  that  colony.  The  revocation  of 
the  Edict  of  Nantes  in  1685  drove  multitudes  from  France.  Other  parties 
came  to  Virginia  about  1700  under  Claude  Philippe  de  Richebourg.  In 
Massachusetts  they  made  a  settlement  at  Oxford  in  1686,  but  were  massacred 
and  driven  away  by  the  Indians.  By  1737,  they  had  become  an  important 
element  in  South  Carolina,  where  they  founded  at  Charleston  the  "  South 
Carolina  Society,"  a  benevolent  organization.  They  also  made  early  settle- 
ments in  the  Middle  States,  notably  in  New  York.  Jay,  Revere  and  L,au- 
rens  were  of  this  stock. 

Hull,  Isaac  (1773-1843),  born  in  Connecticut,  entered  the  merchant  ma- 
rine in  1784.  In  1798,  he  was  commissioned  a  lieutenant  in  the  American 
navy.  He  commanded  the  "  Argus  "  in  1804,  and  engaged  in  the  Barbary 
Wars.  In  1806,  he  was  commissioned  captain,  and  in  1807  assigned  to  the 
command  of  the  "  Constitution."  He  was  highly  honored  for  successfully 
evading  an  attack  of  a  superior  British  force  in  1812.  Soon  afterward  he 
captured  the  British  ship  "  Guerriere  "  with  a  loss  of  fourteen  men  killed  and 
wounded,  while  the  enemy  lost  seventy-nine.  This  was  the  first  and  most 
famous  naval  victory  during  the  war.  He  afterward  commanded  the 
Pacific  and  Mediterranean  squadrons,  and  served  on  the  Board  of  Naval 
Commissioners. 

Hull,  William  (1753-1825),  was  chosen  captain  in  a  Connecticut  regiment 
in  1775.  He  fought  at  White  Plains,  Trenton,  Princeton,  Saratoga,  Fort 
Stanwix  and  Stony  Point.  He  attained  the  rank  of  major.  From  1805  to 
1812  he  was  Governor  of  Michigan.  In  1812  he  was  placed  in  command  of 
the  Army  of  the  Northwest,  with  headquarters  at  Detroit.  He  regarded 
himself  as  compelled  by  superior  forces  and  by  lack  of  proper  facilities  to 
surrender  Detroit  to  the  British.  He  was  tried  by  court-martial  and  sentenced 
to  death,  but  was  reprieved  by  Madison. 

Humphreys,  Andrew  A.  (1810-1883),  was  assigned  to  the  corps  of  topo- 
graphical engineers  in  1838  and  engaged  in  the  coast  survey.  He  served  on 
the  staff  of  General  McClellan  in  1862.  He  commanded  a  division  at  Fred- 
ericksburg  and  Chancellorsville  and  a  corps  at  Gettysburg.  In  1863  he 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  319 

became  chief  of  staff  to  General  Meade.     He  was  chief  of  engineers  from 
1866  to  1879,  when  he  retired. 

Hundred,  a  territorial  and  political  division  of  a  county,  borrowed  from 
England,  and  instituted  in  some  of  the  colonies,  notably  in  Maryland  and 
Virginia.  It  was  also  to  be  found  in  Maine  and  Delaware,  and  was  based 
upon  the  old  Hundred  system  of  the  English  counties.  In  Virginia  the 
"  Hundred  "  was  in  some  instances  synonymous  with  the  parish  or  the  plan- 
tation, and  again  it  was  subdivided  into  parishes.  The  chief  officer  of  the 
Hundred  was  usually  the  constable. 

Hunkers.  A  name  applied  originally  to  conservative  Democrats  in  New 
York,  but  also  used  in  other  States.  Though  the  name  was  not  in  use  until 
1844  the  faction  to  which  it  applied  existed  as  early  as  1835.  The 
Hunkers,  in  New  York,  opposed  the  "  loco-foco  "  faction,  the  barn-burners 
and  radicals;  and  finally  divided  into  the  "  hards  "  and  the  "  softs."  They 
represented  the  inertia  of  the  State  Democratic  party.  From  1835  to  1840 
they  opposed  the  loco-foco  war  on  bank  charters.  Later  they  opposed  a 
revision  of  the  Constitution  and  the  radicals,  and  were  disinclined  to  oppose 
slavery.  The  faction  ceased  to  exist  about  1860. 

Hunt,  Henry  J.  (1819-1889),  was  prominent  during  the  Mexican  War. 
He  served  on  McClellan's  staff  in  1861,  and  was  chief  of  artillery  in  the 
Army  of  the  Potomac  from  1862  to  1865,  engaging  in  all  its  battles. 

Hunt,  Thomas  Sterry  (1826-1892),  scientist,  made  valuable  original  con- 
tributions to  the  advancement  of  chemical  and  geological  science.  He 
invented  the  ink  with  which  "greenbacks"  were  printed. 

Hunt,  Ward  (1810-1886),  was  a  New  York  Congressman  in  1839.  In 
1865  he  became  a  Judge  of  the  New  York  Court  of  Appeals,  and  from  1872 
to  1882  was  an  Associate  Justice  of  the  U.  S.  Supreme  Court. 

Hunt,  William  H.  (1824-1884),  of  Louisiana,  was  appointed  Judge  of  the 
U.  S.  Court  of  Claims  in  1878.  He  was  Secretary  of  the  Navy  in  Garfield's 
Cabinet  from  1881  to  1882,  when  he  was  appointed  Minister  to  Russia. 

Hunter,  David  (1802-1886),  commanded  the  main  column  of  McDowell's 
army  in  the  Manassas  campaign  in  1861  and  commanded  a  division  at  Bull 
Run.  He  succeeded  General  Fremont  in  command  of  the  Western  Depart- 
ment. He  commanded  the  Department  of  Kansas  from  1861  to  1862,  when 
he  was  transferred  to  the  Southern  Department.  He  organized  the  first  regi- 
ment of  colored  troops.  In  1864  he  commanded  the  Department  of  West 
Virginia.  He  was  president  of  the  commission  which  tried  the  assassins  of 
President  Lincoln.  He  was  brevetted  major-general  in  1865  an&  retired  from 
service  in  1866. 

Hunter,  Joseph  (1783-1861),  was  assistant  keeper  of  the  public  records  in 
London  from  1833  till  his  death.  He  made  valuable  researches  and  dis- 
coveries in  relation  to  the  early  settlements  in  New  England.  He  secured 
for  the  Massachusetts  Historical  Society  a  transcript  of  the  "  History  of  the 
Plymouth  Plantation."  by  Governor  Bradford,  from  the  original  in  the 
Fulham  Library. 


320  DICTIONARY  OF  UWITKD  STATES  HISTORY. 

Hunter,  Robert  M.  T.  (1809-1887),  served  in  the  Virginia  Legislature  in 
1833.  He  represented  Virginia  in  the  Congress  of  the  United  States  as  a 
Whig  from  1837  to  1843  an^  ^rom  J^45  to  J847>  and  was  Speaker  from 
1839  to  1841.  He  was  a  U.  S.  Senator  from  1847  to  1861,  and  ardently 
advocated  all  pro-slavery  legislation.  He  was  a  member  of  the  provisional 
Congress  at  Richmond  in  1861.  From  1861  to  1862  he  was  Secretary  of 
State  in  the  Confederate  Government  From  1862  to  1865  he  served  in  the 
Confederate  Senate  in  opposition  to  the  administration  of  Mr.  Davis.  He 
was  one  of  the  peace  commissioners  to  confer  with  President  Lincoln  in 
1865.  He  was  treasurer  of  Virginia  from  1877  to  1880. 

Huntington,  Frederick  D.,  born  in  1826,  was  chosen  Protestant  Episcopal 
Bishop  of  Central  New  York  in  1869.  He  has  been  a  frequent  contributor 
to  periodicals,  and  has  published  "  Lectures  on  Human  Society "  and 
sermons. 

Huntington,  Samuel  (1732-1796),  of  Connecticut,  signed  the  Declaration 
of  Independence  in  1776,  was  President  of  the  Continental  Congress  from 
1779  to  1781,  and  Governor  of  Connecticut  from  1786  to  1796. 

Hunton,  Eppa,  born  in  1823,  was  commonwealth  attorney  in  Virginia 
from  1849  to  1862.  He  was  made  a  brigadier-general  in  the  Confederate 
service.  While  a  U.  S.  Congressman  from  1873  to  1881  he  served  on  the 
Electoral  Commission  as  a  Democrat. 

Hurd,  Frank  H.,  born  in  1841,  was  a  member  of  the  Ohio  Senate  in  1866. 
He  was  elected  to  the  U.  S.  Congress  as  a  Democrat  in  1874,  1878  and  1882. 
He  is  an  ardent  and  able  advocate  of  free  trade.  Died  1896. 

Hurlburt,  Stephen  A.  (1815-1882),  served  in  the  National  army  during 
the  Civil  War.  He  was  Minister  to  Colombia  from  1869  to  1872.  He 
represented  Illinois  in  the  U.  S.  Congress  as  a  Republican  from  1873  to 
1877. 

Hurons,  a  tribe  of  Indians  formerly  occupying  territory  near  Lake  Huron. 
Among  them  the  French  began  the  famous  Huron  mission  in  1632.  They 
allied  themselves  with  the  Algonquins  against  the  Iroquois,  which  latter 
nation  destroyed  several  of  their  villages,  finally  dispersing  them  in  1649. 
Many  found  their  way  to  Canada. 

Hutchinson,  Anne  (Marbury)  (1600  7-1643),  came  to  America  from  Eng- 
land in  1634.  She  was  expelled  from  the  Massachusetts  colony  for  preach- 
ing Antinomian  doctrines  and  accusing  the  authorities  of  being  under  a 
"  covenant  of  works."  She  had  won  a  large  following.  She  founded  Ports- 
mouth, R.  I.,  on  the  island  of  Aquidneck,  which  she  purchased  from  the 
Indians.  She  was  afterward  murdered  by  the  Indians  near  Manhattan, 
where  she  settled. 

Hutchinson,  Thomas  (1711—1780),  Governor,  was  a  member  of  the  Gen- 
eral Court  of  Massachusetts  from  1737  to  1739,  1740,  and  1741  to  1749.  He 
was  Speaker  from  1746  to  1748.  He  restored  a  healthy  condition  of  trade 
by  redeeming  the  depreciated  paper  currency.  In  1754  he  was  one  of  the 
commissioners  at  the  Albany  Convention,  and  aided  in  drafting  a  plan  of 
colonial  union.  He  was  appointed  Lieutenant-Goveraor  of  Massachusetts 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  321 

in  1756.  In  1760  he  was  appointed  Chief  Justice.  In  1765  his  house  was 
sacked  by  a  mob  infuriated  by  the  notion  that  he  was  a  party  to  the  obnox- 
ious stamp  acts,  and  his  valuable  library  of  historical  pamphlets  and  docu- 
ments was  destroyed.  In  1770  he  was  appointed  Governor  of  the  province. 
The  report  was  circulated  that  he  was  largely  responsible  for  the  oppressive 
acts  of  the  ministry,  and  this  was  intensified  by  Dr.  Franklin's  publication 
of  some  of  Hutchinson's  letters  to  England  which  had  fallen  into  his  hands. 
In  1774  he  sailed  to  England,  where  he  spent  the  remainder  of  his  life.  He 
was  a  conscientious  and  high-minded  Tory.  He  wrote  a  valuable  history  of 
Massachusetts. 

Hylton  vs.  United  States.  In  1795  Hylton,  of  Virginia,  was  presented  by 
the  District  Attorney  before  the  Circuit  Court  for  refusing  to  pay  duty  upon 
certain  carriages,  which,  he  averred,  were  kept  for  his  own  private  use.  The 
decree  was  against  the  defendant,  and  the  case  was  transferred  to  the 
Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States.  The  argument  turned  entirely  upon 
the  question  of  the  tax  being  direct  or  indirect.  The  court  decided  it  to  be 
indirect  since  it  must  be  incapable  of  apportionment  and  could  not  be  uni- 
form. Accordingly  judgment  was  affirmed  for  the  defendant. 


I. 

Iberville,  Pierre  le  Moyne  d'  (1661-1706),  engaged  in  the  Canadian 
expedition  against  the  English  forts  on  the  Hudson,  fought  at  Fort  Mo'usipi 
and  Fort  Quitchilchouen,  and  in  1688  captured  two  English  vessels.  In 
1690  he  was  one  of  the  leaders  against  Schenectady.  In  1694  he  took  Fort 
Nelson,  and,  in  command  of  a  frigate,  captured  three  English  ships,  includ- 
ing the  "  Newport."  He  destroyed  Fort  Pemaquid,  and  reduced  nearly  all 
Newfoundland.  In  command  of  the  "  Pelican,"  in  1697,  he  destroyed 
several  British  ships,  and  captured  Fort  Bourbon.  In  1698  he  ascended  the 
Mississippi  and  built  Fort  Biloxi,  the  first  port  on  the  river.  In  1701  he 
transferred  the  colony  to  Mobile.  In  1706  he  captured  Nevis  Island. 

Icaria,  a  communistic  settlement  founded  in  1856,  in  Iowa,  by  the  followers 
of  the  Frenchman,  Ejtienne  Cabet.  The  latter,  in  1848,  had  persuaded  a 
number  of  persons  to  settle  with  him  in  the  Red  River  country  of  Texas. 
This  colony  failed  because  of  Cabet's  extravagant  ideas.  In  1850  the  colony 
moved  to  Nauvoo  in  Illinois,  a  deserted  village  of  the  Mormons.  Thence 
they  moved  again  in  1856  (Cabet  dying  that  same  year  at  New  Orleans),  to 
their  present  settlement  near  Corning,  Iowa,  calling  it  the  Icaria  Commune, 
in  reminiscence  of  Cabet's  book,  "  Icarie."  Most  of  the  people,  less  than  100 
in  all,  are  French,  though  there  are  a  few  Germans. 

Idaho,  a  State,  was  formed  from  the  Louisiana  cession.  It  was  organized 
as  a  part  of  Oregon  for  a  time,  and  later  was  joined  to  Washington.  It  was 

fiven  a  territorial  government  of  its  own  in   1863,  and  was  admitted  as  a 
tate  July  3,  1890.     The  population  in  1890  was  84,385.     Suffrage  is  denied 
to  Mormons.      The  Republicans    control  the   State.      In   1892   the  Coeur 


322  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

d'Ale~ne  riots,  caused  by  a  strike  of  the  miners,  were  suppressed  by  U.  S. 
troops.     History  by  Bancroft. 

Illinois,  a  State  of  the  American  Republic,  was  formed  from  the  North- 
west Territory,  which  was  organized  in  1787.  The  State  was  originally  a 
possession  of  France,  who  surrendered  her  claims  to  England  in  1763.  The 
first  settlement  was  a  mission  at  Kaskaskia,  founded  by  Marquette  in  1675. 
In  1679  La  Salle  built  Fort  Crevecceur,  and  in  1682  established  a  colony  at 
Cahokia,  and  in  1700  Kaskaskia  was  founded.  George  Rogers  Clark,  with 
a  Virginia  force,  seized  Cahokia  and  Kaskaskia  in  1778,  and  Illinois  was 
made  a  county  of  Virginia.  March  i,  1784,  Virginia  surrendered  her  claim 
over  Illinois  to  the  United  States.  In  1809  it  was  erected  into  a  territory 
comprising  the  present  States  of  Illinois,  Wisconsin  and  part  of  Michigan. 
December  3,  1818,  Illinois  with  its  present  boundaries  became  a  State. 
The  Black  Hawk  War  broke  out  in  1832.  Rev.  Elijah  P.  Lovejoy  was 
murdered  by  a  mob  at  Alton  because  of  his  attempt  to  publish  an  anti- 
slavery  newspaper  in  1837.  From  1840  to  1844  the  Mormons  caused  excite- 
ment which  led  to  the  death  at  the  hands  of  a  mob  of  two  of  their  leaders 
and  the  emigration  of  the  sect  from  the  State.  The  southern  part  of  the 
State  has  usually  been  Democratic,  the  northern  part  Anti-Democratic. 
Down  to  1860  the  vote  of  Illinois  was  invariably  Democratic  in  Presidential 
elections.  Including  and  since  that  time  it  has  been  Republican  until  1892, 
when  it  was  Democratic.  In  1858  Lincoln  and  Douglas  canvassed  the  State 
together  for  election  to  the  U.  S.  Senate.  Douglas  won.  In  1877  David 
Davis,  an  Independent,  was  elected  to  the  Senate  by  Democrals  and  Inde- 
pendents. The  present  Constitution  was  made  in  1870.  The  population 
of  Illinois  in  1818  was  34,620,  in  1890  it  was  3,826,351.  History  by 
Ford. 

"  Illinois  Intelligencer,"  the  first  newspaper  published  in  Illinois.  It  was 
established  in  1815,  at  Kaskaskia,  by  Mathew  Duncan,  and  was  removed  to 
Fayette  County  in  1820.  It  was  afterward  called  the  Vandalia  Whig  and 
Illinois  Intelligencer  and  was  suspended  in  1839. 

Impeachments.  There  have  been  seven  impeachments  made  by  the  Con- 
gress of  the  United  States.  During  the  session  of  1797-98,  William  Blount, 
U.  S.  Senator  from  Tennessee,  was  impeached  by  the  House  and  tried  by 
the  Senate  for  treasonable  negotiations  with  Great  Britain  for  the  transfer  of 
New  Orleans.  He  was  acquitted  for  want  of  jurisdiction.  March  3,  1803, 
Judge  John  *  Pickering,  of  the  Federal  Court  of  New  Hampshire,  was 
impeached  and  removed  from  the  bench  for  drunkenness  and  profanity. 
November  30,  1804,  Judge  Samuel  Chase,  of  the  U.  S.  Supreme  Court,  was 
impeached  for  arbitrary  conduct  and  the  introduction  of  political  disquisitions 
in  his  charges  to  grand  juries.  He  was  not  removed.  December  13,  1804, 
Judge  James  Peck,  of  the  Federal  Court  of  Missouri,  was  impeached  for 
punishing  as  contempt  of  court  a  criticism  of  his  opinions.  He  was  acquitted. 
December  29,  1860,  Judge  West  H.  Humphreys,  of  the  Federal  District 
Court  of  Tennessee,  was  impeached  and  removed  from  the  bench  for  aiding 
the  Rebellion.  November  25,  1867, tne  House  impeached  President  Andrew 
Johnson,  charging  him  with  having  removed  Stanton,  Secretary  of  War,  in 


DICTIONARY  otf  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  323 

violation  of  the  Tenure  of  Office  Act,  with  having  appointed  General  L. 
Thomas  contrary  to  the  same  act,  with  conspiracy  with  Thomas  and  others 
for  the  intimidation  of  Stanton  and  the  unlawful  disbursement  of  the  War 
Department's  moneys,  and  with  inducing  General  Emory,  commanding  the 
Department  of  Washington,  to  disobey  orders.  'The  House  adopted  the 
resolution  of  impeachment  by  a  vote  of  126  to  42.  After  the  trial  before 
the  Senate,  the  vote  stood  35  to  19.  The  necessary  two-thirds  were  not 
secured.  But  the  Senate  adjourned  sine  die,  without  voting  upon  some  of 
the  articles  of  charge.  Hence  the  Chief  Justice  entered  a  verdict  of  acquittal 
on  the  record.  March  2,  1876,  William  W.  Belknap,  Secretary  of  War,  was 
impeached  on  the  charge  of  bribery  for  appointments.  He  was  acquitted. 

"  Impending  Crisis,"  a  book  by  H.  R.  Helper,  of  North  Carolina, 
appearing  in  1857.  It  earnestly  opposed  slavery  on  economical  grounds. 
The  book  was  used  as  a  campaign  document  by  the  Republican  party  in 
1860,  and  140,000  copies  were  sold  between  1857  and  1861.  Helper  purported 
to  represent  the  sentiments  of  Southern  non-slaveholding  whites. 

Imports.  The  specie  value  of  the  imports  from  foreign  countries  in  1791 
was  $29,200,000.  In  1807,  just  before  the  embargo,  it  was  $138,500,000. 
By  1814  it  had  sunk  to  only  $13,000,000,  but  rose  to  $147,000^000  in  1816. 
Reduced  by  the  tariff  act  of  that  year,  it  again  rose  to  $190,000,000  in  1836, 
just  before  the  crash  of  1837.  In  1857  ^  was  $361,000,000;  in  1867,  $418,- 
000,000;  in  1877,  $492,000,000;  in  1887,  $752,000,000;  in  1892,  $897,000,000. 

Impost  Amendment.     (See  Revenue  Scheme.) 

Impressment.  For  many  years  prior  to  the  breaking  out  of  the  War  of 
1812  the  British  Government  claimed  the  right  of  stopping  and  searching 
American  vessels,  and  impressing  into  the  British  service  British  seamen  who 
happened  to  be  serving  under  the  American  flag.  Great  Britain  refused  to 
allow  the  right  of  expatriation  and  change  of  allegiance  by  naturalization. 
She  was  then  engaged  in  war  with  France  and  accordingly  claimed  the 
services  of  all  her  maritime  citizens,  no  matter  what  ceremonies  of  natural- 
ization they  might  have  undergone  abroad.  Hence  many  American  sailors 
were  wilfully  impressed.  This  grievance  aided  in  a  large  measure  in  bringing 
about  the  embargo  system  and  the  War  of  1812. 

Income  Tax.  But  one  income  tax  has  been  imposed  by  the  Federal 
Government,  and  it  arose  from  the  necessities  of  the  Government  incident 
to  the  Rebellion.  August  5,  1861,  Congress  authorized  a  tax  of  three  per 
cent  on  all  incomes  over  $800  per  annum.  In  July,  1862,  an  act  was  passed 
taxing  all  incomes  under  $5000  five  per  cent,  with  an  exemption  of  $600 
and  house-rent  actually  paid.  Incomes  in  excess  of  $5000  and  under  $10,000 
were  taxed  two  and  one-half  per  cent  additional,  and  incomes  over  $10,000 
five  per  cent  additional  with  no  exemptions.  Further  taxes  of  five  per  cent 
on  incomes  of  Americans  living  abroad  and  of  one  and  one-half  per  cent  on 
incomes  from  United  States  securities  were  laid,  these  expiring  in  1865.  In 
1864  a  special  tax  of  five  per  cent  was  imposed  on  incomes  above  $600.  A 
readjustment  the  same  year  imposed  a  five  per  cent  tax  on  incomes  between 
$600  and  $5000;  ten  per  cent  on  incomes  above  $5000. 


324  •  DICTIONARY  OF  UxiTBD  STATES   HlSTORY. 

Independence  Hall,  Philadelphia,  scene  of  the  Declaration  of  Indepen- 
dence, July  4,  1776.  The  hall  was  begun  in  1732  and  completed  in  1741. 
J.  Kearsely  was  the  architect,  and  E.  Wooley  the  builder.  It  was  first 
occupied  as  the  Pennsylvania  State  House  in  October,  1735.  The  tower  was 
built  in  17-50.  The  Constitutional  Convention  of  "1787  also  met  here.  • 

Independent  Treasury.  Until  1840  the  United  States  Government  had 
never  ventured  to  assume  entire  control  of  its  own  funds,  depending  in  a 
great  measure  upon  the  two  successive  banks  of  the  United  States,  and 
various  State  banks  selected  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  for  deposit- 
ories. The  creation  of  an  independent  or  sub-treasury  system  was  an  out- 
come of  the  pante  of  1837.  President  Van  Buren's  message  to  Congress 
that  year  strongly  recommended  such  a  system.  Silas  Wright,  of  New  York, 
submitted  a  sub-treasury  bill,  which  prohibited  Government  agents  from 
receiving  anything  but  gold  and  silver.  Finally,  in  1840,  the  bill  became  a 
law,  and  sub-treasuries  were  created  at  New  York,  Boston,  Charleston  and 
St.  Louis,  the  mint  at  Philadelphia  and  the  branch  mint  at  New  Orleans 
being  also  made  places  of  deposit.  The  Whigs  and  some  Democrats  were 
violently  opposed  to  this  system,  and  effected  its  repeal  in  1841  in  favor  of 
the  national  banking  system.  It  again  became  a  law  in  1846  under  Polk, 
and  has  continued  since. 

Independents,  the  name  given  in  England  to  those  who  favored  that  form 
of  church  government  which  in  America  is  called  Congregational;  so  called 
from  the  independence  of  one  church  from  all  others,  which  prevails  under 
their  system.  The  English  Independents  of  the  Commonwealth  period 
were  in  close  relations  with  the  Puritan  colonists  of  New  England. 

Independents,  in  recent  politics,  men  independent  of  both  the  Republican 
and  the  Democratic  parties;  more  especially  applied  in  1884  to  those  Repub- 
licans who  "  bolted  "  the  nomination  of  Elaine. 

Indian  Affairs,  Commissioner  of.  In  1832  Congress  authorized  the  Presi- 
dent to  appoint  a  commissioner  who,  under  the  direction  of  the  Secretary 
of  War,  should  have  general  superintendence  of  all  Indian  affairs.  These 
affairs  had  formerly  been  managed  by  War  Department  clerks.  Since  1849 
this  commissioner  has  been  under  the  direction  of  the  Secretary  of  the 
Interior. 

Indian  Bible.  In  1661  John  Eliot,  an  English  missionary  among  the 
Massachusetts  Indians,  published  through  the  Cambridge  press  the  first 
edition  of  the  New  Testament,  which  he  had  translated  into  the  Indian 
dialect.  The  whole  Bible  appeared  three  years  later,  and  second  editions  of 
both  were  published,  the  former  in  1680,  the  latter  in  1685.  Eliot  was 
assisted  in  the  publication  of  the  second  edition  by  John  Cotton,  of  Ply- 
mouth, son  of  the  Boston  minister.  Eliot  drew  from  the  Scriptures  a  frame 
of  government  for  the  commonwealth  and  for  the  Indians,  but  these  were 
suppressed  as  reflecting  on  the  kingly  government.  Eliot's  "  Indian  Bible  " 
is  now  one  of  the  most  valued  of  rarities. 

Indian  Territory  is  a  portion  of  the  public  land  of  the  United  States 
which  has  been  set  apart  for  various  tribes  of  Indians  who  have  been  moved 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  325 

thither  from  various  portions  of  the  United  States.  Jefferson  first  suggested 
such  a  territory,  and  on  June  30,  1834,  an  Act  of  Congress  set  apart  for  the 
use  of  the  Indians  all  the  country  west  of  the  Mississippi  which  was  not 
included  within  Missouri,  Louisiana  and  Arkansas.  This  has  been  diminished 
by  the  organization  of  various  States  and  Territories,  so  that  at  present 
(1894)  the  area  is  only  about  25,000  square  miles. .  The  principal  tribes  are 
the  Cherokees,  Choctaws,  Creeks  and  Chickasaws.  During  the  Civil  War 
many  of  the  tribes  made  treaties  with  the  Confederate  States.  In  1870,  an 
attempt  was  made  to  organize  a  State.  In  1866,  the  Indians  agreed  to 
grant  the  right  of  way  through  their  land  to  railroads.  Agents  of  the 
United  States  live  among  the  Indians  and  protect  them  from  encroachments 
from  the  whites.  The  United  States  has  jurisdiction  over  all  cases  in  which 
a  white  man  is  a  party.  Sale  of  intoxicating  liquors  is  prohibited.  In 
1881-82  attempts  were  made  by  "  boomers"  from  Kansas  to  force  their  way 
into  the  Territory.  An  Act  of  Congress  of  May  2,  1890,  erected  the  unoc- 
cupied portion  of  the  Territory  into  a  separate  Territory  to  be  called  Okla- 
homa. The  population  of  the  Territory  is  about  75,000. 

Indiana,  a  State  of  the  Union,  often  called  the  Hoosier  State,  was  formed 
from  the  Northwest  Territory.  The  first  settlement  was  made  at  Vincennes 
in  1702,  by  the  French.  This  place  was  captured  by  Clark  during  the 
American  Revolution.  After  the  erection  of  Ohio  as  a  separate  Territory, 
the  Northwest  was  called  Indiana,  with  Vincennes  its  capital.  In  1805  and 
1809,  the  Territories  of  Michigan  and  Illinois  were  organized  as  separate 
Territories.  November  7,  1811,  General  Harrison  defeated  the  Indians  at 
Tippecanoe.  December  n,  1816,  Indiana  became  a  State.  Slavery  was 
forbidden  by  the  Ordinance  of  1787,  by  which  the  Northwest  was  organ- 
ized. Except  in  1836  and  1840,  the  electoral  votes  were  cast  for  Democratic 
candidates  until  1860,  when  Lincoln  carried  the  State,  since  which  date  the 
Republicans  have  failed  in  but  one  Presidential  election,  that  of  1876,  until 
1884.  The  Democrats  have  carried  the  State  in  the  elections  of  1874,  1876, 
1878,  1882,  1884,  1890,  1892.  The  present  Constitution  was  made  in  1851. 
The  population  of  the  State  in  1816  was  63,805;  in  1890  it  was  2,192,404. 
History  by  Dunn. 

Indiana,  Historical  Society  of,  founded  in  1831.  Its  publications  have 
been  few. 

"  Indiana  Gazette,"  first  newspaper  of  Indiana,  published  in  1804  at  Vin- 
cennes, Knox  County,  by  Elihu  Stout.  Its  office  was  burned  in  1806. 

Indianapolis,  Ind.,  settled  in  1819.  It  became  the  capital  of  the  State  in 
1828,  and  received  a  city  charter  in  1847. 

Indians.  The  Indians  were  so  called  from  the  original  supposition  made 
that  their  land  was  India.  When  Englishmen  came  to  this  country  there 
were  probably  about  as  many  Indians  in  it  as  now, — from  two  hundred  to 
three  hundred  thousand.  They  were  divided  into  tribes.  In  the  Northern 
part  of  the  United  States  these  tribes  were  either  of  the  Algonquin  or  of  the 
Iroquois  race;  in  the  South,  either  of  that  which  is  called  Mobilian  or  of  the 
Natchez.  Their  tribal  government  was  loose  and  weak.  They  had  chief- 
tains, but  these  had  little  real  power.  Confederacies  of  tribes  were  sometimes 


326  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

formed,  but  did  not  usually  last  beyond  a  single  war.  The  Indian  was 
in  general  in  the  hunting  and  fishing  stage  of  civilization.  His  relations 
with  the  settlers  were  more  frequently  hostile  than  friendly,  which  caused 
settlement  to  be  more  compact  than  in  Spanish-American  regions,  where 
the  aborigines  were  less  warlike.  There  was  also  much  trade  with  the 
Indian,  especially  in  furs.  Likewise  there  was  some  effort  to  convert  the 
Indians  to  Christianity,  though  these  efforts  on  the  part  of  the  English  and 
Protestant  colonies  were  lamentably  small  when  compared  with  the  work  of 
the  French  Jesuits.  (See  Praying  Indians.)  On  their  part  the  Indians 
learned  something  of  civilization,  especially  in  the  articles  of  fire-arms  and 
fire-water.  For  individual  wars  and  tribes,  see  articles  under  their  names. 

Ingalls,  John  J.,  born  in  1833,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1857.  He  was 
a  member  of  the  Wyandotte  Constitutional  Convention  in  1859.  He  was 
Secretary  of  the  Kansas  Council  in  1860,  Secretary  of  the  State  Senate  in 
1861  and  a  member  in  1862.  He  served  in  the  U.  S.  Senate  as  a  Republican 
from  1873  to  1891.  He  was  an  able  debater. 

Ingersoll,  Charles  J.  (1782-1862),  represented  Pennsylvania  in  the  U.  S. 
Congress  as  a  Democrat  from  1813  to  1815  and  from  1841  to  1847.  He  was 
District  Attorney  from  1815  to  1829.  He  wrote  a  history  of  the  War  of  1812. 

Ingersoll,  Jared  (1749-1822),  was  a  delegate  from  Pennsylvania  to  the 
Continental  Congress  from  1780  to  1781.  He  was  a  member  of  the  conven- 
tion which  framed  the  Federal  Constitution  in  1787.  He  was  twice  chosen 
Attorney -General  of  Pennsylvania  and  was  U.  S.  District  Attorney  for  Eastern 
Pennsylvania.  .He  was  defeated  as  Federal  candidate  for  Vice-President  of 
the  United  States  in  1812. 

Ingersoll,  Joseph  R.  (1786-1868),  was  a  Whig  Representative  to  Congress 
from  Pennsylvania  from  1835  to  1837  and  from  1843  to  1849.  He  was  Min- 
ister to  England  from  1852  to  1857. 

Ingersoll,  Ralph  I.  (1788-1872),  was  a  prominent  member  of  the  Con- 
necticut Legislature  from  1819  to  1825,  a  Democratic  Representative  to  Con- 
gress from  1825  to  I^33)  an<^  Minister  to  Russia  from  1846  to  1848. 

Ingersoll,  Robert  G.,  was  born  in  1833.  He  served  in  the  Civil  War  as  a 
colonel.  In  1866  he  was  appointed  Attorney-General  of  Illinois.  He  was 
counsel  for  the  defence  for  the  "  Star  route  "  conspirators,  who  were  acquitted 
in  1883.  He  is  a  popular  Republican  campaign  orator.  He  is  well  known 
for  his  attacks  upon  the  Christian  religion.  Died  1899. 

Ingham,  Samuel  D.  (1779-1860),  represented  Pennsylvania  in  the  U.  S. 
Congress  as  a  Democrat  from  1813  to  1818,  and  from  1822  to  1829.  He  was 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury  from  1829  t°  I^3I  in  Jackson's  Cabinet. 

Ingle,  Richard,  born  early  in  the  seventeenth  century,  usurped  the  govern- 
ment of  Maryland  in  1645,  in  revenge  for  the  seizure  of  his  ship  by  the 
royalist  Governor  in  1642. 

Ingraharn,  Duncan  N.  (1802-1891),  entered  the  U.  S.  navy  in  1812. 
While  commander  of  the  "St.  Louis"  in  the  Mediterranean,  in  1853,  he 
secured  the  liberation  of  Martin  Koszta,  a  prospective  American  citizen,  who 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  327 

had  been  seized  by  Greeks  at  Smyrna  at  the  instigation  of  Austrian  officials. 
In  1 86 1  he  was  appointed  chief  of  ordnance,  construction  and  repair  in  the 
Confederate  navy. 

Inman,  Henry  (1801-1846),  of  New  York,  achieved  his  greatest  success 
as  an  American  artist  in  portrait  painting.  Among  his  portraits  are  those 
of  William  Wirt,  De  Witt  Clinton,  Halleck,  Van  Buren,  Seward  and 
William  Penn. 

Interior  Department,  created  by  law  in  1849,  and  called  in  the  title  of 
the  act  the  Home  Department.  Its  functions  were  formerly  distributed 
among  the  departments  of  State,  Treasury,  War  and  Navy.  These  func- 
tions are  the  regulation  of  patents,  copyrights,  the  census,  public  docu- 
ments, public  lands,  mines,  mining,  judicial  accounts,  Indian  affairs,  bureau 
of  education,  etc. 

Internal  Improvements,  at  Federal  Expense.  The  Constitution  did  not 
provide  for  internal  improvements,  hence  they  have  become  a  party  ques- 
tion. Since  1789  money  has  been  steadily  appropriated  by  Congress  for 
improvements  lying  strictly  within  Federal  jurisdiction,  as  for  light-houses, 
buoys,  beacons  and  public  piers.  The  first  actual  appropriation  for  other 
internal  improvement  was  in  1806,  when  a  sum  was  appropriated  for  the 
construction  of  the  Cumberland  Road,  which  should  penetrate  the  Western 
States  and  be  the  means  of  transmitting  emigrants  and  mails  in  time  of 
peace,  and  troops  in  time  of  war.  About  the  same  time  a  road  was  begun 
through  Georgia  on  the  route  to  New  Orleans.  Congress  passed  a  resolution 
in  1818,  declaring  its  power  to  appropriate  money  for  the  construction  of 
roads  and  canals,  and  for  the  improvement  of  water-courses.  March  3, 
1823,  tne  first:  act  f°r  harbor  improvement  passed  Congress.  April  13,  1824, 
$30,000  was  appropriated  for  the  survey  of  such  roads  and  canals  as  the 
President  should  deem  of  national  importance,  and  $300,000  was  subscribed 
to  the  stock  of  the  Chesapeake  and  Delaware  Canal.  In  May,  1822,  Presi- 
dent Monroe  vetoed  the  Cumberland  Road  Bill,  declaring  that  Congress  had 
no  power  under  the  Constitution  to  carry  out  a  system  of  internal  improve- 
ments at  Federal  expense.  This,  and  Jackson's  veto  of  the  Maysville  Turn- 
pike Road  Bill  in  1830,  threw  the  matter  into  the  hands  of  the  States.  But 
see  River  and  Harbor  Acts.  N 

Internal  Revenue.  The  receipts  from  internal  revenue  steadily  rose  during 
the  period  from  1791  to  1801,  reaching  $1,000,000  in  the  latter  year.  They 
then  declined  to  almost  nothing.  In  the  War  of  1812  they  rose  again,  reach- 
ing $5,000,000  in  1816;  and  again  declined  to  nothing  in  1849  an^  tne  subse- 
quent years  to  1862.  Under  the  new  system  then  inaugurated  they  rose  to 
$309,000,000  in  1866,  and  have  been  above  $100,000,000  in  every  year  since 
($154,000,000  in  1892). 

Interstate  Commerce  Commission,  a  commission  appointed  by  Act  of 
Congress  February  4,  1887,  It  has  jurisdiction  of  rates  on  interstate  traffic, 
and  can  inquire  into  the  management  of  the  business  of  all  common  carriers 
subject  to  the  provisions  of  "  An  act  to  regulate  commerce." 

Interstate  Commerce  Law.  In  1884  Representative  I  -'agan,  of  Texas, 
submitted  a  bill  to  the  House  for  the  regulation  of  interst'  e  commerce,  and 


328  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

about  the  same  time  a  similar  bill  was  proposed  in  the  Senate.  Both  bills 
failed.  Thereafter  yearly  debates  took  place  concerning  these  and  similar 
bills,  until,  February  4, 1887,  the  Reagan  bill  was  finally  passed  and  approved. 
It  provides  for  the  appointment  of  a  commission,  consisting  of  five  persons, 
who  shall  see  to  it  that  railroad  and  other  such  companies  establish  and  pre- 
serve a  just  and  uniform  rate  of  transportation.  This  particularly  affects 
such  corporations  as  control  continuous  lines  from  one  State  to  another, 
either  by  land  or  by  water,  or  both.  The  law  has  been  very  effective  in  pre- 
venting gross  discriminations  in  charges  for  freight  and  issuing  of  passes. 

Inventions.  The  American  gift  for  invention  is  remarkable,  and  has  been 
much  stimulated  by  our  patent  system.  On  the  whole,  the  most  important 
inventions  maybe  said  to  have  been:  Whitney's  invention  of  the  cotton  gin 
in  1793;  McCormick's  reaper,  patented  in  1834;  the  steam  hammer  in  1838; 
Goodyear's  method  of  vulcanizing  rubber  (1839);  the  telegraph,  brought  into 
use  in  1844;  the  sewing  machine  (1846);  the  power  loom  (1846);  the  surgical 
use  of  anaesthetics  (1846);  the  rotary  printing  press  (1847);  tne  telephone 
about  1876  and  more  recently  the  phonograph. 

Iowa,  one  of  the  United  States,  was  formed  from  the  territory  obtained 
from  France  by  the  purchase  of  Louisiana.  Its  name,  signifying  the  beauti- 
ful country,  is  derived  from  the  river  of  the  same  name.  The  first  settle- 
ment in  the  State  was  made  by  Dubuque,  a  Frenchman  from  Canada,  in  1788, 
on  the  site  of  the  city  which  now  bears  his  name.  After  the  organization 
of  Missouri,  in  1820,  the  territory  to  the  north  was  neglected  by  Congress 
until  1834,  when  it  was  made  a  part  of  Michigan.  In  1836  it  was  added  to 
the  Wisconsin  Territory,  and  in  1838  the  Territory  of  Iowa  was  created. 
Application  for  admission  as  a  State  was  refused  by  Congress  until  Decem- 
ber 28,  1846,  when  Iowa  became  a  State.  From  1846  to  1854  the  State  was 
solidly  Democratic.  Since  1854  the  Republicans  have  controlled  the  State 
until  the  election  of  Boies  as  Governor  in  1889.  In  1882  an  amendment 
to  the  State  Constitution  prohibiting  the  manufacture  and  sale  of  intoxicating 
liquors  was  adopted  by  a  large  popular  majority,  but  was  declared  void  because 
of  informalities  in  its  passage.  The  present  Constitution  was  made  in  1857. 
The  population  of  Iowa  in  1846  was  81,920,  in  1890  it  was  1,911,896. 

Iowa,  Historical  Society  of,  founded  in  1857.  It  published  "Annals" 
from  1862  to  1875  and  from  1882  to  1884,  and  the  "  Iowa  Historical  Record  " 
since  1885. 

Iredell,  James  (1750—1799),  came  to  America  from  England  in  1767.  He 
was  a  Judge  of  the  North  Carolina  Supreme  Court  from  1777  to  1778. 
He  was  a  commissioner  to  revise  the  laws  of  the  State  from  1787  to  1791. 
He  was  a  leader  of  the  Federalists  in  the  North  Carolina  Convention  of 
1788,  and  was  appointed  a  Justice  of  the  U.  S.  Supreme  Court  in  1790. 
Life  by  McRee. 

Ireland,  John,  born  in  1827,  was  a  member  of  the  Texas  Secession  Con- 
vention of  1 86 1.  He  was  a  Judge  of  the  Texas  Supreme  Court  from  1875 
to  1882,  and  was  elected  Governor  of  the  State  in  1882  and  1884. 

Iron,  The  fii  t  iron  manufactured  in  the  United  States  was  forged  at  the 
bloomery  of  the  Virginia  Company,  on  the  James  River,  in  1622.  This 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  329 

foundry  was  burned  by  the  Indians.  The  Massachusetts  Bay  colonists 
erected  a  foundry  at  Lynn  in  1631.  John  Winthrop,  Jr.,  built  a  blast 
furnace  at  Hammersmith  in  1644,  and  works  at  Braintree  two  years  later. 
In  1702  a  successful  furnace  was  established  at  Plymouth,  pig-iron  being 
obtained  chiefly  from  Pennsylvania.  In  1732  there  were  four  furnaces  in 
successful  operation  in  Virginia  between  the  Potomac  and  Rappahannock 
Rivers.  The  iron  manufactured  there  was  exported  to  England,  but  the 
Massachusetts  trade  in  iron  was  almost  wholly  domestic.  The  Ancram 
Works,  built  in  New  York  in  1740,  to  use  Salisbury  ore,  made,  between 
1750  and  1756,  3318  tons  of  pig-iron  and  1302  tons  of  bar  iron.  It  was 
here  that  the  great  chain,  weighing  186  tons,  which  was  stretched  across  the 
Hudson  in  1778,  was  forged  in  six  weeks.  The  first  iron  works  of  Penn- 
sylvania were  established  on  the  Schuylkill  in  1717.  The  Revolution  gave 
a  great  impetus  to  the  iron  trade.  Rolling  mills  for  the  manufacture  of 
steel  rails  were  first  used  in  1840  at  the  Mount  Savage  Works  and  at  the 
Great  Western  Works.  Since  then  the  manufacture  of  iron  and  particularly 
of  steel  has  made  wonderful  progress.  The  Bessemer  steel  made  in  this 
country  is  considered  most  excellent.  The  Carnegie  system,  consisting  of  the 
enormous  works  at  Homestead,  Pa.,  and  a  number  of  minor  plants,  the 
Bethlehem  Steel  and  Iron  Company,  of  Bethlehem,  Pa.,  have  been  unusually 
successful  in  the  manufacture  of  steel  rails  and  platings,  the  latter  plant 
having  received  the  contracts  for  the  steel  plates  of  many  of  the  United  States 
war-ships.  Many  flourishing  iron  and  steel  works  are  now  in  operation  in 
most  of  the  Northern  and  Middle  States,  notably  Pennsylvania,  and  in  some 
Southern  States.  The  annual  output  is  enormous.  In  1890  the  United 
States  produced  18,000,000  tons  of  iron  ore,  9,202,703  tons  of  pig-iron  and 
4,277,071  tons  of  steel. 

"Ironsides,  Old,"  the  popular  name  for  the  frigate  "  Constitution,"  a 
name  made  additionally  famous  by  Dr.  Holmes'  poem. 

Iroquois,  or  Six  Nations,  an  Indian  confederation  occupying  Central 
New  York,  and  consisting  when  first  known,  of  the  Mohawks,  Oneidas, 
Onondagas,  Cayugas  and  Senecas.  Later  the  Tuscaroras  were  added.  In 
the  seventeenth  century  they  carried  on  extensive  hostilities  against  the 
French  and  suffered  severe  losses.  They  allied  themselves  with  the  Dutch 
and  subsequently  with  the  English,  though  they  afterward  joined  Pontiac. 
Peace  was  restored,  but  in  1774  a  part  of  the  western  bands  took  up  arms 
against  the  whites.  During  the  Revolution  the  Iroquois,  with  the  exception 
of  those  in  Canada,  favored  England.  They  fought  against  the  colonists  and 
committed  extensive  ravages.  At  the  close  of  the  war  nearly  all  emigrated 
to  Canada,  except  the  Oneidas  and  Tuscaroras,  with  whom  the  Government 
made  a  treaty  in  1784.  In  1785  and  1788,  the  Indians  began  to  cede  lands. 
In  the  War  of  1812,  the  English  and  American  Iroquois  were  arrayed 
against  each  other,  but  peace  was  soon  restored.  The  tribes  became  scattered, 
some  going  west  and  still  others  seeking  their  relatives  in  Canada. 

Irrepressible  Conflict,  an  expression  first  used  by  William  H.  Seward  in 
an  address  at  Rochester,  New  York,  October  28,  1858,  in  reference  to  the 
inevitable  clash  between  freedom  and  slavery. 


33o  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Irving,  Washington  (1783-1859),  born  in  New  York,  spent  a  large  part 
of  his  life  abroad.  In  1807,  in  copartnership  with  his  brother,  he  established 
the  Salmagundi.  In  1808  he  published  his  "  Knickerbocker  History  of 
New  York."  In  1819  appeared  the  "Sketch  Book,"  which  proved  a  great 
success.  This  was  followed  by  "  Tales  of  a  Traveler,"  "  Life  of  Columbus," 
which  is  his  best  historical  work,  "The  Conquest  of  Granada,"  and  "The 
Alhambra."  From  1829  to  1832  he  was  Secretary  of  Legation  in  London. 
He  served  as  Minister  to  Spain  from  1842  to  1846.  His  greatest  work  is  a 
"Life  of  Washington"  in  five  volumes  (1855).  He  is  one  of  the  most 
popular  of  American  authors.  His  productions  are  marked  by  ease  and 
grace  rather  than  by  originality. 

Irwinsville,  Ga.,  scene  of  the  capture,  May  n,  1865,  of  Jefferson  Davis, 
President  of  the  Confederacy,  by  Colonels  Harnden  and  Pritchard,  who  had 
been  dispatched  in  pursuit  of  the  fleeing  President  after  the  surrender  of 
Lee's  and  Johnston's  army.  There  was  no  bloodshed,  except  the  accidental 
killing  of  two  Federal  soldiers  by  their  comrades. 

Isaac  Case  (1839),  a  fugitive  slave  case,  in  which  the  Governor  of  New 
York  refused  to  arrest  three  colored  men  charged  by  the  Governor  of  Virginia 
with  abetting  a  slave's  escape.  He  maintained  that  this  was  not  a  crime  in 
New  York. 

Island  No.  10,  Mississippi  River,  had  been  fortified  by  General  Polk, 
Confederate,  and  was  commanded  by  General  Mackall  with  about  8000  troops 
of  Beauregard's  army.  It  was  bombarded  three  weeks  by  Commodore 
Foote,  commanding  seven  Federal  gunboats,  and  surrendered  April  8,  1862. 
The  evacuation  was  forced  by  Pope  with  a  large  land  force.  He,  under 
cover  of  a  vigorous  fire  from  two  gunboats,  which  had  run  past  the  island 
by  night,  brought  his  men  across  the  river  in  transports.  The  defenders 
of  the  batteries  fled,  and  were  pursued  into  the  swamps.  Nearly  7000 
prisoners  were  taken,  together  with  an  immense  quantity  of  ammunition 
and  supplies. 

Italy.  The  United  States  was  prompt  to  recognize  the  new  kingdom  of 
Italy,  and  in  1868  a  consular  convention  was  concluded,  and  another  in  1878, 
which  were  both  superseded  by  that  of  1881.  A  commercial  convention  was 
concluded  in  1871.  Extradition  conventions  were  concluded  in  1868  and 
1884.  The  murder  of  Italian  citizens  in  New  Orleans  in  1890  and  the  refusal 
of  the  U.  S.  Government  to  interfere  with  the  course  of  State  judicial  pro- 
cedure led  to  the  temporary  withdrawal  of  the  Italian  Minister,  but  though 
none  were  brought  to  justice,  diplomatic  relations  were  soon  restored. 

"  Itata."  During  the  struggle  between  the  President  and  Congress  of 
Chili,  in  1891,  the  "Itata,"  Congressional  cruiser,  put  in  at  San  Diego,  Cal., 
for  supplies  of  ammunition.  Violation  of  United  States  neutrality  was 
alleged  and  an  officer  seized  the  vessel.  The  "  Itata  "  put  him  ashore  and 
escaped.  Pursued  by  the  "Charleston"  it  surrendered.  But  a  United 
States  court  has  since  decided  that  its  arrest  was  unwarranted. 

luka,  Miss.,  an  encampment  of  several  thousand  Confederate  troops  under 
General  Price.  Grant  sent  Rosecrans  with  9000  men  to  destroy  Price's 
army  and  prevent  his  co-operation  with  Bragg.  Rosecrans,  after  some  delay, 


John   Lothrop   Motley. 
Wm.    H.   Prescott. 


AMERICAN    HISTORIANS. 

Washington  Irving. 
George  Bancroft. 
Francis  Parkman. 


John    Fiske. 
Jared   Sparks. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  331 

attacked  the  Confederates  and  a  fierce  battle  followed,  September  19-20, 
1862,  both  sides  losing  heavily.  At  night  the  Federals  lay  down  on  their 
arms,  expecting  to  renew  the  fight  next  day,  but  the  Confederates  moved 
during  the  night.  Rosecrans  pursued,  but  did  not  overtake  them. 

Iverson,  Alfred  (1798-1873),  represented  Georgia  in  the  U.  S.  Congress  as 
a  Democrat  from  1847  to  1849  and  from  1855  to  1861.  He  was  also  a 
brigadier-general  in  the  Confederate  army. 

Izard,  George  (1777-1828),  was  commissioned  major-general  in  1814  for 
services  in  the  War  of  1812.  He  was  Governor  of  Arkansas  Territory  from 
1825  to  1828. 

Izard,  Ralph  (1742-1804),  was  a  commissioner  to  Tuscany  from  1776  to 
1779,  and  resided  at  Paris.  He  pledged  his  estate  as  security  for  a  Govern- 
mental debt  during  the  Revolutionary  War.  He  represented  South  Carolina 
in  the  Continental  Congress  from  1781  to  1783.  He  was  a  U.  S.  Senator 
from  1789  to  1795.  He  was  able  and  eloquent,  but  possessed  an  uncontrol- 
lable temper. 

J. 

Jackson,  Andrew  (March  15,  1767— June  8,  1845),  seventh  President  of 
the  United  States,  was  born  on  the  border  of  North  and  South  Carolina. 
He  began  his  military  career  at  the  early  age  of  thirteen  at  the  battle  of 
Hanging  Rock;  occupations  of  a  miscellaneous  nature  followed,  and  in 
1788  he  was  public  prosecutor  in  the  western  district  of  North  Carolina, 
now  Tennessee.  He  was  in  1796-1797  the  first  Congressman  from  the  State 
of  Tennessee,  and  in  1797-1798  was  U.  S.  Senator.  From  1798  to  1804  he 
was  a  Judge  of  the  State  Supreme  Court.  His  life  as  a  planter,  not  infre- 
quently chequered  with  disputes  and  duels,  was  broken  by  the  War  of  1812. 
Jackson,  "  Old  Hickory,"  as  he  was  called,  commanded  the  Southwestern 
troops  against  the  Creeks,  whom  he  overwhelmed  at  the  Horse-Shoe  Bend 
of  the  Tallapoosa,  March  27,  1814.  He  was  made  a  major-general,  stormed 
Pensacola,  and  held  New  Orleans  against  Pakenham's  invasion.  The  sweep- 
ing victory,  January  8,  1815,  of  his  riflemen  over  the  flower  of  the  Penin- 
sular army,  made  Jackson  for  all  time  an  American  hero  of  the  country  in 
general  and  of  the  Democratic  party  in  particular.  General  Jackson's 
actions  in  Florida,  capture  of  St.  Marks  in  1818,  and  summary  execution 
of  two  British  subjects,  led  to  considerable  discussion.  He  was  appointed 
Governor  of  Florida  in  1821,  and  became  U.  S.  Senator  in  1823.  -^n  I^24 
he  received  ninety-nine  electoral  votes  for  President,  but  was  beaten  in  the 
House  of  Representatives.  (See  Adams,  J.  Q.)  Elected  in  1828  over  the 
President,  he  entered  office  in  1829,  the  first  Representative  of  the  new  West 
and  of  the  "masses."  In  his  Cabinet,  outside  of  Van  Buren, there  were  few 
names  of  note;  Jackson's  real  advisers  were  a  coterie  of  practical  politicians, 
Lewis,  Kendall  and  others  of  the  so-called  "Kitchen  Cabinet."  In  1831  he 
reorganized  his  Cabinet,  and  the  next  year  was  re-elected  over  Clay.  The 
chief  features  of  his  eight  years,  1829-1837,  were  his  vigorous  opposition  to 
nullification  and  to  the  United  States  Bank,  his  censure  by  the  Senate,  his 
introduction  of  the  "  Spoils  System,"  his  settlement  of  the  French  spoliation 


332  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

dispute,  and  his  "Specie  Circular"  of  1836.  After  his  retirement  he 
continued  to  be  regarded  as  the  leader  of  the  party,  and  died  at  the  u  Her- 
mitage," near  Nashville.  Jackson  was  of  heroic  character,  but  headstrong, 
arbitrary,  vindictive  and  subject  to  the  influence  of  politicians.  Lives  by 
Parton  and  W.  G.  Sumner. 

Jackson,  Francis  J.  (1770-1814),  known  as  "  Copenhagen  Jackson,"  suc- 
ceeded Erskine  as  Minister  Plenipotentiary  to  the  United  States,  when  the 
conflict  between  the  British  ship  "  Leopard  "  and  the  U.  S.  "  Chesapeake  " 
was  in  dispute.  He  returned  in  1811,  his  character  not  having  been  such 
as  to  promote  mutual  accommodation  of  differences. 

Jackson,  Helen  (Maria  Fiske)  Hunt  (1831-1885),  authoress,  after  the 
death  of  her  husband,  Edwin  B.  Hunt,  in  1863,  began  writing  prose  and 
poetry  for  periodicals  under  the  pen-name  of  H.  H.  In  1876  she  married 
William  S.  Jackson.  She  was  appointed  special  commissioner  to  the  Mission 
Indians  of  California  by  President  Arthur  in  1883,  as  a  consequence  of  her 
special  interest  in  them,  as  shown  by  her  writings,  e.  g.,  "  Ramona "  and 
"  A  Century  of  Dishonor." 

Jackson,  Howell  E.  (1832-1895).  He  served  in  the  Tennessee  Legisla- 
ture in  1880.  He  represented  Tennessee  in  the  U.  S.  Senate  as  a  Democrat 
from  1881  to  1886,  when  he  was  appointed  a  U.  S.  Circuit  Judge.  In  1893 
he  was  appointed  by  President  Harrison  a  Justice  of  the  Supreme  Court. 

Jackson,  Thomas  Jonathan  (1824—1863),  a  native  of  Virginia,  was  gradu- 
ated at  West  Point  in  1846,  in  time  to  see  service  in  the  Mexican  War.  He 
taught  in  the  Virginia  Military  Institute,  and  was,  like  so  many  other  West 
Pointers,  lifted  by  the  Rebellion  from  obscurity.  Having  sided  with  the 
Confederacy  he  was  intrusted  with  a  brigade,  whose  firm  stand  at  the  first 
battle  of  Bull  Run  led  to  its  commander's  epithet,  "  Stonewall  Jackson." 
His  military  fame  was  well  grounded  by  the  extraordinary  rapidity  of  his 
movements  in  the  Shenandoah  campaign  of  1862,  where  he  outgeneraled 
the  Federals  Fremont,  Banks  and  others,  gained  the  battles  of  Front  Royal, 
May  23,  Winchester,  May  25,  Cross  Keys,  June  8,  and  Port  Republic,  June  9. 
Hastily  joining  Lee  before  Richmond,  he  decided  the  victory  at  Games' 
Mills,  June  27.  On  August  9  he  defeated  the  Federals  at  Cedar  Creek.  His 
bold  march  ended  in  the  victory  over  Pope  at  the  second  battle  of  Bull  Run. 
In  t}ie  invasion  he  seized  Harper's  Ferry  September  15,  and  commanded  the 
left  wing  at  Antietam.  At  Fredericksburg  he  led  the  right  wing  of  Lee's 
army,  and  at  Chan  eel  lorsville  May  2,  1863,  his  flanking  movement  around 
Hooker's  right  resulted  in  success.  But  "  Stonewall  "  Jackson  was  by  mis- 
take shot  by  his  own  men  in  this  battle  and  died  a  few  days  later. 

Jackson,  William  (1759-1828),  major,  entered  a  South  Carolina  regiment 
in  1775.  He  fought  at  Stono,  Savannah  and  Charleston.  He  was  secretary 
to  the  convention  which  framed  the  Federal  Constitution  in  1787,  his  notes 
of  which  are  preserved. 

Jackson,  Fort,  La.,  a  Confederate  stronghold  on  the  south  of  the  bend  in 
the  Mississippi  River.  It  was  garrisoned  by  a  small  force  under  the  com- 
mand of  General  Duncan,  and  was  bombarded  during  Farragut's  expedition 
against  New  Orleans,  finally  surrendering  to  General  Butler,  April  27,  1862. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  333 

Jackson  City,  Miss.,  scene  of  a  battle  and  sack  during  the  Civil  War. 
The  battle  took  place  May  14,  1863,  between  McPherson's  division  of  Grant's 
army  then  operating .  along  the  Mississippi  River,  and  a  South  Carolina 
brigade  of  Johnston's  army,  commanded  by  Walker.  Crocker's  troop  bore 
the  brunt  of  this  fight,  defeating  the  Confederates  by  their  impetuous  and 
untiring  charges.  The  latter  fled  to  their  defences  in  the  town,  but  were 
shelled  out  of  these  by  Sherman.  July  10-17,  after  the  fall  of  Vicksburg, 
Johnston  had  again  retreated  to  his  intrenchments.  There  he  was  invested 
by  Sherman's  troops,  who  partially  surrounded  the  town  and  opened  fire 
upon  it.  Ammunition  gave  out,  however,  and  Johnston,  taking  advantage 
of  a  lull,  destroyed  as  much  of  the  town  as  he  could  and  retreated  under 
.cover  of  a  dense  fog,  July  17. 

Jacobin  Clubs.     (See  Democratic  Societies.) 

James  I.  (1566-1625),  King  of  Great  Britain  from  1603  to  1625,  granted, 
April  10,  1606,  to  a  company  of  London  merchants,  a  patent  for  the  coloni- 
zation of  America.  Of  this  company  were  formed  the  Virginia  and  Plymouth 
Companies,  the  efforts  of  the  latter  failing  totally.  The  Virginia  Company 
was  granted  a  charter  to  establish  a  plantation  between  41°  and  34°  north 
latitude,  the  Plymouth  between  45°  and  38°.  The  first  settlement  made  by 
the  Virginia  Company  was  at  Jamestown  in  1607.  The  persecutions  of  the 
Separatists  in  England  caused  a  body  of  that  sect  to  obtain  a  grant  of  land 
from  the  Virginia  Company.  These  Pilgrims  intended  to  settle  between  the 
Hudson  and  the  Delaware,  but  storms  drove  them  to  the  north,  and  they 
established  the  Plymouth  colony  in  1620.  The  king  permitted  this,  but 
would  not  give  a  special  charter.  He  became  hostile  to  the  Virginia  Com- 
pany, and  in  1624  brought  it  to  an  end  by  quo  warranto  proceedings. 

James  II.  (1633-1701),  King  of  Great  Britain  from  1685  to  1688,  had  in 
1664,  as  Duke  of  York,  received  from  his  brother,  Charles  II.,  a  proprietary 
grant  of  New  tNetherland,  then  recently  conquered  from  the  Dutch.  Under 
his  authority  was  promulgated  the  code  called  the  "  Duke's  Laws.''  His 
grant  included  all  the  territory  between  the  Connecticut  and  the  Delaware, 
Long  Island,  Eastern  Maine,  Nantucket  and  Martha's  Vineyard.  As  king, 
he  adopted  a  policy  for  annulling  the  colony  charters  and  solidifying  the 
English  possessions  in  America.  Sir  Edmund  Andros  was  sent  over  in  1686 
with  orders  to  ignore  all  colonial  political  machinery  and  to  govern  the 
country  through  a  council.  The  charters  of  Connecticut  and  Rhode  Island 
were  immediately  demanded  for  annullment,  the  latter  colony  only  comply- 
ing. In  1688  Andros  was  made  Governor  of  New  York  and  New  Jersey,  as 
well  as  New  England,  his  jurisdiction  extending  from  Delaware  Bay  to  the 
confines  of  New  France. 

James,  Henry,  novelist,  born  in  1843,  son  of  Henry  James,  theologian, 
was  educated  in  Europe,  and  has  lived  there  during  many  of  the  years  since. 
He  is  noted  as  a  writer  of  cosmopolitan  spirit,  graceful  style,  subtle  insight 
and  realistic  tendency.  His  novels  mostly  have  to  do  with  the  life  of  Ameri- 
cans in  Europe. 

James,  Thomas  L.,  born  in  New  York  in  1831,  edited  the  Democratic 
Republican  from  1856  to  1866.  While  postmaster  of  New  York,  from  1873 


334  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

to  1881,  he  inaugurated  many  reforms.  He  was  appointed  Postmaster- 
General  in  Garfield's  Cabinet  in  1881,  and  served  until  Arthur's  administra- 
tion in  1882.  He  introduced  thorough  reform  in  the  postal  service. 

James  Island,  S.  C.,  scene  of  two  brief  engagements  during  the  Civil 
War.  In  the  first,  which  occurred  June  10,  1862,  during  the  advance  of  the 
Federals  under  Hunter  against  Charleston,  Lamar,  holding  the  island  with 
25,000  Confederates,  easily  defeated,  at  Secessionville,  and  drove  from  the 
island,  Benham,  leading  6000  Federals.  In  the  second,  July  16,  1863,  Terry, 
who  had  made  a  lodgment  upon  the  island  with  a  small  force,  was  expelled 
by  the  Confederates  under  Hagood.  Terry's  movement  was  a  feint  to  draw 
the  Confederates'  attention  from  Fort  Wagner,  on  Morris  Island,  in  an  assault 
upon  which  he  intended  to  join  General  Gillmore. 

Jameson,  John  A.  (1824-1890),  publicist,  was  Judge  of  the  Chicago 
Superior  Court  from  1865  to  ^^3-  He  was  author  of  "The  Constitutional 
Convention:  its  History,  Powers  and  Modes  of  Proceeding,"  a  standard  work. 

Jamestown,  Va.,  first  English  settlement  in  the  United  States,  was 
founded  in  1607  by  105  colonists  under  Christopher  Newport.  During  the 
first  season  the  colony  was  saved  from  destruction  by  the  efforts  of  Captain 
John  Smith.  On  July  30,  1619,  the  first  colonial  assembly  in  America  was 
held  here.  On  March  22,  1622,  several  hundred  colonists  were  massacred 
by  the  natives.  The  town  was  burned  in  1676  during  Bacon's  rebellion. 
In  1699  it  ceased  to  be  the  capital. 

Japan.  The  United  States  was  among  the  first  of  foreign  powers  to 
obtain  rights  of  intercourse  with  Japan.  Commodore  Perry  concluded  a 
treaty  of  friendship  and  commerce  March  31,  1854.  The  rights  of  Ameri- 
cans in  Japan  were  further  extended  by  the  Convention  of  1857,  an(^  a  stiH 
more  extensive  treaty  was  concluded  in  1858,  by  which  the  former  treaties 
were  partially  or  wholly  abrogated.  In  1860  a  Japanese  embassy  was  sent 
to  the  United  States.  By  the  Convention  of  October  22,  1864^  Japan  agreed 
to  pay  an  indemnity  of  $3,000,000  to  the  United  States,  Great  Britain, 
France  and  the  Netherlands  for  damages.  (See  "  Shimonoseki.")  The  share 
of  the  United  States  was  returned  to  Japan  in  1883.  Commercial  treaties 
were  concluded  in  1866  and  1878,  the  latter  not  now  binding.  An  extradi- 
tion treaty  was  signed  April  29,  1886. 

Jasper,  William  (1750-1779),  enlisted  in  a  South  Carolina  regiment  in 
1776.  In  the  attack  of  Fort  Moultrie  he  exposed  himself  to  the  fire  of  the 
enemy  in  order  to  recover  the  State  flag,  which  had  been  shot  from  the  par- 
apet. He  was  very  successful  in  detachment  service.  He  was  mortally 
wounded  in  the  assault  on  Savannah. 

"Java,"  frigate.     (See  "Constitution.") 

Jay,  John  (December  12,  i745~May  17, 1829),  Chief  Justice  of  the  Supreme 
Court,  was  born  in  New  York  City,  of  Huguenot  descent.  He  graduated  at 
King's  (Columbia)  College  in  1766,  and  in  the  Revolutionary  period  was  promi- 
nent on  the  patriotic  side  as  a  member  of  the  Committee  of  Correspondence. 
As  delegate  to  the  first  Continental  Congress  of  1774  he  was  an  author  of 
the  "  Address  to  the  People  of  Great  Britain."  He  was  a  member  of  the 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  337 

Jersey,  East  and  West.     (See  New  Jersey.) 

Jersey  Prison  Ship,  an  unseaworthy  sixty-four-gun  ship,  lying  off  the 
Brooklyn  shore  of  New  York  harbor  from  1776  to  1783,  and  used  by  the 
British  as  a  prison  for  captured  American  sailors.  Their  treatment  was  most 
inhuman.  Eleven  thousand  are  said  to  have  died  of  cold  and  starvation. 

Jesuits.  The  efforts  of  the  Jesuits  to  convert  the  Indians  belong  in  general 
rather  to  the  history  of  New  France  and  Canada  than  to  that  of  the  United 
States.  But  their  expeditions  extended  into  the  West,  where  they  had  mis- 
sionary establishments  at  Green  Bay,  Wisconsin,  and  elsewhere.  In  the  tv/o 
English  colonies  in  which  Catholics  were  tolerated,  Pennsylvania  and  Mary- 
land, all  the  priests  seem  to  have  been  Jesuits  down  to  the  suppression  of 
that  order  by  the  Pope  in  1773. 

Jesup,  Thomas  S.  (1788-1860),  born  in  Virginia,  was  brevetted  colonel 
for  services  at  Chippewa  and  Niagara  in  1814.  He  was  promoted  major  in 
1818.  -He  commanded  the  army  in  Florida  in  1836. 

Jewell,  Marshall  (1825-1883),  was  elected  Governor  of  Connecticut  in 
1869,  1871  and  1872.  He  was  Minister  to  Prussia  from  1873  to  1874.  In 
1874  he  was  appointed  Postmaster-General;  after  introducing  numerous 
reforms,  he  resigned  in  1876.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Republican  National 
Convention  in  1880,  and  was  elected  chairman  of  the  National  Republican 
Committee. 

Jews.  Settlements  began  to  be  made  by  these  people  early  in  the  eight- 
eenth century  in  South  Carolina  and  Georgia.  About  1734  they  began  to 
come  in  considerable  numbers  to  Georgia,  but  the  trustees  of  the  Oglethorpe 
grant  objected  to  them,  and  promptly  checked  their  immigration  on  religious 
grounds.  In  1749  they  had  established  a  nourishing  body  at  Charleston,  and 
had  built  a  meeting-house.  By  1765  a  small  number  had  also  established 
themselves  at  New  York.  Others  settled  at  Newport 

Jogues,  Isaac  (1607—1646),  came  to  Canada  from  France  in  1630,  and 
spent  his  life  among  the  Indians  as  a  Jesuit  missionary.  He  was  twice 
taken  captive  by  the  Mohawk  Indians,  terribly  tortured,  and  finally  killed 
by  them. 

Johns  Hopkins  University,  Baltimore,  Md.,  was  chartered  in  1867,  and 
named  in  honor  of  its  principal  benefactor,  who  bequeathed  a  fund  of 
$3,000,000.  It  was  intended  especially  for  post-graduate  work,  and  has 
done  much  for  research. 

Johnson,  Andrew  (December  29,  i8o8-July  31,  1875),  seventeenth  Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States,  was  born  at  Raleigh,  N.  C.  He  had  no  advan- 
tages of  education,  and  was  in  early  life  a  tailor;  his  energy  triumphed  over 
drawbacks,  and  in  Tennessee,  where  he  had  settled,  he  became  a  member  of 
the  Legislature,  and  represented  the  State  in  Congress  in  1843-1853.  In 
1853-57  he  was  Democratic  Governor  of  the  State,  and  immediately  there- 
after was  U.  S.  Senator,  serving  until  1862.  He  was  a  strong  Unionist,  and 
was  by  President  Lincoln  appointed  military  Governor  of  Tennessee  in  1862. 
In  1864  he  was  selected  by  the  Republicans  for  the  second  place  on  the 


338  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

ticket,  was  elected,  and  by  the  startling  death  of  Lincoln  he  was  lifted  into 
national  prominence.  President  Johnson  took  the  oath  of  "office  April  15, 
1865.  Though  elected  as  a  Republican  he  had  never  ceased  to  hold  many 
Democratic  principles;  Congress  was  heavily  Republican;  their  divergence 
of  views,  accented  by  Johnson's  peculiarities  of  temper,  caused  a  bitter 
quarrel  between  executive  and  Congress.  The  veto  of  the  Freedmen's  Bureau 
Bill  and  of  the  Civil  Rights  Bill  in  1866,  the  veto  of  the  Congressional 
plan  of  reconstruction  and  the  Tenure  of  Office  Bill  in  1867  mark  the  stages 
of  the  controversy.  In  1867  President  Johnson  suspended  and  then  removed 
Secretary  Stanton,  and  was  forthwith  impeached  by  the  House  of  Represen- 
tatives. The  trial  before  the  Senate,  March-May,  1868,  resulted  in  his 
acquittal,  as  the  President's  enemies  mustered  one  less  than  the  necessary 
two-thirds  vote.  Johnson  lived  in  retirement  after  1869,  except  for  a  short 
term  as  U.  S.  Senator  in  1875. 

Johnson,  Cave  (1793-1866),  represented  Tennessee  in  the  U.  S.  Congress 
as  a  Democrat  from  1829  to'  1837,  an(^  fr°m  J&39  to  1845.  He  was  Post- 
master-General in  Folk's  Cabinet  from  1845  to  1849. 

Johnson,  Edward  (1599-1672),  captain,  came  to  America  from  England 
about  1630.  He  served  in  the  Massachusetts  General  Court  from  1643  to 
1671,  except  1648.  He  wrote  a  narrative  of  New  England  history  from 
1628  to  1652,  called  "  The  Wonder-working  Providence  of  Sion's  Saviour  in 
New  Fvngland." 

Johnson,  Eliza  McCardle  (1810-1876),  born  in  Tennessee,  married 
Andrew  Johnson  in  1826,  and  devoted  herself  to  his  advancement.  Ill- 
health  prevented  her  from  accompanying  him  in  his  public  life. 

Johnson,  Sir  Henry  (1748-1835),  came  to  America  from  England  in  1775, 
and  commanded  a  battalion  of  British  troops  from  1776  to  1778.  From  1778 
to  1781,  he  commanded  a  regiment  in  the  Jerseys,  Virginia  and  Carolina. 

Johnson,  Herschel  V.  (1812-1880),  represented  Georgia  in  the  U.  S. 
Senate  as  a  Democrat  from  1848  to  1849.  He  was  Judge  of  the  Georgia 
Supreme  Court  from  1849  to  1853.  He  was  Governor  of  the  State  from 
1853  to  1857.  He  was  defeated  as  Democratic  candidate  for  Vice-President 
of  the  United  States  in  1860,  on  the  Douglas  ticket.  He  served  in  the  Con- 
federate Senate. 

Johnson,  Sir  John  (1742-1830),  was  knighted  in  1765  and  succeeded  to 
the  baronetcy  of  Sir  William  Johnson,  his  father,  in  1774.  He  fled  from 
New  York  to  Canada  in  1776  on  account  of  his  loyalist  principles.  In  1777 
he  invested  Fort  Stanwix  and  fought  at  Oriskany.  In  1780  he  superin- 
tended the  atrocious  depredations  in  the  Cherry  Valley  and  conducted  the 
raids  in  the  Mohawk  Valley.  He  was  afterward  Governor  of  Upper  Canada. 

Johnson,  Reverdy  (1796—1876),  lawyer  and  diplomatist,  reached  a  high 
rank  at  the  Maryland  bar,  and  was  U.  S.  Senator  1845-1849,  and  Attorney- 
General  in  President  Taylor's  administration,  1849-50.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  Peace  Conference,  and  in  1863  re-entered  the  Senate  as  a  Republican. 
He  held  a  prominent  position  among  the  leaders,  and  in  1868  was  sent 
to  represent  this  country  at  London.  Besides  achieving  great  popularity  in 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  339 

England,  he  negotiated  the  so-called  Johnson-Clarendon  Treaty,  which, 
however,  failed  of  ratification  by  the  U.  S.  Senate.  Mr.  Johnson  returned  in 
1869. 

Johnson,  Richard  M.  (1781-1850),  served  in  the  Kentucky  Legislature  in 
1804.  He  represented  Kentucky  in  the  U.  S.  Congress  as  a  Republican  from 
1807  to  1819.  In  1812  he  commanded  a  regiment  in  the  war.  In  1813  he 
fought  at  Chatham  and  in  the  battle  of  the  Thames,  where  he  is  said  to  have 
killed  Tecumtha.  He  served  in  the  U.  S.  Senate  from  1819  to  1829,  and  in 
the  U.  S.  House  of  Representatives  from  1829  to  z^37-  He  was  elected 
Vice-President  of  the  United  States  by  the  Senate  in  1837,  and  served  from 
1837  to  1841,  with  Martin  Van  Buren  as  President. 

Johnson,  Richard  W.,  born  in  1827,  fought  at  Pittsburg  Landing  in  1861, 
commanded  a  division  in  1862  at  Chickamauga  and  Missionary  Ridge.  He 
published  a  life  of  General  Thomas.  Died  1897. 

Johnson,  Samuel  (1696-1772),  was  an  eminent  Episcopal  clergyman  in 
the  Connecticut  colony  from  1725  to  1754.  He  was  influential  in  the  endow- 
ment of  Yale,  and  was  president  of  King's  College  (Columbia)  from  1754  to 


Johnson,  Thomas  (1732-1819),  represented  Maryland  in  the  Continental 
Congress  from  1774  to  1777.  He  was  Governor  of  Maryland  from  1777  to 
1779.  He  was  a  Justice  of  the  U.  S.  Supreme  Court  from  1791  to  1793. 

Johnson,  Sir  William  (1715-1774),  was  born  in  Ireland,  and,  having  emi- 
grated to  America,  settled  in  the  Mohawk  Valley.  In  this  region,  then 
mainly  an  Indian  wilderness,  Johnson's  tact,  ability  and  knowledge  of  the 
Indian  character,  made  him  the  central  personage.  He  was  colonel  of  the 
Six  Nations,  commissary  of  Indian  affairs,  and  member  of  the  Governor's 
council.  His  headquarters  was  Fort  Johnson,  near  Amsterdam.  The  influ- 
ence of  the  Johnson  family  held  the  Six  Nations  to  the  English  alliance  in 
the  French  and  Revolutionary  wars.  Johnson  attended  the  Albany  Congress 
in  1754,  and  the  next  year  was  appointed  to  command  in  the  north.  For 
the  victory  at  the  head  of  Lake  George,  September  8,  1755,  really  won  by 
General  Lyman,  Johnson  received  the  credit  together  with  a  baronetcy  and 
a  sum  of  money.  In  1759,  after  the  fall  of  Prideaux,  he  succeeded  to  the 
command  in  the  attack  on  Fort  Niagara. 

Johnson,  William  (1771-1834),  was  a  member  of  the  South  Carolina 
Legislature  from  1794  to  1798.  In  1804  he  was  appointed  a  Justice  of  the 
U.  S.  Supreme  Court  and  served  till  his  death.  His  principles  were  opposed 
to  the  nullification  movements  of  1831-1833.  He  published  a  "  Life  of 
Nathanael  Greene." 

Johnson,  "William  S.  (1727-1819),  was  a  Connecticut  delegate  to  the 
Stamp-Act  Congress  in  1765.  He  was  London  agent  of  the  colony  from 
1766  to  1771.  He  was  Judge  of  the  Connecticut  Supreme  Court  from  1772 
to  1774,  served  in  the  Continental  Congress  from  1784  to  1787,  and  aided  in 
drafting  the  Constitution.  He  was  a  U.  S.  Senator  from  1789  to  1791,  then 
president  of  Columbia  College  till  1800. 


340 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 


Johnston,  Albert  Sidney  (1803-1862),  a  distinguished  Confederate  general, 
was  born  in  Kentucky,  and  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1826.  He  served  in 
the  Black  Hawk  War,  entered  soon  after  the  army  of  Texas,  and  became 
Secretary  of  War  for  that  republic.  He  passed  through  the  Mexican  War, 
was  for  a  short  time  a  planter,  and  again  in  the  U.  S.  army  rose  to  be  pay- 
master and  colonel.  He  commanded  skillfully  the  expedition  to  Utah,  and 
was  in  charge  of  the  Department  of  the  Pacific  when  the  war  broke  out. 
Having  espoused  the  Confederate  cause  he  was  appointed  a  general  and 
entrusted  with  command  in  the  West.  He  fortified  the  strategic  point  of 
Bowling  Green,  but  his  forces  were  driven  back,  and  he  was  compelled  to 
concentrate  at  Corinth.  From  this  point  he  planned  a  surprise  on  Grant's 
army  lying  at  Pittsburg  Landing.  The  attack  was  executed  in  one  of  the 
fiercest  battles  of  the  war,  but  General  Johnston  was  killed  in  the  afternoon 
of  the  first  day  while  leading  a  charge.  Life  by  W.  P.  Johnston. 

Johnston,  Alexander  (1849-1889),  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1876.  He 
was  professor  of  jurisprudence  and  political  economy  at  Princeton  from  1883 
to  1889.  He  was  an  enthusiastic  student  of  American  history.  He  pub- 
lished a  "  History  of  American  Politics,"  u  Representative  American  Ora- 
tions," "History  of  the  United  States  for  Schools,"  and  a  history  of  Con- 
necticut. • 

Johnston,  Joseph  Eggleston  (February  3,  iSoy-March  21,  1891),  a  cele- 
brated Confederate  general,  was  born  in  Virginia,  and  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1829.  He  nac^  a  l°ng  career  of  service  in  the  old  army  in  the  wars 
with  Black  Hawk,  the  Seminoles,  as  engineer  in  Scott's  campaign  in 
Mexico,  where  he  distinguished  himself  at  Chapultepec,  and  finally  as  quar- 
termaster-general. The  Confederate  Government  appointed  him  a  major- 
general,  and  he  commanded  at  the  first  battle  of  Bull  Run.  He  had  charge 
of  the  operations  in  Virginia  down  to  the  middle  of  McClellan's  Peninsula 
campaign,  when  he  was  severely  wounded  at  the  battle  of  Fair  Oaks,  and 
was  replaced  by  General  Lee.  He  had  meanwhile  been  raised  to  the  full 
rank  of  general,  and  in  1863  he  was  sent  to  relieve  Pemberton  before  Vicks- 
burg,  but  failed.  In  the  following  December  he  succeeded  to  the  command 
of  Bragg's  defeated  army;  with  this  force  he  was  the  next  year  opposed  to 
Sherman  in  the  mountains  of  northern  Georgia,  and  the  skillful  manoeuvring 
of  these  two  great  masters  of  strategy  has  elicited  warm  praise.  President 
Davis,  displeased  with  Johnston,  put  Hood  in  his  place;  but  the  next  winter 
the  two  old  antagonists  were  again  pitted  against  each  other  in  North  Caro- 
lina, where  Johnston  surrendered  April  26,  1865.  Subsequently  he  was  a 
railroad  president  and  a  Congressman  from  Virginia.  He  wrote  a  "  Narrative 
of  Military  Operations."  Life  by  Hughes. 

Johnstone,  George,  born  in  Scotland,  died  in  1787.  He  became  Gov- 
ernor of  West  Florida  in  1763.  He  was  a  British  Commissioner  to  the 
United  States  in  1778.  He  published  "Thoughts  on  Our  Acquisitions  in 
the  East." 

Joint  High  Commission.     (See  "Alabama  "  Claims.) 

Joliet,  Louis  (1645—1700),  a  noted  French  explorer,  was  born  in  Quebec 
and  educated  at  a  Jesuit  college.  The  scope  of  his  explorations  was  the 


COMMANDERS   IN  THE   MEXICAN  WAR. 

R.   F,   Stockton.  Philip  Kearney. 

Winfield    Scott. 
John  C.  Fremont.  Santa  Anna.  Zachary  Taylor. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  341 

same  as  Marquette's  and  La  Salle's,  the  Unking  together  of  the  great  sys- 
tems of  the  St.  Lawrence  lakes  and  the  Mississippi.  With  Marquette  he 
started  from  Mackinaw,  ascended  Lake  Michigan  and  descended  the  Illinois 
River  in  1673  to  its  mouth  in  the  "  Father  of  Waters;"  thence  he  descended 
the  great  river  to  the  present  State  of  Arkansas,  and  returned  to  Canada. 
The  chief  credit  of  the  exploration  of  the  Mississippi,  whether  due  to  Joliet, 
his  distinguished  associate,  or  to  La  Salle,  is  a  controverted  question. 

Jonathan,  or  Brother  Jonathan.  The  use  of  this  expression,  to  denote 
the  Yankee  or  American,  is  said  to  have  sprung  from  General  Washington's 
habitual  use  of  it  to  designate  Governor  Jonathan  Trumbull,  of  Connec- 
ticut, a  valued  helper  in  the  conduct  of  the  war. 

Jones,  Anson  (1798-1858),  was  prominent  in  gaining  the  independence 
of  Texas.  He  was  Minister  from  Texas  to  the  United  States  from  1837  to 
1839.  He  was  Secretary  of  State  in  Texas  from  1841  to  1844  and  President 
in  1845,  at  the  time  of  the  annexation. 

Jones,  Jacob  (1768-1850),  entered  the  U.  S.  navy  in  1799.  He  was  a 
lieutenant  of  the  "  Philadelphia  "  from  1801  to  1803.  In  command  of  the 
"  Wasp  "  he  captured  the  British  brig  "  Frolic  "  in  1812.  This  was  one  of 
the  first  important  naval  victories  of  the  war.  In  1813  he  commanded  the 
"  Macedonian  "  in  Decatur's  squadron. 

Jones,  James  C.  (1809-1859),  was  a  member  of  the  Tennessee  Legislature 
in  1837  and  1839.  He  was  Governor  of  Tennessee  from  1841  to  1845,  and 
was  a  Whig  Senator  of  the  United  States  from  1851  to  1857. 

Jones,  John  P.,  born  in  England  in  1830,  a  rich  mine-owner,  has  been  a 
Republican  member  of  the  U.  S.  Senate  from  Nevada  from  1873  to  the 
present  time  (1897)  and  has  been  prominent  as  an  advocate  of  the  free  coinage 
of  silver.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Brussels  Monetary  Conference  of  1892. 

Jones,  John  Paul  (July  6,  i747~July  18,  1792),  a  naval  hero,  was  born  in 
Scotland  and  had  been  engaged  in  the  merchant  marine  previous  to  his 
settlement  in  Virginia,  shortly  before  the  beginning  of  the  Revolutionary 
War.  On  the  opening  of  hostilities  he  volunteered  with  enthusiasm  in  the 
service  of  his  adopted  country,  was  appointed  first  lieutenant,  and  made  a 
number  of  successful  cruises.  In  1777  he  sailed  to  France.  From  Brest  as 
headquarters  he  conducted  in  his  ship,  the  "  Ranger,"  a  remarkable  expedi- 
tion to  the  British  coasts,  for  which  his  old  acquaintance  with  the  localities 
had  well  fitted  him.  In  St.  George's  Channel  he  took  prizes,  landed  at  White- 
haven  and  terrorized  the  seaboard  for  a  short  time.  He  captured  the  British 
"Drake,"  and  his  success  led  him  in  1779  to  start  in  command  of  a  small 
fleet  against  the  eastern  shore  of  the  island;  his  own  vessel  was  the  "  Bon 
Homme  Richard."  With  this  fleet  he  encountered  off  Scarborough  a  British 
convoy  and  ships  of  war.  One  of  the  fiercest  naval  fights  on  record  followed 
between  Jones'  vessel  and  the  British  "  Serapis "  on  the  evening  of  Sep- 
tember 23,  1779.  The  "  Serapis  "  finally  struck,  but  the  American  ship  was 
completely  disabled,  and  the  losses  in  the  close-range  struggle  were  great. 
Jones  received  the  thanks  of  Congress  and  a  gold  sword  from  Louis  XVI. 
After  the  war  he  was  a  rear-admiral  in  the  Russian  navy,  and  died  in  Paris. 


342  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Jones,  John  W.  (1791-1848),  represented  Virginia  in  the  U.  S.  Congress 
as  a  Whig  from  1835  to  1845,  when  he  declined  re-election.  He  was  Speaker 
of  the  House  from  1843  to  1845. 

Jones,  William  (1760-1831),  served  in  the  battles  of  Trenton  and  Prince- 
ton during  the  Revolution.  He  represented  Pennsylvania  as  a  Democrat  in 
the  U.  S.  Congress  from  1801  to  1803.  He  was  Secretary  of  the  Navy  in 
1813  and  1814.  Subsequently  he  was  president  of  the  U.  S.  Bank. 

Jones  Case,  a  fugitive  slave  case.  George  Jones,  a  respectable  colored 
man,  was  arrested  in  New  York  in  1836,  on  a  fictitious  charge  of  assault  and 
battery.  He  was  taken  before  Recorder  Riker  and  was  released  to  his  kid- 
nappers as  their  property,  their  word  being  taken  as  sufficient  evidence. 
This  was  a  favorite  method  of  kidnapping. 

Jonesboro,  Ga.  A  series  of  short,  but  sharp  engagements  during  Sher- 
man's investment  of  Atlanta  in  1864,  the  town  being  then  held  by  Hood 
with  some  60,000  Confederates.  Sherman's  force  was  nearly  100,000  strong. 
There  was  some  fighting  between  Atlanta  and  Jonesboro  August  19  and  20, 
Kilpatrick  having  been  dispatched  to  destroy  the  Macon  railroad  and 
encountering  a  cavalry  troop  under  Ross,  whom  he  defeated.  Kilpatrick 
was  in  his  turn  defeated  the  next  day  by  a  Confederate  infantry  force.  Mean- 
time Hardee  had  been  sent  from  Atlanta  to  Jonesboro  by  Hood  to  guard  his 
communications.  On  August  31  Hardee  fell  upon  the  Federal  right  under 
Howard  and  a  desperate  battle  took  place,  in  which  Hardee  was  decidedly 
worsted.  Hardee  retreated  that  same  night. 

Jouett,  James  E.,  born  in  1828,  served  during  'the  Mexican  War.  In 
command  of  the  "  Santee  "  in  1861,  he  captured  the  "Royal  Jacket,"  and 
was  active  at  Mobile  under  Commodore  Farragut.  In  1886  he  became  a 
rear-admiral. 

Journals  of  Congress.  "The  Journals  of  Congress"  from  1774  to  1788 
were  first  published  at  Philadelphia  in  thirteen  volumes,  octavo,  1777-1788, 
but  they  were  reprinted  at  Washington  in  four  volumes,  octavo,  1823.  The 
proceedings  of  the  Constitutional  Convention  were  published  at  Boston  in 
1819,  entitled  "Journal,  Acts  and  Proceedings  of  the  Convention  Assem- 
bled at  Philadelphia  which  Framed  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States." 
There  was  also  published  at  Boston,  in  1821,  a  work  in  four  volumes,  entitled 
"  Secret  Journals  of  the  Acts  and  Proceedings  of  Congress  from  the  First 
Meeting  thereof  to  the  Dissolution  of  the  Confederation  by  the  Adoption  of 
the  Constitution  of  the  United  States."  The  Journals  of  the  Congress 
under  the  Constitution  have  been  printed  each  session,  according  -to  the 
requirement  of  the  Constitution. 

Joutel,  Henri,  French  explorer,  came  to  America  in  1684.  He  published 
authentic  accounts  of  the  last  expedition  of  La  Salle,  and  his  own  explora- 
tions in  the  Mississippi  Valley. 

Juarez,  Benito  P.  (1806-1872),  was  Governor  of  Mexico  from  1847  to 
1852,  including  part  of  the  war  with  the  United  States.  He  was  Minister 
of  Justice  and  Religion  from  1855  to  1857.  He  was  Secretary  of  the  Interior 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  343 

from  1857  to  1858.  In  1858  he  assumed  the  control  of  the  executive,  and 
was  recognized  by  the  U.  S.  Government  in  1859.  He  maintained  his 
government  against  the  clerical  party  with  difficulty  throughout  the  revolu- 
tionary troubles,  but  from  the  withdrawal  of  the  French  and  the  death  of 
Maximilian  until  his  own  death  he  ruled  the  republic. 

Judd,  Sylvester  (1789-1860),  edited  the  New  Hampshire  Gazette  from 
1822  to  1834.  He  carefully  studied  the  history  of  Massachusetts  and  Con- 
necticut, and  published  "  Thomas  Judd  and  his  Descendants,"  and  u  A  His- 
tory of  Hadley." 

Judiciary.  Except  in  the  earliest  days  of  the  Puritan  colonies,  the  judi- 
ciary in  the  colonies  was  modeled  on  that  of  England.  In  each,  the 
Governor  (in  the  general  case)  constituted  the  court  of  admiralty,  the  court 
of  equity,  and  the  ecclesiastical  and  highest  probate  court.  There  was  a 
supreme  or  superior  common-law  court,  from  which  appeals  lay  to  the  Gov- 
ernor and  council,  and  ultimately  to  the  King  in  Council.  County  courts 
were  commonly  held  after  the  forms  of  the  justices'  courts  of  quarter  session 
in  England;  and  there  was  a  similar  system  of  lowest  courts,  held  by  indi- 
vidual justices.  When,  at  the  beginning  of  the  Revolution,  the  States  made 
their  new  Constitutions,  they  either  abolished  those  courts  which  were  not 
common-law  courts  or  reorganized  them,  or  gave  their  functions  to  the  com- 
mon-law courts.  Otherwise  little  change  was  made  in  the  system.  Under 
the  Continental  Congress  the  beginnings  of  a  Federal  judiciary  are  seen  in 
the  operations  of  the  commissions  which  decided  land  cases  between  States, 
and  in  those  of  the  commissioners  of  appeal  in  prize  causes,  which  in  1781, 
under  the  Articles  of  Confederation,  was  erected  into  a  more  regular  court. 
The  Constitution  of  1787  provided  for  a  supreme  court,  and  such  inferior 
courts  as  Congress  might  establish.  By  the  Judiciary  Act  of  1789,  Congress 
established  circuit  and  district  courts.  (See  arts.  Supreme  Court,  Circuit 
Courts  and  District  Courts.)  These  constituted  the  Federal  system  until 
1891,  when  the  Circuit  Courts  of  Appeal  were  added.  Colonial  judges  were 
mostly  appointed  by  the  Governors.  In  some  States  this  feature  was 
retained;  in  most,  it  has  now  become  the  rule  that  judges  are  elected  by  the 
people.  Beside  the  strictly  Federal  courts  provided  by  the  Constitution, 
Congress  has  established  a  system  of  Territorial  courts,  and  the  Court  of 
Claims  (see  art). 

Judson,  Adoniram  (1788—1850),  was  a  successful  American  missionary  to 
Burmah  from  1813  to  1850.  He  thoroughly  mastered  the  Burmese  lan- 
guage and  translated  a  number  of  books,  including  the  entire  Bible. 

Juilliard  vs.  Greenman,  a  case  involving  a  question  of  legal  tender,  brought 
by  plaintiff  on  writ  of  error  from  the  Circuit  Court  of  New  York  to  the 
Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States  in  1884.  Juilliard  having  contracted  a 
sale  to  Greenman,  the  latter  offered  payment  in  United  States  notes,  which 
the  plaintiff  refused,  demanding  payment  in  gold  or  silver.  The  Circuit 
Court  found  a  verdict  for  the  defendant,  on  the  ground  that  notes  issued  by 
the  United  States  are  legal  tender  for  payment  of  any  debt.  The  Supreme 
Court  confirmed  this  judgment,  thus  affirming  the  constitutionality  of  the 
Legal  Tender  Act  of  1862. 


344  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Julian,  George  W.,  born  in  1817,  was  a  Free-Soil  Representative  to  Con- 
gress  from  Indiana  from  1849  to  1851.  He  was  the  Free-Soil  candidate  for 
Vice-President  of  the  United  States  in  1852.  He  was  vice-president  of  the 
first  Republican  convention  in  1856  and  chairman  of  the  organization  com- 
mittee. He  was  a  Republican  member  of  the  U.  S.  Congress  from  1861  to 
1871.  Died  in  1899. 

Jumonville,  N.  Coulon  de  (1725  7-1754),  was  sent  by  the  French  in  1754 
to  summon  Washington  to  surrender  the  fort  at  Great  Meadows.  He  was 
killed  in  an  attack  which  was  represented  as  a  violation  of  international  law 
by  the  French,  but  probably  was  not. 

Justice,  Department  of.  This  department  was  not  created  until  June  22, 
1870,  though  the  office  of  Attorney-General,  who  is  at  its  head,  was  created 
September  24,  1789.  The  earlier  Attorneys-General  had  leisure  to  practice 
as  attorneys.  An  assistant  was  first  given  the  Attorney-General  in  1859,  a 
second  in  1868,  a  third  in  1871.  In  1861  the  Attorney-General  was  given 
supervision  of  all  U.  S.  district  attorneys  and  marshals. 

K. 

Kalakaua,  David  (1836-1891),  was  made  king  of  Hawaii  in  1874  and 
established  his  government  with  the  aid  of  American  and  English  ships. 
He  died  in  San  Francisco  while  negotiating  a  treaty  of  reciprocity  with  the 
United  States. 

Kalb,  Johann,  self-styled  Baron  de  Kalb  (1721-1780),  visited  America  as 
a  secret  agent  of  the  French  Government  in  1768.  He  wafe  encouraged  by 
Franklin  and  Silas  Deane  to  join  the  Continental  army,  and  accompanied 
Lafayette  to  the  United  States  in  1777.  He  was  appointed  major-general 
and  served  under  Washington  in  New  Jersey  and  Maryland.  In  1780  he 
was  despatched  to  South  Carolina  in  command  of  the  Delaware  and  Mary- 
land troops.  At  Camden  his  troops  defeated  the  opposing  British  force,  but 
were  subsequently  surrounded  and  DeKalb  was  mortally  wounded. 

"  Kalrnar  Nyckel  "  ("  Key  of  Kalmar  "),  a  Swedish  man-of-war  furnished 
as  an  emigrant  ship  in  the  Swedish  colonization  expedition  of  1637.  The 
ship  entered  Delaware  Bay  in  March,  1638,  and  its  passengers  settled  along 
the  Delaware  River. 

Kamper  vs.  Hawkins,  a  case  adjourned  from  the  District  Court  of  Dum- 
fries, Va.,  to  the  General  Court  in  November,  1793.  It  involved  the  consti- 
tutionality of  an  act  of  the  State  Legislature  of  1792,  which  authorized  a 
district  court  in  term  time,  or  a  judge  thereof  in  vacation,  to  exercise  the 
same  power  of  granting  injunctions  to  stay  proceedings  on  any  judgment 
obtained  in  a  district  court,  and  of  proceeding  to  the  dissolution  or  final 
hearing  of  such  cases,  as  was  prescribed  for  the  High  Court  of  Chancery. 
The  court  decided  that  this  law  was  not  wholly  in  accordance  with  the  Con- 
stitution, but  that  there  was  no  alternative  for  a  decision  between  the  Legis- 
lature and  the  judiciary  except  an  appeal  to  the  people. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  345 

Kane,  Elisha  K.  (1820-1857),  served  in  the  navy  as  a  surgeon  from  1843 
to  1850.  He  accompanied  E.  J.  DeHaven  in  1850  on  his  Arctic  expedition. 
In  1853-55  ne  commanded  the  "Advance"  in  an  Arctic  exploring  expedi- 
tion. He  reached  latitude  80°  35',  and  made  valuable  and  accurate  scien- 
tific observations,  which  he  published  in  his  reports. 

Kansas.  The  territory  of  the  State  of  Kansas  formed  a  part  of  the 
Louisiana  and  Texas  cessions.  The  greater  part  was  acquired  by  the  United 
States  in  1803.  The  portion  lying  south  of  the  Arkansas  River  and  west 
of  longitude  100°  W.  was  ceded  to -the  United  States  by  Texas  in  1850. 
The  region  was  explored  in  1541  by  Coronado,  a  Spaniard.  In  1819-1820 
it  was  partly  explored  by  Major  Long,  of  the  United  States  army.  In  1854 
Stephen  A.  Douglas  introduced  a  bill  into  Congress  providing  for  the  organi- 
zation of  the  Kansas  and  Nebraska  territories,  and  the  repeal  of  the  Missouri 
Compromise  of  1820,  whereby  slavery  was  prohibited  north  of  36°  30'.  The 
existence  of  slavery  was  left  to  the  decision  of  the  people  of  the  State  when 
admitted.  The  introduction  and  passage,  May  30,  1854,  of  this  bill  caused 
intense  political  excitement.  Emigrants  from  Arkansas  and  Missouri  imme- 
diately began  to  move  into  Kansas  to  hold  the  State  for  the  pro-slavery  party. 
On  the  other  hand  the  Massachusetts  Emigrant  Aid  Society  sent  out  colonies 
to  keep  slavery  out  of  the  State.  The  "  Kansas  struggle  "  then  began.  The 
pro-slavery  men,  aided  by  bands  from  Missouri,  elected  the  Territorial  delegate 
to  Congress,  November  29,  1854.  March  30,  1855,  an  election  took  place  for 
a  Territorial  Legislature,  in  which  the  pro-slavery  men  were  again  successful. 
At  this  election  5427  votes  were  cast  for  their  candidates,  and  791  for  their 
opponents,  and  yet  there  were  but  2905  legal  voters  in  the  country.  This 
Legislature  met  at  Pawnee  in  July,  and  immediately  proceeded  to  vote 
Kansas  a  slave  Territory.  On  the  other  hand  the  anti-slavery  men  met  in 
convention  at  Topeka,  and  adopted  a  State  Constitution  which  prohibited 
slavery,  October-November,  1855.  This  Constitution  was  ratified  by  popular 
vote,  December  15.  An  election  for  a  Legislature  was  held  under  this  Con- 
stitution in  January.  May  21  Lawrence  was  pillaged.  In  the  same  year  a 
party  under  John  Brown  murdered  five  men.  A  bill  for  the  admission  of  the 
State  was  defeated  in  the  Senate,  and  the  State  Legislature  was  dispersed  by 
Federal  troops  in  1856.  A  pro-slavery  convention  adopted  the  Lecompton 
Constitution,  which  was  submitted  to  a  popular  vote  with  or  without  slavery. 
The  anti-slavery  men  refused  to  vote,  and  the  Constitution  was  adopted.  At 
a  second  election,  January  4,  1858,  it  was  defeated,  and  again  on  August  3 
at  another  election  ordered  by  Congress.  In  1859  a  constitutional  conven- 
tion at  Wyandotte  adopted  a  Constitution  prohibiting  slavery,  which  was 
ratified  October  4.  January  29,  1861,  Kansas  was  admitted  into  the  Union. 
The  State  was  steadily  Republican  until  1882,  when  the  Democrats  carried 
the  election.  In  1892  the  electoral  votes  of  the  State  were  cast  for  the  can- 
didate of  the  People's  party.  The  population  of  the  State  in  1890  was 
1,427,096;  in  1860  it  was  107,206.  History  by  Spring. 

Kansas  Aid  Society,  a  Congressional  association  formed  in  1854  for  the 
purpose  of  aiding  free  immigration  into  Kansas  to  prevent  the  establishment 
of  slavery,  which  had  been  made  possible  by  the  passage  of  the  Kansas- 
Nebraska  Act  then  recently  adopted.  Slavery  advocates  from  Missouri  were 


346  DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

at  that  time  active  in  endeavoring  to.  bring;  about  the  establishment  of 
slavery. 

Kansas  City,  Mo.,  was  laid  out  in  1830,  but  its  growth  dates  from  1860. 

Kansas-Nebraska  Bill.  Under  the  provisions  of  this  bill,  which  was 
passed  by  Congress  May  22,  1854,  Kansas  and  Nebraska  were  separated 
and  organized  into  Territories.  The  importance  of  this  bill  lay  in  the  fact 
that  it  practically  repealed  the  Missouri  Compromise.  In  the  bill  as  reported 
by  Stephen  A.  Douglas,  the  question  of  slavery  in  the  two  Territories  was 
to  be  settled  within  the  Territories,  and  if  adopted  the  fugitive  slave  law  was 
to  apply.  The  status  of  Nebraska  was  easily  settled  as  a  free  Territory,  but 
the  question  caused  much  trouble  in  Kansas.  The  passage  of  the  act  had 
much  to  do  with  bringing  on  the  Civil  War. 

Kapp,  Friedrich  (1824-1884),  came  to  America  from  Germany  in  1850. 
He  wrote  lives  of  Generals  Kalb  and  Steuben,  and  numerous  works  relating 
to  slavery  and  the  relations  between  Germany  and  the  United  States. 

Kaskaskia,  111.,  a  French  settlement,  settled  in  the  latter  part  of  the  seven- 
teenth century,  garrisoned  in  1778  by  British  soldiers.  Colonel  George 
Rogers  Clark  captured  it  with  three  companies  of  Kentucky  recruits  on  the 
night  of  July  4,  after  a  short  struggle  and  with  but  little  bloodshed. 

Kasson,  John  A.,  born  in  1822,  was  chairman  of  the  Iowa  Republican 
Committee  from  1858  to  1860.  He  was  appointed  Assistant  Postmaster- 
General  in  1 86 1  and  served  till  1862.  He  represented  Iowa  in  the  U.  S. 
Congress  as  a  Republican  from  1863  to  1867,  from  1873  to  1877  and  from 
1881  to  1884.  He  was  Minister  to  Austria  from  1877  to  1881  and  to  Ger- 
many from  1884  to  1885. 

Kautz,  August  V.,  born  in  Germany  in  1828,  was  brevetted  colonel  U.  S. 
army  for  services  during  the  Civil  War.  He  engaged  in  the  Peninsular 
campaign  in  1862,  at  South  Mountain,  Petersburg  and  Richmond,  and  was 
noted  for  his  cavalry  raids  in  southern  Virginia  in  1864.  Died  1895. 

Kearny,  Lawrence  (1789—1868),  served  in  the  navy  during  the  War  of 
1812.  He  was  successful  in  destroying  piracy  and  smuggling.  He  was 
influential  in  negotiating  the  Treaty  of  1845  with  China. 

Kearny,  Philip  (1815-1862),  entered  the  army  in  1837.  He  was  sent  by 
the  U.  S.  Government  in  1839  and  1840  to  report  upon-  the  cavalry  tactics 
of  the  French.  During  the  Mexican  War  he  was  brevetted  major  for  gal- 
lantry at  Contreras  and  Churubusco.  In  1861  he  was  assigned  command  of 
a  brigade  in  the  Army  of  the  Potomac.  He  engaged  at  Williamsburg  and 
served  with  the  Army  of  Virginia.  In  1862  he  was  assigned  command  of  a 
division  and  fought  at  Bull  Run.  He  was  killed  in  the  battle  of  Chantilly. 

Kearny,  Stephen  W.  (1794-1848),  served  throughout  the  War  of  1812. 
He  was  promoted  brigadier-general  in  1846,  with  command  in  the  West. 
During  the  Mexican  War  he  established  a  provisional  government  in  Santa 
Fe*  and  fought  the  battle  of  San  Pasqual,  after  which  he  was  made  major- 
general.  In  1847  he  was  Governor  of  California.  He  wrote  a  "Manual  of 
the  Exercise  and  Manoeuvring  of  U.  S.  Dragoons," 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  347 

'  Kearsarge,"  the  U.  S.  man-of-war  which  destroyed  and  sunk  the  Con- 
iederate  cruiser  "  Alabama  "  off  Cherbourg  harbor,  in  France,  June  19,  1864. 
In  1894  it  was  wrecked  on  a  reef  in  the  Caribbean  Sea. 

"  Kearsarge"  and  "Alabama,"  a  famous  naval  battle  of  the  Civil  War  occur- 
ring June  19,  1864,  just  off  the  harbor  of  Cherbourg,  France.  The  Con- 
federate war-ship  "Alabama"  was  at  that  time  engaged  in  destroying  Union 
vessels  in  European  waters.  She  was  commanded  by  Semmes;  had  eight 
guns  and  sixty  men.  Winslow  commanded  the  "  Kearsarge,"  the  National 
ship  having  been  dispatched  in  search  of  the  "  Alabama."  The  "  Kear- 
sarge "  had  seven  guns  and  sixty-two  men.  The  "  Kearsarge  "  lay  waiting 
for  the  Confederate  ship  outside  the  harbor.  The  battle  took  place  some 
seven  miles  out  at  sea.  The  "Alabama"  began  the  firing  without  much 
effect  upon  her  opponent.  When  the  "  Kearsarge  "  opened  fire,  her  supe- 
riority in  point  of  management  and  gunnery  was  at  once  evinced.  One  of 
her  shells  cut  off  the  "Alabama's  "  mizzenmast  and  another  exploded,  killing 
half  her  crew.  She  was  speedily  disabled  and  sunk.  Semmes  escaped. 

Keifer,  Joseph  Warren,  born  in  1836,  represented  Ohio  in  the  U.  S. 
House  of  Representatives  as  a  Republican  from  1877  to  1885.  He  was 
Speaker  of  the  House  from  1881  to  1883. 

Keith,  Sir  William  (1680-1749),  was  commissioned  Lieutenant-Governor 
of  Pennsylvania  and  Delaware  from  1717  to  1726.  He  served  in  the  Penn- 
sylvania Assembly  in  1727  and  1728.  He  published  a  "History  of 
Virginia." 

Kelley,  Benjamin  F.  (1807-1891),  during  the  Civil  War  fought  at 
Philippi,  Romney  and  Blue  Gap.  In  1863  he  commanded  the  Department 
of  West  Virginia.  He  was  brevetted  major-general  in  1864  for  services  at 
Cumberland,  New  Creek  and  Morefield. 

Kelley,  William  D.  (1814-1890),  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1841.  He 
was  Judge  of  the  Philadelphia  Court  of  Common  Pleas  from  1846  to  1856. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Republican  National  Convention  of  1860,  and 
represented  Pennsylvania  in  the  U.  S.  Congress  as  a  Republican  from  1861 
to  1890.  He  published  "  The  New  South  "  and  many  influential  political 
writings,  and  was  noted  as  a  strong  protectionist. 

Kellogg,  William  P.,  born  in  1831,  represented  Louisiana  in  the  U.  S. 
Senate  as  a  Republican  from  1868  to  1871.  Kellogg  was  recognized  by  the 
U.  S.  Government  as  Governor  of  Louisiana  in  1872  in  opposition  to  the 
rival  government  led  by  McEnery.  (See  art.  Louisiana.)  He  served  until 
1877.  He  again  served  in  the  U.  S.  Senate  from  1877  to  1883,  and  in  the 
House  of  Representatives  from  1883  to  1885. 

Kelly's  Ford.     (See  Rappahannock  Station.) 

Kemble,  Frances  Anne,  born  in  London  in  1809,  has  won  distinction 
both  in  Europe  and  in  the  United  States  as  an  actress  in  historical  plays. 
She  has  also  been  successful  as  a  reader  of  Shakespeare.  Died  in  1893. 

Kendall,  Amos  (1789-1869),  of  Kentucky,  born  in  Massachusetts,  earnestly 
supported  Jackson  in,  1824.  In  1829  he  was  appointed  an  auditor  in  the 


348  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Treasury  Department.  He  was  one  of  the  chief  men  in  Jackson's  adminis- 
tration, guiding  the  anti-bank  policy,  and  advising  and  directing  the  President 
in  all  his  duties.  He  was  Postmaster-General  of  the  United  States  from  1835 
to  1840  in  the  Cabinets  of  Jackson  and  Van  Buren.  He  was  an  ardent  anti- 
slavery  advocate;  and,  though  a  Jackson  Democrat,  earnestly  supported  the 
administration  during  the  Civil  War.  He  wrote  a  "  Life  of  Andrew  Jackson, 
Private,  Military  and  Civil "  (uncompleted). 

Kendall  vs.  United  States.  In  1835,  Barry,  then  Postmaster-General, 
made  certain  contracts  with  Stokes  and  others  of  the  District  of  Columbia, 
for  carrying  the  mail  of  the  United  States.  Kendall,  Barry's  successor, 
refused  to  pay  to  Stokes  certain  sums  of  money  mentioned  in  the  contract. 
Stokes  applied  to  the  Circuit  Court  of  the  District  of  Columbia  for  a  man- 
damus to  compel  Kendall  to  pay.  This  was  granted.  Kendall  brought  the 
case  before  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States,  and  the  decree  of  the 
Circuit  Court  was  confirmed  on  the  ground  that  the  mandamus  did  not  seek 
to  control  the  Postmaster-General  in  his  official  duty,  but  to  enforce  the  per- 
formance of  a  mere  ministerial  act. 

Kenesaw  Mountain,  Ga.  To  this  strong  position  General  Johnston  had 
retreated  about  June  n,  1864,  with  about  60,000  Confederates,  Sherman 
following  him  closely  with  100,000  Federal  troops.  Johnston  succeeded  in 
fortifying  himself  quite  strongly.  A  smart  skirmish  took  place  June  14,  and 
General  Polk,  of  Confederate  fame,  was  killed.  On  the  I7th  an  assault  was 
ordered  by  Sherman,  which  caused  Johnston  to  contract  his  line.  After  this, 
during  ten  days,  Johnston's  cannon  kept. booming  away  from  the  height?, 
while  Sherman's  army  lay  in  the  valley  below,  almost  untouched.  On  the 
22d  an  ineffectual  attack  was  made  by  Hooker  and  Schofield,  in  which  the 
Nationals  lost  heavily.  This  is  known  as  the  affair  of  "  Kulp's  House." 
Again  on  the  ayth  Sherman  caused  two  attacks  to  be  made  simultaneously 
and  from  different  quarters.  So  Hooker  and  McPherson  advanced  against  the 
Confederates'  left  and  centre.  Both  assaults  failed  disastrously.  Nearly  3000 
Federals  were  missing  in  killed  and  wounded.  July  i,  however,  McPherson 
made  a  more  successful  attack  and  Johnston  was  compelled  to  retire. 

Kennan,  George,  born  in  Ohio  in  1845,  has  made  in  Siberia  a  thorough 
investigation  of  the  Russian  exile  system,  the  results  of  which  he  has  pub- 
lished in  a  book  entitled  "  Siberia  and  the  Exile  System."  He  had  earlier 
published  "  Tent-Life  in  Siberia." 

Kennebec  Expedition,  an  expedition  along  the  Kennebec  River,  sent  out 
by  Washington  under  Benedict  Arnold,  in  1775,  to  co-operate  with  Mont- 
gomery's Canada  expedition.  Arnold  was  assisted  in  this  campaign  by  a 
number  of  Indians.  With  iioo  men  Arnold  reached  Fort  Augusta,  Maine, 
and  thence  proceeded  through  the  wilderness  along  the  Kennebec  toward 
Quebec.  Upon  reaching  that  place,  which  was  garrisoned  by  a  small  force, 
he  made  the  ascent  at  Wolfe's  Cove  and  demanded  a  surrender.  The  garrison 
refused  and  Arnold,  becoming  frightened,  drew  off.  He  despatched  Burr  to 
Montreal,  which  had  been  captured  by  Montgomery.  The  latter  joined 
Arnold  at  Quebec  and  together  they  assaulted  the  town.  Montgomery  was 
killed  and  his  force  drew  off  under  Campbell.  Arnold  kept  Carleton,  the 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  349 

English  commander,  shut  up  in  Quebec  for  three  months,  till  he  was  driven 
away  by  Burgoyne. 

Kennebec  Purchase.  In  1628,  William  Bradford  and  others,  of  the  Ply- 
mouth colonists,  obtained  a  grant  of  territory  for  fishing  purposes  along  the 
Kennebec  and  Cobbiseecontee  Rivers.  This  was  sold,  in  1661,  to  Tyng 
and  othei;.,  and  was  called  the  "  Kennebec  Purchase."  This  grant  was 
made  by  the  Council  for  New  England. 

Kennedy,  John  P.  (1795-1870),  was  a  member  of  the  Maryland  House  of 
Delegates  from  1820  to  1823.  He  represented  Maryland  in  the  U.  S.  Con- 
gress as  a  Whig  from  1838  to  1839,  and  from  1841  to  1845.  He  was  Secre- 
tary of  the  Navy  in  Fillmore's  Cabinet  from  1852  to  1853.  He  wrote  a  life 
of  William  Wirt  and  one  of  George  Calvert. 

Kent,  Edward  (1802-1877),  was  a  member  of  the  Maine  Legislature  from 
1829  to  1833.  He  was  Governor  of  Maine  in  1838  and  1840,  being  chosen 
by  the  Whigs.  From  1849  to  1853  he  was  U.  S.  Consul  at  Rio  Janeiro. 
From  1859  to  1873  he  was  a  Justice  of  the  Maine  Supreme  Court. 

Kent,  James  (1763-1847),  jurist,  was  a  member  of  the  New  York  Legisla- 
ture in  1790  and  1792.  He  was  a  Judge  of  the  Ne"w  York  Supreme  Court 
from  1798  to  1804,  and  Chief  Justice  from  1804  to  1814.  He  was  Chancellor 
of  New  York  from  1814  to  1823.  He  published  "  Commentaries  on  American 
Law,"  which  is  the  standard  general  treatise  on  American  law. 

Kenton,  Simon  (1755-1836),  a  Kentucky  pioneer,  served  as  a  scout  in  the 
colonial  army  till  1773.  He  commanded  a  Kentucky  battalion  from  1793 
to  1794.  He  was  engaged  in  the  battle  of  the  Thames  in  1813. 

"  Kentucke  Gazette."  This  journal  was  established  at  Lexington,  Ky., 
August  1 8,  1787,  the  first  important  newspaper  of  Kentucky,  and  continued 
to  be  published  for  seventy-five  years. 

Kentucky  was  originally  a  part  of  Virginia.  The  first  settlements  were 
made  by  James  Harrod  and  others  at  Harrodsburg  in  1774;  and  by  Daniel 
Boone  at  Boonesborough  in  1775.  A  land  company  in  1775  attempted  to 
organize  a  separate  government  under  the  name  of  Transylvania.  In  1776 
Kentucky  became  Kentucky  County  of  Virginia.  The  refusal  of  Virginia 
and  the  National  Government  to  allow  a  separate  government  and  the  indig- 
nation over  the  provision  concerning  the  navigation  of  the  Mississippi  led 
to  efforts  being  made  to  form  an  independent  republic  with  alliance  with 
Spain  or  Canada.  June  i,  1792,  the  State  was  admitted  into  the  Union. 
The  close  union  of  political  feeling  with  Virginia  was  shown  by  the  passage 
of  the  "  Kentucky  and  Virginia  Resolutions"  of  1798  and  1799,  which  pro- 
tested against  the  passage  of  the  Alien  and  Sedition  Acts  by  the  Federalists. 
The  Democrats  controlled  the  State  until  1830,  except  in  1824,  when  the 
electoral  votes  were  cast  for  Clay.  Kentucky  became  a  Whig  State,  and  so 
remained  until  1856,  when  the  Democrats  carried  the  State.  In  1860  the 
electoral  votes  were  cast  for  Bell.  In  1861  the  Governor  sympathized  with 
the  South,  but  the  Legislature  refused  to  call  a  convention,  and  elected  dele- 
gates to  the  Peace  Congress  at  Washington.  For  a  time  the  State  attempted 


35o  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

to  remain  neutral,  but  the  State  Legislature  in  September,  1 86 1,  pronounced 
emphatically  in  favor  of  the  Union.  Since  the  war  the  State  has  been  uni- 
formly Democratic.  A  new  Constitution  was  made  in  1890-91.  The  pop- 
ulation of  the  State  in  1792  was  73,077;  in  1890,  1,858,635.  History  by 
Shaler. 

Kentucky  Resolutions.  These  resolutions  were  the  outgrowth,  together 
with  the  Virginia  Resolutions,  of  a  feeling  that  the  Federal  party  was  making 
a  strained  and  illegitimate  use  of  the  powers  granted  to  the  Federal  Govern- 
ment by  the  Constitution.  The  resolutions  were  directly  due  to  the  passage 
of  the  Alien  and  Sedition  laws.  The  Kentucky  Resolutions  were  framed 
by  Thomas  Jefferson,  and  introduced,  in  1798,  into  the  Kentucky  Legis- 
lature by  John  Breckenridge.  They  were  passed  for  the  purpose  of  denning 
the  strict-construction  view  of  the  relative  powers  of  State  and  Government. 
They  were  nine  in  number.  They  declared  that  the  Union  was  not  based 
on  the  "  principle  of  unlimited  submission  to  the  General  Government;  "  that 
the  Constitution  was  a  compact,  to  which  each  State  was  a  party  as  over 
against  its  fellow  States;  and  that,  in  all  cases  not  specified  in  the  compact, 
each  party  had  a  right  to  judge  for  itself,  as  well  of  infractions  as  of  the 
mode  and  measure  of  redress.  They  proceeded  to  set  forth  the  unconstitu- 
tionality  of  the  Alien  and  Sedition  Acts,  and  invited  other  States  to  join  in 
declaring  them  void.  No  favorable  response  was  evoked.  In  1799  the 
Kentucky  Legislature  went  further,  and  declared  a  nullification  of  a  Federal 
law  by  a  State  to  be  the  rightful  remedy  in  cases  of  Federal  usurpation. 
Upon  these  resolutions  the  doctrines  of  nullification  and  secession  were  later 
founded. 

Kenyon  College,  Gambier,  O.,  was  chartered  in  1824  by  Episcopalians 
as  a  theological  seminary,  but  a  collegiate  and  a  preparatory  department  were 
afterward  added.  In  1840  the  seminary  was  constituted  into  a  separate 
school. 

Keokuk  (1780  7-1848),  chief  of  the  Sacs  and  Foxes  tribes  of  Indians, 
possessed  extraordinary  courage  and  powers  of  oratory.  He  used  his  influ- 
ence to  prevent  the  Black  Hawk  War  in  1832.  In  1837  he  made  a  tour 
through  the  principal  cities  in  the  East  and  attracted  great  attention  by  his 
eloquent  speeches.  He  always  maintained  friendship  for  the  whites. 

Kernan,  Francis  (1816—1892),  was  reporter  of  the  New  York  Court  of 
Appeals  from  1854  to  1857.  He  represented  New  York  in  the  U.  S.  Con- 
gress as  a  Democrat  from  1863  to  1865,  and  in  the  Senate  from  1875  to  1881. 

Kerr,  Michael  C.  (1827-1876),  was  a  member  of  the  Indiana  Legislature 
in  1856  and  1857.  He  was  reporter  of  the  Indiana  Supreme  Court  from 
1862  to  1865.  He  represented  Indiana  in  the  Congress  of  the  United  States 
as  a  Democrat  from  1865  to  J873,  and  was  Speaker  from  1875  to  1876.  He 
served  on  the  Committees  on  Elections,  Civil  Service  and  Ways  and  Means. 

Kersaint,  Gui  Pierre  de  P.  (1742-1793),  French  naval  commander,  served 
in  Canada  in  1762,  and  aided  the  colonists  from  1777  to  1783.  He  cap- 
tured two  British  ships  in  1777.  He  commanded  a  fleet  in  Chesapeake  Bay 
in  1783. 


DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  351 

Key,  David  M.,  bom  in  1824,  served  in  the  Confederate  army  throughout 
the  war.  He  represented  Tennessee  in  the  U.  S.  Senate  as  a  Democrat  from 
1875  to  1877.  He  was  Postmaster-General  in  Hayes'  Cabinet  from  1877  to 
1880.  From  1880  to  the  present  time  (1894)  he  has  been  a  U.  S.  District 
Judge  in  Tennessee. 

Key,  Francis  Scott  (1780-1843),  wrote  "  The  Star-Spang! ed  Banner  "  after 
watching  the  bombarding  of  Fort  McHenry  by  the  British  in  1814.  (See  art. 
McHenry,  Fort.)  The  song  became  immensely  popular. 

Keyes,  Erasmus  D.,  general,  was  born  in  Massachusetts  in  1810.  He 
served  under  General  Scott  from  1860  to  1861.  He  fought  at  Bull  Run  and 
commanded  a  corps  at  Fair  Oaks  and  Richmond.  Retired  1864.  Died  1895. 

Kickapoos,  a  tribe  of  Algonquin  Indians  who  early  centred  around  the 
Illinois.  In  1779  they  joined  Colonel  Clark  against  the  English,  but  soon 
manifested  hostility  toward  the  new  government.  Peace  was  not  fully  made 
until  after  Wayne's  victory  in  1795.  They  then  ceded  a  part  of  their  lands, 
as  they  did  also  in  1802,  1803  and  1804.  They  joined  Tecumseh  and  fought 
at  Tippecanoe  in  1811.  In  the  War  of  1812  they  allied  themselves  with  the 
English,  but  suffered  disastrous  defeats.  In  1815,  1816  and  1819  they  ceded 
more  territory,  and  in  1822  the  majority  removed  from  the  Illinois  to  the 
Osage.  Some  became  roving  bands.  In  1 854  they  were  removed  to  Kansas, 
and  in  1863  a  party  migrated  to  Mexico,  whence  400  returned  to  Indian 
Territory  in  1873. 

Kidd,  William,  born  in  Scotland,  died  in  1701.  He  early  proved  him- 
self a  bold  and  skillful  navigator.  He  received  a  reward  from  the  New 
York  Council  in  1691  for  his  services  to  the  colonies.  In  1696  he  was  placed 
in  command  of  the  "Adventure,"  of  thirty  guns  and  154  men,  to  destroy 
piracy.  He  was  led  to  engage  in  the  traffic  he  was  commissioned  to  destroy, 
and  became  one  of  the  most  noted  of  pirates.  In  1699  he  returned  to  New 
England,  was  arrested  and  sent  to  England,  where  he  was  hanged. 

Kieft,  Wilhelm  (16007-1647),  the  fifth  Dutch  Governor  of  New  Nether- 
lands, ruled  from  1638  to  1647.  He  concentrated  the  government  in  himself. 
He  improved  the  condition  and  appearance  of  New  Amsterdam,  repaired  the 
forts,  prohibited  illegal  traffic,  enforced  obedience  to  the  police  ordinances  of 
the  town,  erected  public  houses  and  improved  the  system  of  land  tenure. 
His  rule  was  nevertheless  tyrannical  and  despotic,  and  he  was  detested  by 
the  people.  He  organized  the  first  representative  assembly  in  New  Nether- 
lands in  1641,  but  dissolved  it  in  1643.  He  was  recalled  in  1647  at  tne 
request  of  the  colonists. 

Kilbourn  vs.  Thompson,  an  important  case  decided  by  the  U.  S.  Supreme 
Court  in  1880.  Kilbourn  was  summoned  as  a  witness  before  the  House  of 
Representatives  of  the  United  States  in  1876,  and  required  to  answer  ques- 
tions and  produce  certain  papers.  This  he  refused  to  do,  and  accordingly 
Thompson,  sergeant-at-arms  of  the  House,  was  ordered  to  arrest  and  imprison 
him  for  forty-five  days  in  the  common  jail  of  the  District  of  Columbia.  He 
was  released  on  a  writ  of  habeas  corpus,  and  brought  suit  before  the  Supreme 
Court  against  Thompson  and  certain  Congressmen  on  the  plea  of  illegal 


352  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

imprisonment.  The  court  decided  that  the  House  might  punish  its  own 
members  for  disorderly  conduct,  but  that  the  Constitution  did  not  invest 
either  House  with  a  general  power  of  punishment  for  contempt. 

Kilpatrick,  Hugh  Judson  (1836-1881),  cavalry  officer,  engaged  at  Big 
Bethel,  Falmouth  and  Bull  Run.  He  commanded  a  cavalry  brigade  at 
Leesburg  in  1862,  and  at  Richmond,  and  a  division  at  Gettysburg,  Boones- 
borough  and  Resaca.  He  took  part  in  Sherman's  march  to  the  sea.  He 
was  Minister  to  Chili  from  1865  to  1868,  and  in  1881.  He  was  a  popular 
Republican  campaign  orator. 

Kilpatrick's  Raid,  a  cavalry  expedition,  February  25  to  March  4,  1864,  led 
by  the  Federal  general  of  that  name,  who  with  5000  horsemen  swept  around 
Lee's  army,  then  lying  near  Richmond.  The  object  of  this  raid  was  to 
relieve  the  "Union  troopers  imprisoned  in  Libby  prison.  This  purpose  was 
not  accomplished,  but  Kilpatrick  succeeded  in  inflicting  considerable  loss 
upon  the  Confederates  by  destroying  railroads  and  bridges  and  cutting  up 
several  of  their  regiments. 

Kimball,  Herbert  C.  (1801-1868),  was  chosen  one  of  the  twelve  Mormon 
apostles  in  1835.  He  aided  in  establishing  the  Mormons  in  the  valley  of  the 
Great  Salt  Lake.  In  1847  ne  became  a  counsellor  of  Brigham  Young. 

Kinder-book,  N.  Y.,  noted  for  a  time  as  the  place  of  residence  of  Martin 
Van  Buren. 

King,  Horatio,  born  in  1811,  was  a  clerk  in  the  U.  S.  Postal  Department 
from  1839  to  1854.  He  was  First  Assistant  Postmaster-General  from  1854  to 
1  86  1.  In  1  86  1  he  was  Postmaster-General  in  Buchanan's  Cabinet.  Died  1897. 

King,  Preston  (1806-1865),  was  a  New  York  Assemblyman  from  1834  to 
1837.  He  was  a  Democratic  U.  S.  Congressman  from  1843  to  1847  an^  fr°m 
1849  to  T^53-  He  was  a  Republican  U.  S.  Senator  from  1857  to  1863. 


King,  Rufus  (1755-1827),  was  born  in  Maine  and  graduated  at  Harvard. 
He  came  prominently  forward  as  a  member  of  the  Massachusetts  Legislature 
and  a  delegate  to  the  Continental  Congress.  In  the  latter  body  he  moved  in 
1785  the  provision  against  slavery  in  the  Northwest  Territory,  afterward 
adopted  in  1787.  He  was  a  leading  member  of  the  Constitutional  Conven- 
tion of  1787,  and  went  home  to  work  zealously  for  the  ratification  of  the 
Constitution  by  Massachusetts.  Having  removed  to  New  York  he  was  a 
Federalist  U.  S.  Senator  from  that  State  in  1789-1796,  and  wrote  some  of 
the  "  Camillus  "  papers.  He  was  Minister  to  London,  1796-1803,  and  again  in 
the  Senate  1813-1825.  In  1816  he  was  an  unsuccessful  candidate  for  Gover- 
nor, and  the  same  year  received  thirty-four  electoral  votes  for  President, 
having  been  the  Federalist  candidate  for  Vice-President  in  1804  and  1808. 
His  last  service  was  again  at  the  Court  of  London  in  1825-1826.  Life  and 
works  by  King  (1894). 

King,  Thomas  Starr  (1824-1863),  a  famous  Unitarian  clergyman  who  won 
distinction  as  a  lecturer  in  the  East  and  in  California.  At  the  outbreak  of 
the  Civil  War  he  was  an  earnest  advocate  of  the  Union  cause. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  353 

King,  William  R.  (1786-1853),  represented  Alabama  in  the  U.  S.  Congress 
as  a  War  Democrat  from  1811  to  1816.  He  was  Secretary  of  Legation  to 
Russia  from  1816  to  1818.  He  was  a  U.  S.  Senator  from  1819  to  1844,  and 
Minister  to  France  from  1844  to  1846.  He  was  a  U.  S.  Senator  from  1846 
to  1853,  when  he  was  elected  Vice-President  of  the  United  States,  but  soon 
died. 

King  George's  War.  Immediately  upon  the  breaking  out  in  Europe  of 
the  war  of  the  Austrian  succession,  1744,  there  began  between  the  English 
and  French  colonies  a  frontier  war  known  as  King  George's.  The  French 
made  an  attack  in  1744  upon  the  northeastern  settlements,  and  privateers 
from  Louisbourg,  in  Cape  Breton,  harassed  the  New  England  coast.  In  1745 
the  General  Court  of  Massachusetts  proposed  a  colonial  expedition  against 
Louisbourg,  the  strongest  French  fort  north  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  Massa- 
chusetts voted  3250  men  and  the  other  colonies  a  proportionate  number. 
William  Pepperell,  of  Maine,  commanded  the  expedition.  After  a  siege  of 
two  months  Louisbourg  capitulated,  June  17,  1745.  Another  expedition  was 
contemplated  against  Quebec,  but  the  Treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  terminated 
the  war  (1748). 

King  William's  War.  In  1689,  upon  the  accession  of  William  and 
Mary,  war  was  declared  between  England  and  France,  and  at  once  spread  to 
the  colonies.  During  1690  Governor  Frontenac,  of  Canada,  sent  three 
Indian  expeditions  against  the  English  frontiers.  Many  settlers  were  killed 
and  scalped.  A  colonial  Congress,  the  first  ever  held,  assembled  at  New 
York  in  1690,  and  the  next  summer  Sir  William  Phipps  was  sent  with  a 
fleet  and  1800  New  England  men  against  Acadia  and  Port  Royal,  both  of 
which  he  captured.  Acadia  was  retaken  by  the  French  the  next  year.  In 
1696  the  French  took  Newfoundland,  and  massacred  the  inhabitants  of 
Andover,  Mass.  The  trouble  ended  with  the  Treaty  of  Ryswick  in  1697. 

King's  Mountain,  Battle  of,  October  7,  1780.  Colonel  Ferguson,  with 
1 200  men,  had  been  despatched  by  Cornwallis  to  scour  the  highlands  of 
South  Carolina  and  enlist  the  Tories.  Ferguson  soon  found  the  backwoods- 
men rising  against  him,  and  was  closely  beset  by  3000  militia.  He  took  a 
position  at  King's  Mountain  on  the  border  between  the  Carolinas.  In 
his  rear  was  a  precipice,  and  in  front  woods  and  broken  ground.  One 
division  of  the  Americans  lured  him  from  his  position,  and  the  other  two 
then  attacked  his  flanks.  Ferguson  himself  fell,  and  389  of  his  men  weie 
killed,  716  were  taken  prisoners.  The  Americans  lost  their  brilliant  leader, 
Colonel  James  Williams.  Of  their  troops  twenty-eight  were  killed  and 
sixty  wounded.  History  by  Draper. 

King's  Province.  In  1664  a  royal  commission  was  sent  to  the  colonies 
with  the  power  to  regulate  all  the  New  England  colonies.  This  commis- 
sion in  1665  took  the  whole  Narragansett  country  away  from  all  the  prov- 
inces and  converted  it  into  the  "  King's  Province,"  under  Rhode  Island 
management.  In  1729  it  became  King's  County,  Rhode  Island. 

Kingsborough,  Edward  K.,  Viscount  (1795-1837),  published  a  famous 
work  of  nine  volumes  on  "The  Antiquities  of  Mexico,"  which  reproduces 
in/ac  simile  the  Mexican  records  and  paintings  then  existing. 

23 


354  DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Kingston,  N.  C.  Here,  December  14,  1862,  General  Foster,  en  route 
with  11,000  Federals  to  destroy  the  important  railroad  junction  at  Golds- 
boro,  fell  in  with  the  Confederate  General  Evans,  commanding  6000  troops. 
An  engagement  was  immediately  begun.  Evans  was  posted  between  a 
dense  swamp  and  the  bridge  over  the  Neuse  River.  This  was  speedily  cap- 
tured and  the  Confederates  dispersed. — Again,  March  8  and  10,  1865,  there 
was  some  sharp  fighting  between  the  Federals  under  Cox,  of  Schofield's  army, 
and  the  Confederates  under  Bragg  and  D.  H.  Hill.  Bragg  was  in  full 
retreat  from  Wilmington  when  he  was  overtaken  by  Cox.  Bragg  was  com- 
pelled to  retire  to  Goldsboro  March  10.  There  were  about  12,000  men 
engaged  on  either  side. 

Kirk,  John  Foster,  born  in  1824,  came  to  the  United  States  from  Canada 
in  1842.  From  1847  to  I&59  ^e  was  assistant  to  William  H.  Prescott.  He 
edited  Lippincotfs  Magazine  from  1870  to  1886.  He  published  a  "  History 
of  Charles  the  Bold." 

Kirkwood,  Samuel  J.,  born  in  1813,  was  prosecuting  attorney  of  Rich- 
land  County,  Ohio,  from  1845  to  1849.  He  was  Governor  of  Iowa  from  1859 
to  1863.  He  represented  Iowa  in  the  U.  S.  Senate  as  a  Republican  from 
1866  to  1867.  He  was  Governor  of  Iowa  from  1875  to  1877,  and  a  U.  S. 
Senator  from  1877  to  1881,  when  he  became  Secretary  of  the  Interior  in 
Garfield's  Cabinet,  serving  till  1882.  Died  September  i,  1894. 

Kitchen  Cabinet,  a  coterie  of  intimate  friends  of  President  Jackson,  who 
were  supposed  to  have  more  influence  over  his  actions  than  his  official 
advisers.  They  were:  General  Duff  Green,  editor  of  the  United  States  Tele- 
graph at  Washington,  the  confidential  organ  of  the  administration;  Major 
William  B.  Lewis,  of  Nashville,  Tenn.,  Second  Auditor  of  the  Treasury; 
Isaac  Hill,  editor  of  the  New  Hampshire  Patriot,  and  Amos  Kendall,  of 
Kentucky,  Fourth  Auditor  of  the  Treasury. 

Kittanning,  Burning  of,  September,  1756.  During  the  French  and  Indian 
War,  an  attack  was  made  in  early  September,  1756,  by  Colonel  Armstrong 
upon  Kittanning,  a  nest  of  Delaware  Indians.  The  place  was  completely 
surprised,  the  houses  burned,  the  chief  killed,  and  much  ammunition 
furnished  by  the  French  destroyed.  The  English  loss  was  about  twenty. 

Klamaths,  a  name  given  to  several  Indian  tribes  living  in  Oregon  and 
California.  The  influx  of  whites  into  California  led  to  troubles  in  1851, 
but  a  treaty  soon  restored  peace.  In  1864  they  ceded  large  tracts  of  land 
and  went  on  a  reservation. 

Knights  of  Labor,  an  order  founded  in  Philadelphia  in  1869  by  Uriah  S. 
Stevens  and  formally  organized  in  1871  for  the  protection  of  working  people 
and  the  development  of  educated  labor.  It  was  secret  until  the  name  was 
made  public  in  1881.  By  that  time  nearly  all  trades  were  represented.  It 
is  governed  by  a  national  executive  board  and  local  assemblies  which  have 
power  to  order  "  strikes  "  and  "  boycotts."  The  membership  is  over  500,000. 
The  chief  strike  so  ordered  was  that  on  the  Missouri  Pacific  system  in  1 886. 
It  failed. 


DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  355 

Knott,  James  Proctor,  born  in  1830,  was  chairman  of  the  Judiciary  Com- 
mittee in  the  Missouri  Legislature  from  1857  to  I859>  when  he  became  State 
Attorney-General,  and  served  till  1862.  He  represented  Kentucky  in  the 
U.  S.  Congress  as  a  Democrat  from  1867  to  1871  and  1875  to  1883.  He  was 
chairman  of  the  Judiciary  Committee  from  1875  to  1883.  He  was  elected 
Governor  of  Kentucky  in  1883,  and  served  till  1887. 

Know-Nothings,  Know-Nothing  Party,  a  name  given  to  the  members  of 
the  American  party,  because,  being  members  of  a  secret  order,  when  they 
were  asked  anything  about  its  organization  or  concerns,  they  professed  to 
know  nothing  about  the  matter. 

Knox,  Henry  (1750-1806),  an  American  cabinet  officer,  was  born  in  Boston 
and  was  a  bookseller  before  the  Revolution.  He  exchanged  this  occupation 
for  that  of  an  artillery  officer,  fought  at  Bunker  Hill,  and  obtained  much 
credit  for  his  transfer  of  ordnance  in  the  winter  of  1775-1776  from  the 
Canadian  frontier  and  the  Lake  George  region  to  the  army  around  Boston. 
He  was  made  a  brigadier-general  of  artillery,  fought  with  distinction  at 
Trenton,  Brandy  wine,  Monmouth  and  Yorktown,  and  received  the  grade  of 
a  major-general.  He  was  active  in  the  Cincinnati  Society,  and  became  Sec- 
retary of  War  under  the  old  Congress  in  1785.  Washington  reappointed  him 
to  this  position,  which  he  filled  until  1795. 

Knox,  John  Jay  (1828-1892),  was  Deputy  Comptroller  of  the  Currency  from 
1867  to  1872  and  Comptroller  from  1872  to  1884.  He  drafted  and  prepared 
the  Coinage  Act  of  1873.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  Banking  in  the  United 
States." 

Knox  vs.  Lee,  a  legal-tender  case  brought  before  the  Supreme  Court  of 
the  United  States  in  1870  by  writ  of  error  from  the  Circuit  Court  of  Texas. 
A  flock  of  sheep,  belonging  to  Mrs.  Lee,  of  Pennsylvania,  had  been  seized  by 
the  Confederate  authorities  and  sold  to  Knox  for  Confederate  money.  Mrs. 
Lee  brought  suit  for  recovery  and  demanded  payment  in  gold  or  silver, 
though  at  the  time  of  the  sale  greenbacks  were  deemed  legal  tender.  The 
defendant  objected  and  the  court  sustained  the  objection,  saying  there  was 
no  difference  in  value  in  law  between  the  two.  Judgment  was  found  for 
the  plaintiff  and  was  confirmed  by  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States. 
This  decision  overruled  in  part  that  given  in  the  case  of  Hepburn  vs. 
Griswold. 

Knoxville,  Tenn.,  occupied  by  Burnside  with  a  strong  Federal  force,  12,000 
men,  in  1863,  and  beleagured  and  assaulted  without  success,  November  17 
and  29,  by  Longstreet,  who  had  pursued  the  Federal  general  thither.  The 
first  assault  proving  a  failure,  Longstreet  decided  to  reduce  Burnside  by  siege, 
but  fearing  Grant  might  come  up  and  destroy  him,  he  attempted  another 
assault  on  the  29th.  The  Confederates  made  a  desperate  charge,  pushing 
each  other  up  the  parapet  and  many  forcing  their  way  through  the  embra- 
sures. They  were  hurled  back  each  time  with  heavy  loss,  and  at  last  drew 
off  to  bury  their  dead.  The  siege  continued,  however,  for  some  days.  Grant 
had  ordered  Sherman  to  go  to  Burnside's  assistance.  Sherman  started  to  do 
so,  but  meantime  the  battle  of  Chattanooga  took  place,  and  Sherman  did  not 


356  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

arrive  until  December  4.  Then,  after  a  short  battle,  Longstreet  was  com. 
pelled  to  raise  the  siege  and  retire. 

"  Knoxville  Gazette,"  earliest  newspaper  in  Tennessee.  It  was  established 
at  Knoxville  in  1793,  by  R.  Roulstone,  the  same  year  that  printing  was 
introduced  into  the  State. 

Knyphausen,  Baron  Wilhelm  von  (1716-1800),  came  to  the  United  States 
as  second  in  command  of  the  Hessians  in  1776.  In  1777  he  was  placed  in 
command  of  the  German  auxiliaries.  He  fought  at  Long  Island,  White 
Plains,  Fort  Washington,  Brandywine  and  Monmouth.  During  the  absence 
of  Sir  Henry  Clinton  in  1780,  he  was  in  command  of  New  York.  He 
returned  to  Europe  in  1782. 

Kohl,  John  G.  (1808-1878),  visited  America  from  Germany  from  1854  to 
1858.  He  published  many  valuable  works  relating  to  the  United  States, 
including  a  series  of  maps  and  "  History  of  the  Discovery  of  the  U.  S. 
Coast,"  "  History  of  the  Two  Oldest  Charts  of  the  New  World,"  "  History 
of  the  Discovery  of  the  Northeastern  Coast  of  America,"  "  History  of  the 
Discovery  of  America,"  "  History  of  the  Discovery  and  Voyage  through  the 
Straits  of  Magellan,"  and  "  Travels  in  the  United  States." 

Kosciuszko,  Tadeusz  (1746-1817),  came  to  America  from  Poland  in  1775. 
He  was  commissioned  colonel  under  General  Gates  in  1776,  and  distinguished 
himself  by  his  engineering  skill.  He  superintended  the  fortification  at  We.ct 
Point.  He  was  brevetted  brigadier-general  in  1783.  He  was  afterward 
prominent  in  the  defence  of  Poland  in  1794. 

Kossuth,  Louis  (1802-1894,)  was  provisional  Governor  of  Hungary  during 
the  Hungarian  war  for  independence  in  1848  and  1849.  Exiled,  he  visited 
the  United  States  from  1851  to  1852,  and  attempted  to  arouse  the  American 
people  to  support  the  cause  of  Hungary.  The  U.  S.  Government  refused  to 
interfere  in  the  affairs  of  European  powers.  His  eloquence  aroused  great 
enthusiasm. 

Koszta,  Martin.  In  1853  Koszta,  an  Hungarian  refugee,  was  captured  in 
the  harbor  of  Smyrna  and  confined  on  an  Austrian  brig.  The  U.  S.  agent 
demanded  his  release,  on  the  ground  that  he  had  taken  the  preliminary  steps 
for  becoming  an  American  citizen.  Captain  Ingraham,  commanding  an 
American  war-sloop,  threatened  to  fire  on  the  brig  unless  Koszta  was  released. 
He  was  therefore  turned  over  to  the  French  Consul  until  the  matter  could  be 
arranged,  and  was  afterward  released.  Ingraham's  action  was  approved  by 
both  Houses  of  Congress  the  next  year,  May  7. 

Ku-Klux  Klan,  also  called  the  "  White  League,"  the  "  Invisible  Empire," 
the  "  Knights  of  the  White  Camelia,"  a  society  founded  at  Pulaski,  Tenn., 
in  1866,  during  the  reconstruction  period.  It  was  originally  organized  for 
purposes  of  amusement,  but  spread  rapidly  and  terrorized  the  whole  South 
by  its  mysterious  movements.  It  opposed  such  organizations  as  the  "  Loyal 
Union  League "  and  "  Lincoln  Brotherhood,"  formed  among  the  newly 
freed  negroes  by  the  more  disreputable  class  of  whites  through  the  South. 
The  negroes  were  in  some  cases  persecuted  and  frightened  nearly  to  death 
and  prevented  from  voting.  The  Klan  was  disbanded  in  1869  by  the  order 
of  the  Government.  Some  members  were  arrested,  but  not  convicted  of 
misdemeanor. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  357 


L-. 

Labor.  (See  Piogressive  Labor  party,  Union  Labor  party,  United  Labor 
party.) 

Labor  Department,  at  first  a  bureau  connected  with  the  Department  of 
the  Interior.  It  was  established  as  a  department  June  27,  1884.  The  chief 
officer  is  the  Commissioner  of  Labor,  whose  duty  it  is  to  diffuse  useful  infor- 
mation among  the  people  on  labor  questions,  and  to  report  the  effect  of  cus- 
toms laws  upon  the  currency  and  agricultural  interests. 

Labor  Statistics,  Bureaus  of.     (See  Bureaus.) 

Laboulaye,  Edouard  R.  L.  (1811-1883),  was  a  prominent  French  student 
of  law  and  political  institutions.  He  was  an  admirer  of  American  institu- 
tions, and  advocated  the  cause  of  the  Union  during  the  war.  He  wrote 
"  Political  History  of  the  United  States,"  "  The  United  States  and  France," 
"  Paris  in  America,"  "The  State  and  its  Limits"  and  translated  Channing's 
works. 

La  Colle  Mill,  Canada,  March  30,  1814,  War  of  1812.  To  clear  the  way 
to  Montreal,  General  Wilkinson,  with  4000  Americans,  pushed  on  against 
the  British  entrenched  at  La  Colle  Mill.  The  place  was  defended  at  first  by 
200  men,  but  this  number  was  increased  to  almost  1000  men  during  the  battle 
by  reinforcements.  The  British  position  was  so  well  fortified  that  the 
assaults  were  easily  repulsed;  counter-charges  were  likewise  unsuccessful. 
After  two  hours  of  desperate  fighting  the  Americans  withdrew  with  a  loss 
of  thirteen  killed  and  128  wounded;  the  British  lost  eleven  killed  and  forty- 
six  wounded.  The  military  career  of  General  Wilkinson  ended  with  this 
battle;  he  was  relieved  from  command,  tried  by  court-martial,  but  acquitted. 

Laconia,  now  the  State  of  New  Hampshire.  August  10,  1622,  a  grant 
was  made  to  Sir  Ferdinando  Gorges  of  the  land  between  the  Merrimac  and 
Sagadahock  (Kennebec)  Rivers.  November  7,  1629,  a  grant  was  made  to 
George  Mason  between  the  Merrimac  and  the  Piscataqua.  In  1631  Mason 
and  Gorges  formed  the  Laconia  Company  and  obtained  an  additional  grant 
between  Naumkeag  and  the  Piscataqua. 

La  Corne,  Pierre,  a  French-Canadian  soldier  who  defeated  the  Indians  at 
Lachine  Rapids  in  1747,  and  commanded  at  Grand  Pre".  He  was  an  emissary 
to  the  Acadians  in  1749.  He  fought  at  Quebec. 

Lafayette,  Marquis  de  [Marie  Jean  Paul  Joseph  Roche  Yves  Gilbert  du 
Motier]  (September  6,  i757~May  20,  1834),  a  French  general,  was  bora  in 
Auvergne  of  a  noble  family  distinguished  in  the  service  of  the  State.  As  a 
boy  he  was  a  page  to  the  queen.  He  was  still  a  mere  youth  when  the  out- 
break of  the  American  Revolution  excited  the  sympathy  of  many  high- 
spirited  young  Frenchmen,  Lafayette  among  others.  Having  equipped  a 
ship  at  his  own  expense  he  sailed  from  Bordeaux,  with  the  nominal  disap- 
proval of  the  French  Government,  in  April,  1777.  Landing  in  South  Caro- 
lina he  proceeded  northward,  was  in  July  appointed  a  major-general,  and 
soon  became  a  fast  friend  of  Washington,  He  was  wounded  at  Brandywine, 


358  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

served  at  Monmouth  and  in  the  Rhode  Island  campaign,  and  sailed  for  France 
in  1779,  returning  in  time  to  sit  on  the  board  of  judges  against  Andre".  In 
1781  he  commanded  in  Virginia  against  Arnold  and  then  against  Cornwallis, 
and  earned  distinction  by  his  conduct  of  affairs  against  the  able  British  general. 
After  the  war  he  returned  to  France,  paid  in  1 784  a  short  visit  to  America, 
and  on  the  breaking  out  of  the  French  Revolution  he  was  for  a  time  one  of 
the  foremost  figures.  He  commanded  the  National  Guard,  but  by  1792  the 
Jacobins  removed  him,  as  a  moderate,  from  the  eastern  department;  escaping 
to  Belgium  he  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Prussians  and  Austrians  and  was 
imprisoned,  chiefly  at  Olmiitz,  until  1797.  He  did  not  accept  office  during 
the  Napoleonic  regime,  but  was  a  member  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  in  the 
Restoration  period.  In  1824-25  he  visited  the  United  States  and  was  received 
with  the  utmost  enthusiasm.  His  last  conspicuous  service  was  as  commander 
of  the  National  Guard  in  the  revolutionary  days  of  1830.  • 

Lafayette  College,  Haston,  Pa.,  was  chartered  by  Presbyterians  in  1826, 
and  fully  organized  four  years  later  as  a  college  preparatory  to  the  profes- 
sions. In  1866  a  scientific  department  was  added  through  the  gift  of  half  a 
million  dollars  from  Mr.  Pardee.  A  law  department  was  opened  in  1875. 

Lafitte,  Jean  (17807-1826),  pirate,  came  to  New  Orleans  from  France 
about  1809.  With  his  brother  Pierre  he  engaged  in  smuggling  and  piracy. 
Attempts  to  destroy  their  traffic  were  unsuccessful  and  they  made  a  settle- 
ment at  Barataria,  on  the  island  of  Grand  Terre.  In  1814  the  British  made 
tempting  offers  to  engage  against  the  United  States  during  the  war,  but  they 
were  refused,  and  the  documents  containing  the  proposals  were  sent  to  the 
Legislature.  Believing  them  forgeries  the  Government  sent  an  expedition 
against  the  buccaneers  and  destroyed  their  settlement.  They  afterward 
joined  the  forces  of  General  Jackson  and  served  during  the  war,  on  promise 
of  pardon.  From  1817  to  1821  Lafitte  occupied  Galveston,  nominally  as 
Mexican  Governor. 

Lake  Borgne,  Naval  Battle  on.  Here  Admiral  Cochrane,  with  his  fleet 
to  attack  New  Orleans,  had  his  passage  disputed  by  some  small  war-vessels, 
carrying  in  all  182  men  and  twenty-three  guns,  Lieutenant  Jones  commander. 
He  at  once  sent,  December  14,  1812,  sixty  barges  with  1200  men  under 
Captain  Lockyer  to  capture  the  American  fleet.  The  engagement  was  long 
and  desperate,  but  resulted  in  a  victory  for  the  British  at  an  expense  of  300 
killed  and  wounded.  The  American  loss  was  six  killed  and  thirty-five 
wounded. 

Lake  Erie,  Battle  on,  a  celebrated  naval  battle  of  the  War  of  1812.  The 
American  fleet,  hastily  built  and  eqiiipped  for  the  occasion,  consisted  of  eight 
small  vessels,  two  of  twenty  guns  each,  the  rest  only  fourteen  guns  in  all. 
The  "Lawrence,"  Commodore  Perry,  was  the  flagship.  The  British 
squadron,  Commodore  Barclay,  consisted  of  six  vessels  of  seventy  guns  in 
all.  The  battle  for  the  mastery  of  the  lake  began  September  10,  1813. 
Perry's  ship  was  flying  the  motto,  "  Don't  give  up  the  ship."  The  "  Law- 
rence "  for  two  hours  bore  the  brunt  of  the  battle  till  it  was  almost  a  total 
wreck.  In  a  small  rowboat,  amid  the  fire  of  the  British  fleet,  Perry  now 
crossed  over  to  the  "  Niagara,"  which  was  almost  untouched.  On  reaching 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  359 

this,  he  at  once  hoisted  his  pennant  and  dashed  through  the  British  line. 
Within  ten  minutes  the  flagship  and  three  other  British  ships  had  sur- 
rendered. The  other  two  were  pursued  and  captured.  Perry  at  once  sent 
his  famous  despatch:  "  We  have  met  the  enemy,  and  they  are  ours."  The 
American  loss  was  twenty-seven  killed  and  ninety-six  wounded;  the  British, 
200  killed  and  600  made  prisoners. 

Lake  George,  Battle  at.  In  the  French  and  Indian  War,  on  August  26, 
1755,  William  Johnson,  with  about  2000  men,  appeared  at  Lake  George. 
His  purpose  was  to  advance  upon  Ticonderoga.  Dieskau,  the  French  com- 
mander, advanced  with  1500  men  to  cut  off  Johnson's  communications.  A 
division  sent  out  to  prevent  this  was  cut  to  pieces.  The  French  followed 
the  retreating  force  to  Fort  William  Henry,  but  were  repulsed.  Johnson  did 
not  follow  up  his  victory.  The  English  loss  was  242,  the  French  228. 

Lake  of  the  Woods.  By  the  Treaty  of  1782-83  the  boundary  line 
between  the  British  and  American  possessions  ran  along  the  forty-ninth  par- 
allel on  a  line  with  the  source  of  the  Mississippi.  The  Louisiana  Purchase 
in  1803  broke  up  conclusions  as  to  the  fairness  of  this  line.  Much  dispute 
and  negotiation  followed.  Finally  by  the  Webster-Ashburton  Treaty  of 
1842,  the  line  was  agreed  upon  which  ran  across  Lake  Superior,  then  up  a 
waterway  agreed  upon,  thence  down  a  stream  to  the  Lake  of  the  Woods  and 
across  that  lake  to  a  point  at  the  northwest  corner  (49°  23'  55"  north  lati- 
tude), and  then  south  to  the  49°  parallel  and  along  it  westerly  to  the  Rocky 
Mountains. 

Lamar,  Lucius  Q.  C.  (1825-1893),  represented  Mississippi  in  the  U.  S. 
Congress  as  a  Democrat  from  1857  to  1 86 1.  He  became  a  colonel  in  the 
Confederate  service.  In  1863  he  was  sent  as  a  commissioner  to  Russia.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  U.  S.  House  of  Representatives  from  1872  to  1877, 
and  a  Senator  from  1877  to  1885.  He  was  an  effective  speaker  and  an 
opponent  of  the  "  inflation  policy."  He  was  Secretary  of  the  Interior  in 
Cleveland's  Cabinet  from  1885  to  1888,  when  he  became  a  Justice  of  the 
U.  S.  Supreme  Court. 

Lamar,  Mirabeau  B.  (1798-1859),  was  commissioned  major  in  the  Texan 
revolution.  He  was  vice-president  of  Texas  from  1836  to  1838,  and  presi- 
dent from  1838  to  1841.  He  was  prominent  at  Monterey  during  the  Mexican 
War. 

Lamb,  Martha  J.  R.  N.  (1829-1893),  was  born  in  Massachusetts.  She  was 
the  author  of  a  "  History  of  the  City  of  New  York,"  and  many  historical 
essays  for  periodicals.  From  1883  to  1892  she  was  editor  of  the  Magazine 
of  American  History. 

Lament,  Daniel  S.,  of  New  York,  was  born  in  1851.  He  was  private 
secretary  to  President  Cleveland  during  his  first  administration.  He  became 
Secretary  of  War  in  Cleveland's  Cabinet  in  1893. 

Lancaster,  Joseph  (1778-1838),  came  to  America  from  England  in  1818. 
He  was  one  of  the  inventors  of  the  "  monitorial "  system  of  instruction  and 
gave  a  great  stimulus  to  popular  education. 


360  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTOKY. 

Lancaster,  Pa.,  was  founded  in  1718,  and  wa?  called  Hickory  Town  until 
1730.  In  1777  Congress  sat  here  for  a  few  days,  and  from  1799  to  1812  it 
was  the  capital  of  the  State.  It  became  a  city  in  1818. 

Land  Bank.  In  1714,  during  Governor  Dudley's  rule  of  Massachusetts, 
the  downfall  of  credit  and  general  scarcity  of  circulating  medium  induced 
certain  merchants  to  suggest  the  erection  of  a  Bank  of  Credit  in  Boston, 
founded  on  land  security,  and  to  promote  subscription  promised  £200  annu- 
ally to  Harvard  College.  Dudley  was  greatly  opposed  to  this  measure  and 
his  son  wrote  an  able  paper  setting  forth  the  objections  to  such  a  scheme. 
To  forestall  the  action  of  the  bank,  the  province,  by  law,  issued  ^50,000  to 
be  let  out  on  mortgages  of  real  estate,  and  these  bills  were  in  circulation 
during  thirty  years.  The  Land  Bank  scheme  was  thus  prevented. 

Land  Office.  This  office  is  charged  with  the  surveying  and  disposal  of 
the  public  lands  of  the  United  States.  Until  1812,  no  such  office  existed, 
the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  acting  as  the  agent  in  the  sale  or  disposal  of 
the  public  lands.  When  the  office  of  the  Commissioner  of  the  General  Land 
Office  was  created,  it  remained  a  bureau  of  the  Treasury  Department,  though 
reorganized  in  1836,  until  1849,  when,  on  the  creation  of  the  Interior  Depart- 
ment, the  Land  Office  became  a  part  of  it. 

Lander,  Frederick  W.  (1822-1862),  conducted  several  trans-continental 
explorations  for  the  United  States.  He  was  appointed  brigadier-general  dur- 
ing the  Civil  War,  and  won  distinction  at  Philippi,  Hancock  and  Blooming 
Gap. 

Lands,  Public.  After  the  Revolution  the  Federal  Government  found 
great  difficulty  in  regulating  the  enormous  tracts  of  public  lands,  which  had 
been  acquired  through  purchase  and  conquest  from  the  Indians  and  by  the 
cessions  of  the  various  States  of  their  outlying  territories.  In  1787  the 
price  of  public  land  was  66^  cents  per  acre,  and  large  tracts  north  of  the 
Ohio  were  disposed  of.  Unauthorized  entries  were  frequently  made,  however, 
and  force  had  to  be  used  for  dislodgment.  In  1790  Hamilton  proposed  that 
the  public  lands  should  be  set  apart  in  townships  ten  miles  square,  and  dis- 
posed of  to  suit  different  classes  of  purchasers  on  a  credit  basis.  The  rectan- 
gular system  was  in  fact  adopted  in  1796.  Up  to  the  year  1800  all  sales  had 
been  made  from  the  territory  now  included  in  Ohio  and  amounted  to  1,484,- 
047  acres.  In  1800  local  registers  were  established.  The  credit  basis  of 
sale  caused  numerous  purchases,  but  payment  was  slow  and  in  discouragingly 
small  amounts,  while  the  debtors  constantly  cried  for  relief.  The  States,  too, 
claimed  a  share  in  the  profits.  Upon  the  question  of  ceding  public  lands  to 
new  States,  Henry  Clay  prepared  for  the  land  committee  a  report  reviewing 
the  history  of  the  public  lands  and  concluding  that  it  was  inexpedient 
either  to  reduce  the  price  of  the  lands  or  to  cede  them  to  the  new  States. 
In  1835  speculation  in  public  lands  became  popular,  owing  to  the  inflated 
condition  of  the  currency,  which  proved  injurious  to  the  public  interests. 
In  1836  Jackson  issued  his  "specie  circular."  (See  art)  It  was  not  until 
in  1840  that  the  right  of  pre-emption  was  accorded  to  settlers.  By  1850 
it  became  common  to  make  grants  of  lands  to  States,  corporations  and 
individuals  for  public  improvements,  such  as  railroads  and  canals.  In  1862 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  361 

the    homestead    laws,  granting    free    settlement    on   public   lands,  tended 
greatly  to  simplify  matters  and  to  promote  real  settlement 

Lane,  Henry  Smith  (1811-1881),  was  a  Republican  member  of  the  Indi- 
ana Legislature  from  1838  to  1843.  He  was  a  lieutenant-colonel  during  the 
Mexican  War.  He  served  in  the  U.  S.  Senate  from  1861  to  1867. 

Lane,  James  Henry  (1814-1866),  commanded  a  brigade  at  Buena  Vista 
in  the  Mexican  War.  He  represented  Indiana  in  the  U.  S.  Congress  as  a 
Democrat  from  1853  to  1855.  He  was  a  leader  of  the  Free-Soil  party  and 
prominent  in  the  Kansas  disturbances  from  1855  to  1859.  He  represented 
Kansas  in  the  U.  S.  Senate  as  a  Republican  from  1861  to  1866. 

Lane,  Joseph  (1801-1881),  served  in  the  Indiana  Legislature  from  1822 
to  1846.  He  was  brevetted  major  during  the  Mexican  War.  He  was 
engaged  at  Buena  Vista,  Huamantla  and  Matamoras  and  commanded  at 
Atlixco.  He  was  a  delegate  from  Oregon  to  the  U.  S.  Congress  as  a  Demo- 
crat from  1851  to  1857.  He  was  a  U.  S.  Senator  from  1859  to  1861.  He 
was  defeated  as  candidate  for  Vice-President  of  the  United  States  on  the 
Breckinridge  ticket  in  1860. 

Lane,  Sir  Ralph  (15307-1604),  assumed  charge  of  Sir  Walter  Raleigh's 
Virginia  colony  sent  out  in  1585.  The  colony  was  established  on  Roanoke 
Island,  but  was  abandoned  in  1585,  and  Lane  returned  to  England. 

Langdon,  John  (1741-1819),  was  a  delegate  from  New  Hampshire  to  the 
Continental  Congress  from  1775  to  1776  and  in  1783.  He  devoted  his  estate 
to  the  cause  of  the  Revolution,  and  fought  at  Bennington  and  Saratoga. 
He  was  a  delegate  to  the  Constitutional  Convention  of  1787.  He  was  a 
Democratic  U.  S.  Senator  from  1789  to  1801.  He  was  Governor  of  New 
Hampshire  from  1805  to  1809,  and  from  1810  to  1811. 

Langlade,  Charles  M.  de  (1729-1800),  led  the  Ottawas  in  the  defeat  of 
General  Braddock  in  1755.  He  aided  Montcalm  during  the  siege  of  Quebec, 
and  was  active  in  the  battle  on  the  Plains  of  Abraham.  In  1777  he  led  a 
band  of  Indians  in  aid  of  the  English  under  Burgoyne.  From  1780  to  1800 
he  was  commander-in-chief  of  the  Canadian  militia. 

Lanier,  Sidney  (1842-1881),  poet,  served  in  the  Confederate  army  during 
the  Civil  War.  He  composed  the  ode  for  the  opening  of  the  Centennial 
Exhibition  in  1876. 

Lansing,  John  (1754-1829),  was  a  delegate  from  New  York  to  the  Con- 
tinental Congress  from  1784  to  1788.  He  was  a  delegate  to  the  Constitu- 
tional Convention  of  1787  which  framed  the  Constitution,  but  refused  to 
sign  it,  and  opposed  its  ratification.  In  1790  he  was  appointed  a  Justice  of 
the  New  York  Supreme  Court,  and  in  1798  became  Chief  Justice.  From 
1801  to  1814  he  was  Chancellor  of  the  State. 

Lansing,  Mich.,  was  settled  about  1847,  when  it  became  the  capital  of 
the  State.  It  received  a  city  charter  in  1859. 

La  Pe'rouse,  Jean  T.  de  G.  (1741-1788),  commanded  "L'Amazone"  in 
D'Estaing's  flotilla  in  the  Revolutionary  War.  In  1780  he  destroyed  five 


362  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATUS  HISTORY. 

English  vessels,  and  in  1782  destroyed  the  British  posts  on  Hudson  Bay. 
From  1786  to  1788  he  explored  the  Pacific. 

Larkin,  Thomas  O.,  born  in  1803,  U.  S.  Consul  at  Monterey,  Cal.,  was 
prominent  in  all  the  movements  which  led  to  the  separation  of  California 
from  Mexico,  and  in  the  organization  of  its  government. 

La  Salle,  Sieur  de  [Robert  Cavelier]  (1643-1687),  a  distinguished  French 
explorer,  was  born  at  Rouen.  In  1669  he  emigrated  to  Canada,  and  began 
the  series  of  his  remarkable  journeys  in  the  West.  He  visited  Lake  Michi- 
gan and  the  Illinois  River,  but  whether  he  at  this  early  stage  saw  the  Missis- 
sippi is  a  disputed  problem.  In  1673  ne  received  a  grant  of  the  station  at 
Fort  Frontenac  (now  Kingston).  He  was  again  in  France  in  1677,  but  the 
next  year  was  back  in  Canada  and  had  reached  Niagara.  He  ascended  the 
chain  of  lakes  to  Mackinaw,  thence  up  Lake  Michigan  and  down  the  Illinois 
River  to  Peoria.  Disappointments  followed;  but  he  was  able  to  renew  the 
canoe  voyage,  descend  the  Illinois  and  Mississippi  to  its  mouth,  which  he 
reached  in  April,  1682,  and  to  claim  the  entire  region  for  Louis  XIV. 
Returning  to  France,  he  organized  an  expedition  which,  in  1684,  sailed 
<"~ectly  for  the  mouth  of  the  great  river.  But  the  explorers  landed  by 
mistake  at  Matagorda  Bay,  and  after  harassing  wanderings  La  Salle  was 
murdered  by  his  followers  within  the  limits  of  Texas. 

Latimer  Case  (1842),  the  first  of  a  series  of  famous  fugitive  slave  trials 
which  took  place  in  Boston.  George  Latimer  was  seized  without  a  warrant. 
A  writ  of  habeas  corpus  was  denied,  and  the  defendant  was  kept  in  the 
custody  of  the  city  jailer  pending  the  securing  of  evidence  against  him.  A 
writ  of  personal  replevin,  under  the  Act  of  1837,  securing  trial  by  jury,  was 
denied,  the  act  being  held  illegal  under  the  Prigg  decision.  Great  indigna- 
tion was  aroused  in  Boston,  and  Latimer  was  finally  released  by  his  jailer  on 
the  payment  of  $400.  The  State  Act  of  1843  followed,  forbidding  officers 
to  aid  in  the  capture  of  fugitive  slaves,  or  to  permit  the  use  of  State  jails  for 
their  imprisonment. 

La  Tour,  Charles  A.  de  St.  E.,  died  in  1665.  He  was  lieutenant-general 
of  Acadia  from  1631  to  1644.  He  was  Governor  and  lieutenant-general  of 
Acadia  from  1650  to  1654. 

Laud,  William  (1573-1644),  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  from  1633  to 
1641,  sought  to  establish  uniformity  of  worship  by  enforcing  conformity  to 
the  Church  of  England.  He  increased  the  power  of  the  clergy  and  punished 
all  dissenters.  His  persecutions  of  the  Puritans,  who  maintained  liberty  of 
conscience,  caused  them  to  seek  refuge  in  other  lands  and  many  came  to 
America.  He  was  impeached  in  1642  and  executed  in  1644. 

Laudonniere,  Rene  de  (d.  after  1586),  founded  a  Huguenot  colony  in  1564 
at  Fort  Caroline,  Florida  (Port  Royal,  S.  C.),  which  was  destroyed  by  the 
Spaniards  under  Menendez  in  1565.  He  published  a  history  of  Florida  in 
1586. 

Laurens,  Henry  (1724-1792),  was  a  member  of  the  first  South  Carolina 
Provincial  Congress  in  1775.  He  was  a  delegate  from  South  Carolina  to  the 
Continental  Congress  from  1777  to  1780,  and  was  its  president  from  1777  to 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATUS  HISTORY.  363 

1778.  He  was  appointed  Minister  to  Holland  in  1779;  was  captured  during 
the  voyage  by  the  British,  and  confined  in  prison  for  fifteen  months.  In 
1781  he  was  appointed  one  of  the  commissioners  to  negotiate  a  treaty  of 
peace  with  Great  Britain.  In  1782  he  signed  the  preliminary  Treaty  of  Paris. 
Impaired  health  forced  him  to  retire  from  public  life. 

Laurens,  John  (1756-1782),  became  an  aide  to  Washington  at  the  out- 
break of  the  Revolution,  and  is  said  to  have  engaged  in  all  of  Washington's 
battles.  He  fought  at  Brandywine,  Monmouth,  Germantown,  Charleston 
and  Savannah.  In  1781  he  was  appointed  a  commissioner  to  France,  and 
obtained  aid  in  money  and  supplies.  He  fought  at  Yorktown,  and  while 
serving  under  General  Greene,  was  killed  in  a  skirmish. 

Law,  John  (1671-1729),  established  a  private  bank  in  Paris  in  1716.  In 
1718  his  plan  of  a  National  Bank  and  an  issue  of  paper  money  was  adopted 
by  the  French  regent.  In  1719  depreciated  national  currency  was  received 
at  its  par  value  in  payment  for  shares  in  Law's  scheme  for  colonizing  the 
Mississippi  Valley.  Speculation  and  the  inflated  currency  caused  a  panic  in 
1720. 

Lawrence,  Abbott  (1792-1855),  represented  Massachusetts  in  the  U.  S. 
Congress  as  a  Whig  from  1835  to  1837.  He  was  Minister  to  Great  Britain 
from  1847  to  *852.  He  founded  the  Lawrence  Scientific  School  at  Harvard 
College. 

Lawrence,  James  (1781-1813),  was  engaged  in  naval  warfare  on  the  Bar- 
bary  coast  from  1804  to  1809,  commanding  the  "  Argus,"  "  Vixen "  and 
"  Wasp."  In  1813  while  commanding  the  "  Hornet "  he  captured  the  British 
brig  "  Peacock  "  after  an  engagement  of  fifteen  minutes  with  a  loss  of  only 
one  killed  and  two  wounded.  When  placed  in  command  of  the  "  Chesapeake  " 
he  accepted  a  challenge  from  Captain  Broke  of  the  "  Shannon."  His  defeat 
was  caused  by  the  imperfect  discipline  of  the  newly  shipped  crew.  Lawrence 
was  mortally  wounded.  His  last  injunction  was,  "  Don't  give  up  the  ship." 

Lawrence,  William  B.  (1800-1881),  was  acting  Governor  of  Rhode 
Island  in  1851.  He  was  one  of  the  chief  American  authorities  upon  inter- 
national law,  and  edited  an  edition  of  Wheaton  published  in  1855. 

Lawrence,  Kan.,  was  founded  in  1854,  and  became  the  headquarters  of 
the  anti-slavery  settlers  during  the  struggle  which  followed.  On  August  25, 
1863,  the  town  was  burned  by  Confederate  guerrillas  under  Quantrell,  and 
145  of  the  inhabitants  massacred. 

Lea,  Henry  C.,  born  in  1825,  °f  Philadelphia,  organized  the  system  of 
municipal  bounties  during  the  Civil  War.  He  wrote  "Superstition  and 
Force,"  a  "  History  of  the  Inquisition  of  the  Middle  Ages,"  and  other  scholarly 
works  on  mediaeval  history. 

"  Leander."  April  25, 1806,  while  the  feeling  in  this  country  was  intensely 
bitter  toward  Great  Britain,  a  shot  from  the  British  war-ship  "  Leander," 
tlien  lying  off  Sandy  Hook,  killed  John  Pierce,  helmsman  on  an  American 
coaster.  The  citizens  of  New  York  denounced  the  outrage  in  a  mass  meet- 
ing, and  called  upon  the  National  Government .  for  better  protection  of  the 
harbor.  A  proclamation  of  the  President  interdicted  British  supplies  and 


364  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

ordered   the    arrest   of    the   "  Leander's "    captain,    if    found   within    our 
jurisdiction. 

Lear,  Tobias  (1762-1816),  became  private  secretary  to  Washington  in 
1785,  and  for  several  years  superintended  his  domestic  affairs.  He  was  a 
commissioner  to  conclude  peace  with  Tripoli  in  1805. 

Leavenworth,  Kan.,  was  settled  in  1854.  Fort  Leavenworth  was  estab- 
lished near  the  site  of  the  city  in  1827. 

Leavitt,  Joshua  (1794-1873),  was  an  ardent  temperance  reformer  and 
anti-slavery  advocate.  He  was  chairman  of  the  national  committee  of  the 
Liberty  party  from  1844  to  1847.  He  was  connected  with  the  New  York 
Independent  from  1848  to  1873. 

Lechford,  Thomas  (15907-1644),  came  to  America  from  England  in 
1638,  but  returned  in  1641.  He  wrote  "  Plaine  Dealing  or  Newes  from  New 
England,"  which  contains  much  valuable  information. 

Lecky,  William  E.  H.,born  in  1838,  English  historian,  wrote  a  "History 
of  the  Rise  and  Influence  of  the  Spirit  of  Rationalism  in  Europe,"  and  a 
"  History  of  European  Morals  from  Augustus  to  Charlemagne,"  but  is  of 
especial  interest  to  Americans  as  the  author  of  a  "  History  of  England  in 
the  Eighteenth  Century,"  publication  of  which  began  in  1878,  which  gives 
an  admirable  account  of  the  American  Revolution  from  the  modern  English 
point  of  view. 

Lecompton  Constitution,  a  Constitution  adopted  by  the  pro-slavery  party 
of  Kansas  in  a  convention  held  at  Lecompton  September  5,  1857.  The  C°n- 
stitution  sanctioned  slavery,  and  prohibited  the  passage  of  emancipation 
laws  by  the  Legislature.  It  was  provided  that  the  Constitution  should  not, 
as  a  whole,  be  submitted  to  the  people  of  the  territory;  they  were  only  to  vote 
for  "  the  Constitution  with  slavery  "  or  "  the  Constitution  without  slavery." 
Free-State  settlers  abstaining,  the  former  alternative  prevailed  by  a  large 
majority.  Later,  without  authorization  from  the  convention,  the  Territorial 
Legislature  ordered  a  vote  on  the  Constitution  as  a  whole.  It  was  voted 
down  by  a  large  majority,  slave-State  settlers  now  abstaining. 

Ledyard,  John  (1751—1789),  of  Connecticut,  traveler,  accompanied  Captain 
James  Cook  on  his  last  voyage,  and  published  an  account  of  it.  He  after- 
ward traveled  through  Russia  and  Siberia. 

Ledyard,  William  (1750-1781),  defended  Fort  Griswold,  Conn.,  with  157 
untrained  men  against  the  British  in  1781.  After  the  surrender  the  British, 
commanded  by  Major  Bromfield,  massacred  the  entire  garrison. 

Lee,  Ann  (1736-1784),  founded  the  "Shakers"  in  1771.  She  declared 
herself  the  "  second  appearing  of  Christ."  She  emigrated  from  England 
to  the  United  States  in  1774  and  established  her  colony  at  Watervliet,  N.  Y. 

Lee,  Arthur  (1740-1792),  of  Virginia,  brother  of  R.  H.  Lee  and  Francis 
Lightfoot  Lee,  was  prominent  as  author  of  the  "  Monitor's  Letters,"  "  An 
Appeal  to  the  English  Nation"  and  "Junius  Americanus."  In  1770  he 
was  appointed  London  agent  of  the  Massachusetts  colony.  In  1776  he  was 
appointed  with  Franklin  and  Deane  to  secure  a  treaty  of  alliance  with 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  365 

France.  In  1777  and  1778  he  was  commissioner  to  Spain  and  Prussia. 
From  1782  to  1785  he  was  a  member  of  the  Continental  Congress.'  From 
1784  to  1789  he  was  a  member  of  the  Board  of  Treasury  of  the  Confedera- 
tion. He  opposed  the  adoption  of  the  Constitution.  He  was  a  man  of 
learning  and  talents,  but  vain  and  captious.  Life  by  R.  H.  Lee. 

Lee,  Charles  (1731-1782),  was  born  in  England,  and  served  in  the  army 
at  Braddock's  defeat  and  through  the  French  arid  Indian  War.  Some  years 
of  miscellaneous  experiences  in  the  Portuguese  service  and  on  the  Polish 
staff,  interspersed  with  pamphleteering,  left  him  a  lieutenant-colonel  on 
half-pay.  Removing  to  America  in  1773  he  contrived  to  pose  as  a  great 
military  light,  and  was  in  1775  appointed  the  second  in  rank  of  the  major- 
generals.  He  was  at  the  siege  of  Boston,  commenced  the  fortifications  of 
New  York,  and  received  the  credit  of  the  victory  at  Charleston  in  1776.  In 
the  autumn  campaign  of  that  year  he  disregarded  Washington's  orders  to 
leave  Northcastle,  and  was  soon  afterward  captured  at  Baskingridge  in  New 
Jersey.  He  had  intrigued  against  Washington,  and  it  has  recently  been 
proved  that  in  captivity  he  negotiated  with  the  Howes.  He  was  exchanged 
in  time  to  receive  command  of  the  van  at  Monmouth;  his  disgraceful  retreat 
there  is  well  known.  After  the  battle  he  was  suspended  for  disobedience, 
misbehavior  and  disrespect,  and  was  eventually  dismissed  from  the  army. 
He  died  in  obscurity  at  Philadelphia. 

Lee,  Charles  (1758-1815),  was  a  delegate  from  Virginia  to  the  Continental 
Congress.  He  was  naval  officer  of  the  Potomac  till  1795.  He  was  U.  S. 
Attorney-General  from  1795  to  1801. 

Lee,  Fitzhugh,  born  in  1835,  was  promoted  major-general  in  the  Confed- 
erate army,  and  served  as  a  cavalry  commander  in  all  the  campaigns  of  the 
Army  of  Northern  Virginia.  He  was  elected  Governor  of  Virginia  in  1885. 
He  was  a  nephew  of  Gen.  R.  E.  Lee.  Consul-General  at  Havana  1896, 
major-general  of  volunteers  1898,  Governor  of  Havana  province  1898. 

Lee,  Francis  Lightfoot  (1734-1797),  brother  of  R.  H.  Lee  and  A.  Lee, 
was  a  member  of  the  Virginia  House  of  Burgesses  from  1765  to  1772.  He 
was  a  delegate  to  the  Continental  Congress  from  1775  to  1779.  He  signed 
the  Declaration  of  Independence,  and  aided  in  drafting  the  Articles  of 
Confederation. 

Lee,  Henry  (1756-1818),  a  Revolutionary  partisan  hero,  was  a  member 
of  the  Virginia  family  of  Lees,  and  graduated  at  Princeton.  He  attained 
distinction  in  the  latter  half  of  the  war  as  major  of  a  partisan  corps  called 
"  Lee's  Legion,"  whence  he  derived  his  epithet  of  "  Light-Horse  Harry." 
He  performed  a  brilliant  exploit  in  1779,  in  the  capture  of  Paulus  Hook, 
and  received  a  gold  medal.  In  1781  he  ably  covered  the  retreat  of  Greene's 
army,  took  a  distinguished  part  at  Guilford,  Eutaw  Springs,  and  the  opera- 
tions in  the  Carolinas  and  Georgia.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Continental 
Congress,  of  the  ratifying  convention  of  1788,  was  a  Federalist,  and  Governor 
of  Virginia  in  1792-1795.  In  1794  he  led  the  expedition  to  suppress  the 
Whiskey  Rebellion.  As  Congressman,  1799-1801,  it  was  his  lot  to  pronounce 
the  eulogy  on  Washington,  containing  the  famous  characterization,  "  First  in 
war,"  etc.  His  death  was  caused  by  injuries  inflicted  by  a  Baltimore  mob 
in  1814. 


366  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Lee,  Richard  Henry  (1732-1794),  a  member  of  a  noted  Virginia  family, 
was  educated  in  England.  For  many  years,  1761-1788,  he  was  a  leader  in 
the  Virginia  House  of  Burgesses  and  Legislature.  He  earnestly  opposed  the 
slave  trade,  the  Stamp  Act,  and  was  one  of  the  first  among  the  patriot  chiefs 
to  suggest  the  employment  of  the  famous  committees  of  correspondence. 
As  a  delegate  to  the  first  Continental  Congress -he  was  on  the  committee  to 
draft  the  address,  and  in  the  Second  Congress  he  drew  up  the  address  to  the 
people  of  Great  Britain.  On  June  7,  1776,  he  moved  the  resolutions  of 
independence.  Meanwhile  as  the  war  proceeded,  Lee  was  active  in  strictly 
Virginian  as  well  as  in  national  matters,  and  opposed  vigorously  the  paper- 
money  policy  in  his  State.  He  was  president  of  Congress,  and  in  1788  he 
was  an  Anti-Federalist  champion  for  the  rejection  of  the  Federal  Constitu- 
tion. From  1789  to  1792  he  was  U.  S.  Senator.  Life  by  R.  H.  Lee. 

Lee,  Robert  Edward  (January  19,  i8o7~October  12,  1870),  the  great 
general  of  the  Confederacy,  was  the  son  of  Henry  Lee  ("  Light-Horse  Harry  ") 
and  was  born  at  Stratford,  Va.  He  was  graduated  with  high  standing  at  West 
Point  in  1829.  ^n  the  Mexican  War  he  served  as  chief  engineer  on  the  staff 
of  General  Wool,  and  was  distinguished  in  the  advance  on  the  capital, 
especially  at  Chapultepec.  From  1852  to  1855  he  was  commandant  at  West 
Point.  In  1859  he  was  sent  against  John  Brown's  raid  on  Harper's  Ferry, 
and  he  had  reached  the  rank  of  lieutenant-colonel  by  1861.  When  his  State 
seceded,  Lee  resigned,  April  20,  from  the  U.  S.  army,  accepted  the  command 
of  the  State  forces,  and  in  May  was  appointed  a  general  in  the  Confederate 
army.  For  a  year  he  was  inconspicuously  employed  in  Virginia  and 
South  Carolina.  The  wounding  of  General  J.  E.  Johnston  at  Fair  Oaks, 
May  31,  1862,  called  Lee  to  supreme  command.  Henceforth  his  history  is 
that  of  the  Army  of  Northern  Virginia.  He  commanded  in  the  Seven  Days' 
battles,  beat  Pope  at  the  second  battle  of  Bull  Run,  and  immediately  began 
his  first  invasion  of  the  North.  Chance  revealed  his  plans  to  McClellan. 
His  prestige  was  not  impaired  by  the  drawn  battle  of  Antietam,  and  the 
army  and  its  general  gained  new  honors  by  the  victories  of  Fredericksburg 
and  Chancellorsville.  His  second  invasion  of  the  North  resulted  disastrously 
at  Gettysburg.  In  the  next  year,  1864,  ^e  was  pitted  against  Grant,  whom 
he  opposed  stubbornly  at  the  Wilderness,  Spottsylvania  and  Cold  Harbor. 
The  long  siege  of  Petersburg  and  Richmond  followed.  Lee's  efforts  to  ward 
off  the  break-up  of  the  Confederacy  were  unavailing.  Compelled  to  evacuate 
Richmond  on  April  2,  1865,  ne  sought  to  effect  a  junction  with  Johnston,  but 
was  hemmed  in  by  Grant's  army  and  forced  to  surrender  at  Appomattox 
April  9.  Soon  afterward  he  became  president  of  Washington  College  in 
Lexington,  Va.  (now  Washington  and  Lee  University),  and  remained  there 
until  his  death.  Lee  was  a  man  of  singularly  noble  character,  and  much 
revered  and  beloved.  Life  by  J.  E.  Cooke. 

Legal-Tender  Cases.  After  the  breaking  out  of  the  Civil  War  Congress 
was  compelled  in  1862  to  issue  $150,000,000  in  Treasury  notes,  and  made 
them  legal  tender  for  payment  of  private  debts  and  all  public  dues  except 
duties  on  imports  and  interest  on  the  public  debt.  These  notes  became  the 
circulating  medium  to  a  large  extent.  The  constitutional  validity  of  these 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  367 

Legal-Tender  Acts  was  strongly  contested,  especially  in  their  application  to 
debts  contracted  prior  to  their  passage.  Their  constitutionality  was  gener- 
ally maintained  by  the  State  courts,  however.  In  1869,  this  question  came 
before  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States  in  the  case  of  Hepburn  u s. 
Griswold.  The  validity  of  the  acts  was  in  this  instance  maintained  only  in 
so  far  as  it  did  not  affect  the  obligations  of  contracts  made  prior  to  their 
passage.  A  year  later,  in  the  case  of  Knox  us.  Lee,  this  decision  was  over- 
ruled, and  the  constitutionality  of  the  act  was  upheld  in  its  applicability  to 
pre-existing  debts,  though  by  a  majority  of  the  court  only.  The  composi- 
tion of  the  court  had  meantime  been  altered,  two  new  judges  having  been 
appointed.  See  Hepburn  us.  Griswold,  Knox  us.  Lee,  and  Juilliard  vs. 
Greenman. 

Legare,  Hugh  S.  (1789-1843),  was  an  anti-nullification  member  of  the 
South  Carolina  Legislature  from  1820  to  1822  and  1824  to  1830.  He  was 
State  Attorney-General  from  1830  to  1832.  He  was  charge"  d'affaires  at 
Brussels  from  1833  to  1836.  Was  a  member  of  the  U.  S.  Congress  as  a 
Union  Democrat  from  1837  to  1839,  and  was  Attorney-General  of  the  United 
States  in  Tyler's  Cabinet  from  1841  to  1843,  and  Secretary  of  State  in 
1843. 

Legislature.  The  first  elected  representative  legislature  in  America  was 
that  which  met  at  Jamestown,  Va.,  in  1619.  The  colonies  of  Southern  New 
England  started  with  primary  assemblies,  from  which  representative  assem- 
blies were  soon  developed.  In  New  York  the  first  true  legislature  was 
assembled  in  1683.  In  general  the  colonial  legislatures  were  modeled  on  the 
British  Parliament,  the  procedure  of  which  they  followed  closely.  To  king, 
lords  and  commons  corresponded  the  governor,  the  council  appointed  by  him, 
and  the  representatives  of  the  people,  variously  called  house  of  burgesses, 
house  of  delegates,  assembly,  or  house  of  representatives.  These  last  were 
elected  by  voters  having  a  property  qualification,  two  members  or  more  for 
each  county  in  the  Middle  and  Southern  States,  one  or  two  from  each  town 
in  New  England.  The  Revolution  broke  up  the  upper  houses  or  councils, 
and  the  new  constitutions  substituted  what  in  Virginia  (1776)  and  then  in 
the  other  States  was  called  a  senate.  Pennsylvania  and  Georgia  had  a,t  first 
legislatures  of  but  one  house.  The  legislatures  of  the  Southern  States  were 
generally  given  the  power  to  choose  the  governor.  The  Constitution  of  1787 
gave  the  State  Legislatures  the  right  to  choose  U.  S.  Senators.  All  the 
amendments  to  the  Federal  Constitution  have  been  ratified  by  them.  In 
general  it  has  been  felt  that  State  Legislatures  have  been  declining  in  excel- 
lence during  the  last  two  generations.  State  constitutions  have  imposed 
more  and  more  restrictions  upon  their  action. 

Leisler,  Jacob  (born  in  Germany,  died  1691),  came  to  America  in  the 
service  of  the  Dutch  West  India  Company.  From  1683  to  1688  he  was  one 
of  the  commissioners  of  the  New  York  Court  of  Admiralty.  In  1689  he 
headed  a  revolution  against  the  Jacobite  office-holders.  He  was  placed  at 
the  head  of  the  provisional  Government,  and  continued  in  office  until  1691. 
He  was  succeeded  by  Henry  Sloughter,  and  soon  afterward  executed  on  4 
charge  of  treason.  In  160/5  Parliament  reversed  the  charge. 


368  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Leland  Stanford  Jr.  University,  Palo  Alto,  Cal.,  was  founded  by  means 
of  the  gifts  of  Senator  Stanford  in  memory  of  his  son.  These  gifts  in  land 
and  money  are  estimated  at  twenty  million  dollars.  The  university  opened 
in  October,  1891. 

Le  Moine,  Sauvolle  (1671  7-1701),  was  educated  in  France,  where  he  was 
eminent  for  his  attainments.  He  was  appointed  first  colonial  Governor  of 
Louisiana  by  Louis  XIV.,  serving  from  1699  to  1701. 

Lenox,  James  (1800-1880),  was  founder  of  the  Lenox  Library,  New  York, 
which  in  many  respects  surpasses  in  value  any  other  library  of  Americana. 
The  collection  of  rare  books  and  manuscripts  is  valued  at  nearly  a  million 
dollars. 

Lenox  Library,  a  library  in  New  York  City,  especially  noted  for  its  rich- 
ness in  rare  Americana.  It  was  collected  by  James  Lenox,  who  at  his  death 
in  1880  left  it,  with  funds  for  increase,  to  trustees  for  the  benefit  of  American 
scholarship. 

Letcher,  John  (1813-1874),  represented  Virginia  in  the  U.  S.  Congress 
as  a  Democrat  from  1851  to  1859.  He  was  Governor  of  the  State  from  1860 
to  1864,  and  aided  the  Confederate  cause. 

"  Levant,"  ship.     (See  "  Constitution.") 

Leverett,  Sir  John  (1616-1679),  came  to  America  from  England  in  1632. 
He  was  a  delegate  to  the  Massachusetts  General  Court  from  1651  to  1653, 
and  in  1663.  He  was  major-general  from  1663  to  1673,  Governor  from  1673 
to  1679. 

Levis,  Francois  G.,  due  de  (1720-1787),  was  second  in  command  at  Que- 
bec when  it  was  captured  by  the  British  in  1759,  and  succeeded  Montcalm 
in  command  of  the  French  forces.  In  1760  he  was  forced  to  capitulate  to 
the  English. 

Lew  Chew.  The  United  States  concluded  with  Lew  Chew  a  treaty  of 
friendship  and  commerce  in  1854. 

Lewis,  Andrew  (1720—1781),  came  to  America  (Virginia)  from  Ireland  in 
1732.  He  commanded  at  the  battle  of  Point  Pleasant  in  1774  and  served  in 
the  Continental  army  from  1775  to  1777. 

Lewis,  Francis  (1713-1803),  came  to  America  from  England  in  1735.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  New  York  delegation  in  the  first  Colonial  Congress 
at  New  York  City  in  1765.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Continental  Congress 
from  1776  to  1779.  He  signed  the  Declaration  of  Independence  and  in  1779 
was  a  commissioner  of  the  Board  of  Admiralty. 

Lewis,  Meriwether  (1774-1809),  explorer,  was  secretary  to  President 
Jefferson  from  1801  to  1803.  He  commanded  an  expedition  with  William 
Clark  across  the  continent  from  1803  to  1806.  They  ascended  the  Missouri 
River,  named  three  of  its  tributaries  the  Jefferson,  Madison  and  Gallatin 
Rivers,  and  descended  the  Columbia  River  to  its  mouth.  From  1807  to 
1809  he  was  Governor  of  Missouri  Territory. 

Lewis,  Morgan  (1754-1844),  served  in  the  Continental  army  from  1776 
to  1783,  commanding  at  Stone  Arabia  and  Crown  Point  He  was  Chief 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  369 

Justice  of  New  York  from  1801  to  1804  and  Governor  from  1804  to  1807. 
He  was  a  major-general  in  the  Niagara  campaign  and  commanded  at  Sackett's 
Harbor  and  French  Creek. 

Lewis  and  Clark  Expedition.  In  1804-06,  Meri wether  Lewis  and 
William  Clark,  under  orders  from  President  Jefferson,  ascended"  the  Mis- 
souri to  its  sources,  crossed  the  Rocky  Mountains,  struck  the  head  waters  of 
the  Columbia  River,  floated  down  that  river  to  its  mouth  and  explored  a  great 
deal  of  the  Oregon  country.  Their  explorations  covered  nearly  all  the 
country  south  of  the  49°  parallel.  Their  company  was  composed  of  nine 
Kentuckians  and  fourteen  soldiers.  They  started  for  the  East  March  23, 
1806,  having  explored  nearly  the  whole  of  the  Northwest  regions.  History, 
edited  by  Coues. 

Lewisites,  in  New  York  political  history,  the  followers  of  Morgan  Lewis, 
who  was  related  by  marriage  to  the  Livingstons,  and  was  Governor  of  New 
York  from  1804  to  1807.  In  the  latter  year  the  Lewisites  and  Burrites 
united  and  became  known  as  "  Martling  men,"  later  Bucktails. 

Lexington,  Ky.,  was  settled  in  1775  by  Colonel  Robert  Patterson.  The 
town  was  incorporated  in  1782,  and  the  first  Legislature  of  the  State  met 
here.  The  State  University  was  removed  here  in  1865. 

Lexington,  Mass.,  Battle  of,  April  19,  1775.  On  the  night  of  April  18, 1775, 
8000  British  regulars  were  secretly  despatched  from  Boston  to  arrest  Samuel 
Adams  and  John  Hancock  at  Lexington,  and  to  seize  the  military  stores 
collected  at  Concord.  News  of  their  approach  was  spread  through  the  inter- 
vening towns  by  Paul  Revere,  and  at  daybreak,  when  the  British  arrived  at 
Lexington,  they  found  fifty  minute-men  drawn  up  on  the  village  green. 
The  advance  guard,  under  Major  Pitcairn,  fired  upon  them,  but  they  held 
their  ground  until  the  main  body  of  the  British,  under  Lieutenant-Colonel 
Smith,  appeared.  They  then  gave  way,  and  the  regulars  pushed  forward  to 
Concord.  Here  they  were  unable  to  discover  any  military  stores,  and  while 
they  were  committing  some  depredations  affairs  took  a  sudden  turn.  200 
regulars,  who  guarded  Concord  bridge,  were  routed  by  some  400  minute- 
men  who  had  hastily  collected  from  neighboring  towns.  The  position  of 
the  British  thus  became  perilous.  About  noon  they  started  for  Boston,  sub- 
jected to  a  galling  fire  from  all  sides.  Exhausted  by  their-  march  of 
eighteen  miles  and  their  fast  of  fourteen  hours,  they  fell  into  a  disorderly 
flight,  and  were  saved  only  by  the  timely  assistance  of  Lord  Percy,  who 
came  from  Boston  with  1200  reinforcements  and  two  cannon.  Seven  miles 
from  Boston  their  passage  was  for  a  while  disputed  by  a  force  of  militia. 
The  whole  countryside  was  out  against  them;  once  more  their  retreat  became 
a  rout,  and  at  sunset  they  entered  Charlestown  under  the  welcome  protection 
of  the  fleet,  on  the  full  run,  just  in  time  to  avoid  an  encounter  with  Colonel 
Pickering  and  700  Essex  militia.  The  loss  of  the  British  was  273,  that  of 
the  Americans  ninety-three.  In  the  first  place  the  battle  showed  that  the 
colonists  could  not  be  frightened  into  submission.  It  also  showed  the 
efficiency  and  promptness  of  the  town  militia.  Twenty-three  towns  were 
represented  among  the  wounded  and  slain,  and  by  the  end  of  the  week 
16.000  men  were  besieging  Gage  in  Boston. 


370  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Lexington,  Mo.,  assaulted  and  captured  August  20,  1861,  by  28,000  Con- 
federates, led  by  McCulloch.  Mulligan,  with  a  National  force  of  3000,  held 
the  town.  Repeated  attacks  were  made  and  thirteen  pieces  of  artillery  were 
brought  to  bear  upon  the  besieged,  but  the  latter  held  out  bravely  for  a  long 
time.  Finally  the  Confederates  constructed  movable  breastworks  of  hemp 
bales  and,  rolling  these  before  them,  they  compelled  Colonel  Mulligan  to 
surrender  unconditionally,  the  water  supply  of  the  town  having  given  out 
and  he  being  severely  wounded. 

Leyden,  an  inland  city  of  Holland,  where  the  Pilgrims,  after  leaving 
England  and  living  for  a  time  in  Amsterdam,  settled  in  May,  1609.  They 
were  about  100  English  men,  women  and  children.  A  church  was  organized 
in  1611  and  for  a  time  things  went  well.  But  controversies  arose  and  they 
could  not  accommodate  themselves  to  the  conditions  of  life  in  Leyden.  In 
1617  Carver  and  Cushman  were  dispatched  to  London  to  negotiate  with  the 
Virginia  Company  for  settlement  on  their  territory.  An  agreement  was 
speedily  concluded.  In  July,  1620,  a  small  ship,  the  "  Speedwell,"  was 
bought  and  fitted  out  in  Holland,  and  the  Pilgrims  left  Leyden  for  Delft- 
haven,  thence  to  embark  for  Southampton,  where  the  "  Mayflower  "  awaited 
them. 

Libby  Prison,  a  large  building  in  Richmond,  Va.,  named  for  its  owner, 
who  used  it  as  a  ship-chandlery  before  the  Civil  War.  During  the  war  it 
became  famous  as  a  Confederate  military  prison,  in  which  many  Federal 
soldiers  were  confined. 

Liberal  Republican  Party,  an  abortive  offshoot  from  the  regular  Republi- 
can party  in  1870-72.  Its  origin  was  a  reaction  from  the  coercive  measures 
to  maintain  the  newly-granted  rights  of  the  negroes  and  suppress  the  Ku- 
Klux  organizations.  A  union  of  the  Liberal  Republicans  and  the  Demo- 
crats was  first  formed  with  considerable  success  in  Missouri  in  1870-71. 
They  advocated  universal  suffrage,  universal  amnesty,  a  reform  of  the  tariff 
and  a  "  cessation  of  the  unconstitutional  laws  to  cure  Ku-Klux  disorders." 
A  general  convention  assembled  at  Cincinnati  in  May,  1872,  and  nominated 
Horace  Greeley  for  President,  whom  the  Democrats  also  nominated.  He 
was  defeated  because  many  Democrats  refused  to  vote  for  him.  B.  Gratz 
Brown,  of  Missouri,  was  the  candidate  for  Vice-President. 

Liberia,  a  negro  republic  on  the  west  coast  of  Africa.  It  was  at  first  a 
colony  of  free  negroes  founded  by  the  American  Colonization  Society  in 
1816  for  the  betterment  of  the  negroes  in  the  United  States.  It  was  at  first 
governed  by  the  whites,  but  became  independent  in  1847.  After  the  Civil 
War  many  of  the  freed  slaves  in  the  United  States  were  permitted  and, 
indeed,  encouraged  to  migrate  to  Liberia,  and  financial  aid  was  afforded  them 
to  do  so.  A  treaty  of  commerce  was  concluded  in  1862. 

"  Liberty,"  a  sloop  belonging  to  John  Hancock,  which  was  seized  in 
1768  in  Massachusetts  on  the  ground  of  having  evaded  the  customs.  Con- 
siderable excitement  arose,  and  the  royal  revenue  officers,  in  pretended  fear 
of  their  lives,  took  refuge  on  the  man-of-war  "  Romney." 

Liberty  Bell,  cast  in  London  and  received  at  Philadelphia  in  August, 
1752,  when  it  was  hung  in  the  Pennsylvania  State  House,  afterward  know* 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  371 

as  Independence  Hall.  The  bell  was  broken  up  and  recast  in  April,  and 
again  in  June,  1753.  It  announced  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  July  4t 
1776.  It  was  cracked  July  8,  1835,  while  being  tolled  in  memory  of  Chief 
Justice  Marshall.  The  bell  was  exhibited  in  the  Pennsylvania  State  Build- 
ing at  the  World's  Columbian  Exhibition  at  Chicago  in  1893. 

Liberty  Tree,  the  tree  on  which  a  Boston  mob  hanged  the  effigy  of 
Andrew  Oliver,  of  Boston,  in  August,  1765.  Oliver  had  agreed  to  become 
distributor  of  stamps  under  the  famous  Stamp  Act  passed  that  year. 

Libraries.  The  first  library  established  in  the  United  States  was  that  of 
Harvard  College,  founded  in  1638.  In  1700  a  public  library  was  founded 
in  New  York  City.  It  was  afterward  converted,  in  1754,  into  a  subscription 
library.  Dr.  Franklin  and  his  associates,  in  1731,  started  in  Philadelphia  a 
library  company  and  the  first  subscription  library.  The  Library  of  Congress 
was  begun  in  1800,  on  the  establishment  of  the  seat  of  government  at 
Washington.  The  Public  Library  of  Boston,  founded  in  1848,  stands  next 
to  the  Library  of  Congress  in  point  of  the  number  and  value  of  its  collec- 
tions. It  contains  over  500,000  volumes  and  has  eleven  subsidiary  branches. 
The  school-district  library  system  originated  in  New  York  State  in  1838  and 
has  been  adopted  by  a  large  number  of  the  other  States.  From  1820  to 
1870  twenty-nine  subscription  or  mercantile  libraries  were  established  in 
various  cities.  There  are  now  in  the  United  States  nearly  4000  libraries  of 
1000  volumes  or  more,  which  are  more  or  less  free  and  public.  Their 
increase  and  success  throughout  the  Union  has  been  enormous. 

Library  of  Congress.  Founded  by  Act  of  Congress  April  24,  1800,  and 
permanently  organized  on  the  basis  of  a  report  made  by  John  Randolph 
December  21,  1801,  $5000  being  appropriated  for  the  purchase  of  books. 
It  was  and  is  now  located  in  the  Capitol  Building.  When  the  British  held 
Washington  for  a  single  day,  August  25,  1814,  the  Capitol  was  burned  and 
with  it  the  library.  The  same  Congress  bought  6700  volumes  from  Thomas 
Jefferson  for  $23,950.  In  1824  an  Act  of  Congress  provided  for  an  annual 
appropriation  of  $5000  for  purchasing  books,  and  the  library  was  placed  in 
the  central  Capitol  Building.  In  1851  a  second  fire  destroyed  about  30,000 
volumes.  In  1852  $75,000  were  appropriated  for  the  reconstruction  of  the 
rooms  and  $75,000  for  the  immediate  purchase  of  books.  The  library 
numbered  75,000  books  in  1860.  A  new  and  separate  library  building  is 
now  (1898)  fully  completed.  The  library  now  numbers  more  than  675,000 
volumes. 

Lick,  James  (1796-1876),  bequeathed  his  immense  fortune  to  philan- 
thropic enterprises.  He  founded  the  famous  Lick  Observatory  at  Mount 
Hamilton,  Cal. 

Lieber,  Francis  (1800-1872),  born  and  educated  in  Germany,  came  to 
America  in  1827.  He  published  the  Encyclopaedia  Americana  in  1832.  He 
ardently  upheld  the  Union  during  the  Civil  War,  and  was  often  consulted 
by  the  executive.  He  wrote  many  important  political  works,  among  them 
a  "  Manual  of  Political  Ethics,"  "  Legal  and  Political  Hermeneutics  "  and 
".Civil  Liberty  and  Self-Government"  He  was  professor  in  the  South 


372  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Carolina  College  from  1838  to  1856  and  in  Columbia  College  from  1857  to 
1872. 

Lieutenant,  in  colonial  Virginia  the  leading  officer  of  a  county,  corre- 
sponding to  the  lord-lieutenant  of  an  English  county.  His  duties  were  to 
enroll  and  lead  the  militia,  and  also  to  supervise  the  administration  of  the 
tobacco  laws  and  hold  a  court  for  minor  offences. 

Lieutenant-General.  This  office  was  first  created  in  1798,  General  Wash- 
ington being  chosen  to  fill  it.  It  was  abolished  in  1799,  and  was  not  revived 
until  1855,  being  then  filled  by  General  Winfield  Scott.  In  1864  General 
Grant  was  appointed  to  this  grade,  and  on  his  appointment  to  the  general- 
ship, William  T.  Sherman  was  chosen  lieutenant-general  in  1 866.  General 
Philip  H.  Sheridan  was  made  lieutenant-general  in  1883.  With  his  death 
in  1888  the  office  became  extinct. 

Ligonia.     (See  Lygonia.) 

Liliuokalani,  born  in  1838,  succeeded  to  the  throne  of  Hawaii  in  1891. 
She  was  deposed  and  a  provisional  government  established  in  1893.  She 
charged  the  U.  S.  Minister  with  complicity  in  the  revolution,  and  attempted 
in  vain  to  secure  restoration. 

Lincoln,  Abraham  (February  12,  i8o9~April  15,  1865),  the  sixteenth 
President  of  the  United  States,  was  born  in  Hardin  County,  Ky.  Both 
there  and  in  Indiana,  to  which  in  1816  the  family  removed,  as  well  as  in 
Illinois,  whither  they  went  in  1830,  Lincoln  had  the  privations  and  also  the 
training  of  a  backwoodsman's  life.  His  later  epithet  of  the  "rail-splitter"  is 
a  reminiscence  of  this  early  period,  and  he  also  about  this  time  made  a  flat- 
boat  voyage  to  New  Orleans.  In  the  Black  Hawk  War  of  1832  he  served 
as  captain  and  private.  He  tried  keeping  store  and  failed,  studied  law,  was 
postmaster  of  New  Salem  in  Illinois,  and  deputy  surveyor  of  the  county. 
As  a  politician  he  had  better  success,  and  after  one  defeat  served  in  the  Leg- 
islature from  1834  to  1842.  Meanwhile  he  removed  to  Springfield  and  built 
up  a  law  practice.  From  1847  to  x^49  ^e  was  a  Whig  Congressman,  but 
was  not  notably  prominent.  His  importance  dates  from  the  Kansas- 
Nebraska  controversy.  In  its  progress  he  became  the  Republican  State 
leader,  and  in  1858  he  took  part  with.  Stephen  A.  Douglas  in  a  series  of 
joint  debates  in  canvassing  for  the  U.  S.  Senatorship.  Lincoln  was  defeated, 
but  the  discussion  had  aroused  great  interest,  and  his  utterances,  e.  g.,  "  a 
house  divided  against  itself  cannot  stand,"  brought  him  into  national  prom- 
inence. In  February,  1860,  he  delivered  a  remarkable  political  speech  at 
Cooper  Institute,  New  York.  He  was  pressed  for  the  Presidency  by  many 
Western  Republicans  in  the  Chicago  Convention  in  May,  though  Seward 
was  in  the  lead  at  the  outset.  Amid  great  excitement  Lincoln  was  nomi- 
nated on  the  third  ballot,  and  elected,  by  180  electoral  votes,  over  Douglas, 
Breckenridge  and  Bell.  This  first  victory  of  the  Republicans  decided  the 
Secessionists,  and  when  the  new  President  delivered  his  conciliatory  inaug- 
ural address  the  country  was  drifting  toward  civil  war.  In  the  Cabinet 
Seward  had  the  Department  of  State,  Chase  the  Treasury,  Cameron,  and 
soon  afterward  Stanton,  War,  Welles  the  Navy,  Caleb  B.  Smith  the  Interior, 


Joshua  R.   Giddings. 
Wendell   Phillips. 


ANTI-SLAVERY    MEN. 

John    Brown. 


Wm.  Lloyd  Garrison. 
Charles  Sumner. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  373 

Edward  Bates  was  Attorney-General,  and  Montgomery  Blair  Postmaster- 
General.  Immediately  on  the  fall  of  Fort  Sumter  the  President,  April  15, 
1861,  called  for  75,000  volunteers  to  put  down  the  Rebellion.  He  soon 
issued  a  call  for  additional  troops,  instituted  a  blockade,  and  summoned  Con- 
gress to  meet  in  extra  session  July  4.  As  the  "  War  President  "  Lincoln  is 
identified  with  a  great  part  of  the  history  of  the  struggle.  Foreign  compli- 
cations, military  and  naval  movements,  domestic  politics,  as  well  as  routine, 
administrative  duties,  all  claimed  his  attention;  to  the  people  and  the  armies 
he  was  endeared  as  "  Father  Abraham;  "  innumerable  anecdotes  are  related 
bearing  on  his  humor,  strong  common  sense  and  sympathy.  On  September 
22,  1862,  profiting  by  the  partial  success  of  Antietam,  he  issued  a  prelimi- 
nary proclamation  fixing  the  coming  January  i  as  the  date  for  freeing  slaves 
in  insurgent  States.  The  Emancipation  Proclamation  to  that  effect  accord- 
ingly appeared  at  the  opening  of  1863.  On  the  nineteenth  of  November, 
1863,  he  pronounced  on  the  battlefield  of  Gettysburg  his  short  but  famous 
eulogy.  He  was  renominated  by  the  Republicans  June  8,  1864,  an^  elected 
over  McClellan,  receiving  212  electoral  votes.  "  Malice  toward  none,  char- 
ity for  all  "  was  the  burden  of  his  second  inaugural.  He  had  visited  Rich- 
mond after  its  fall,  and  was  pondering  the  questions  of  reconstruction,  when 
on  the  night  of  April  14  he  was  shot  by  Wilkes  Booth  in  Ford's  Theatre  at 
the  capital,  and  died  the  next  morning.  Among  the  many  lives  may  be 
mentioned  those  by  Raymond,  Morse,  Herndon  and  the  extended  one  by 
Nicolay  and  Hay. 

Lincoln,  Benjamin  (1733-1810),  was  major-general  of  the  Massachusetts 
militia  from  1774  to  1775  and  commanded  them  at  White  Plains  in  1776. 
In  1777  he  was  second  in  command  under  General  Gates  at  Bemis  Heights; 
He  commanded  the  Southern  army  from  1778  to  1780,  when  he  was  besieged 
by  the  British  at  Charleston  and  forced  to  capitulate.  He  received  the  sword 
of  Cornwallis  at  Yorktown  in  1781.  He  was  Secretary  of  War  from  1781 
to  1784.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Massachusetts  Convention  that  ratified 
the  Constitution. 

Lincoln,  Levi  (1749-1820),  served  in  the  Massachusetts  Constitutional 
Convention  of  1780.  From  1801  to  1805  he  was  Attorney-General  of  the 
United  States.  He  was  Lieuten ant-Governor  of  Massachusetts  from  1807  to 
1808  ?nd  acting  Governor  in  1809. 

Lincoln,  Levi  (1782-1868),  was  a  member  of  the  Massachusetts  House  of 
Representatives  from  1814  to  1822.  He  was  Governor  of  Massachusetts  from 
1825  to  1834.  He  was  a  Whig  member  of  the  U.  S.  Congress  from  1835  to 
1841. 

Lincoln,  Mary  Todd  (1818-1882),  married  Abraham  Lincoln  in  1842. 
Her  family  sympathized  with  the  Confederate  cause,  and  this,  together  with 
the  death  of  her  husband  and  of  three  sons,  unsettled  her  reason. 

Lincoln,  Robert  T.,  born  in  1843,  is  the  son  of  Abraham  Lincoln.  He 
served  in  the  Federal  army  from  1864  to  1865.  He  was  admitted  to  the 
Illinois  bar  and  practiced  until  1881.  He  was  Secretary  of  War  in  the 
Cabinets  of  Garfield  and  Arthur  from  1881  to  1885.  He  was  appointed 
U,  S.  Minister  to  Great  Britain  in  1889,  serving  till  1893. 


374  DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Lincoln,  Neb.,  was  laid  out  in  July,  1867,  and  shortly  after  became  the 
capital  of  the  State. 

Linn,  Lewis  F.  (1795-1843),  served  during  the  War  of  1812  as  a  surgeon. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Kentucky  Legislature  iu  1827.  He  represented 
Kentucky  in  the  U.  S.  Senate  as  a  Democrat  from  1833  to  1843. 

"  L'Insurgente."     (See  "  Constellation.") 

"  Little  Belt."     (See  "  President") 

Little  Crow,  chief  of  the  Sioux  tribe  of  Indians,  led  an  outbreak  of  the 
Indians  on  the  Upper  Minnesota  in  1862,  but  was  defeated  at  Wood  Lake. 
He  was  shot  while  making  a  raid  in  1863. 

Little  Giant,  a  nickname  for  Stephen  A.  Douglas,  of  Illinois,  because  of 
his  small  stature  and  great  abilities. 

"  Little  James,"  a  small  vessel,  which,  in  company  with  the  "Ann," 
brought  reinforcements  to  the  Pilgrims  at  Plymouth  in  August,  1623. 

Little  Magician,  a  nickname  given  to  "Martin  Van  Buren  on  account  of  his 
dexterity  in  political  manipulations. 

Little  Rock,  Ark.,  founded  in  1820,  became  the  capital  of  the  then 
Territory  the  same  year.  During  the  Civil  War  it  was  held  by  the  Con- 
federates until  it  was  captured  by  General  Steele  (September  10,  1863). 

"  Little  Sarah,"  a  privateer  fitted  out  in  1793,  at  Philadelphia,  by  Citizen 
Genet,  the  newly  arrived  French  Minister.  She  sailed  under  French  colors 
and  was  manned  by  American  seamen,  and  cruised  for  British  vessels.  This 
was  done  against  the  prohibition  of  the  American  Executive. 

Little  Turtle,  chief  of  the  Miami  Indians,  died  in  1812.  He  commanded 
at  the  defeat  of  General  Harmar  on  the  Miami  in  1790,  and  of  General  St. 
Clair  at  St.  Mary's  in  1791.  He  was  one  of  the  signers  of  the  Greenville 
treaty  in  1795. 

Little  Van,  a  nickname  for  Martin  Van  Buren,  eighth  President  of  the 
United  States. 

Livermore,  Mary  A.,  born  in  1821,  distinguished  herself  during  the  Civil 
War  by  her  labors  in  the  Sanitary  Commission.  She  is  one  of  the  foremost 
lecturers  upon  woman  suffrage  and  temperance  reform. 

Livingston,  Brockholst  (1757—1823),  served  at  Ticonderoga,  and  with 
Benedict  Arnold  at  the  surrender  of  Burgoyne  in  1777.  In  1807  he  was 
appointed  an  Associate  Justice  of  the  U.  S.  Supreme  Court,  and  served  till 
his  death. 

Livingston,  Edward  (1764-1836),  a  brother  of  Robert  R.  Livingston, 
graduated  at  Princeton,  and  reached  early  in  life  a  commanding  position  at 
the  New  York  bar.  From  1795  to  1801,  he  was  a  Democratic  Congressman. 
While  district  attorney  in  the  following  years  he  became  entangled  in  busi- 
ness, was  deeply  indebted  to  the  Government,  and  removed  to  Louisiana  to 
retrieve  his  fortunes.  He  was  Congressman  from  that  State  in  1822-1829, 
U.  S.  Senator  1829-1831,  Secretary  of  State  1831-1833,  and  Minister  to 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  375 

France  1833-1835.  His  rank  as  a  lawyer  was  very  high,  and  his  influ- 
ence, by  his  codes  and  legal  writings,  was  profound  upon  law  here  and  in 
Europe.  (See  Batture  Cases.) 

Livingston,  Philip  (1716-1778),  was  a  member  of  the  New  York  Assem- 
bly from  1758  to  1769.  He  was  a  delegate  to  the  Stamp-Act  Congress  of 
1765,  and  a  member  of  the  Continental  Congress  from  1774  to  1778.  He 
was  one  of  the  committee  to  prepare  an  address  to  the  people  of  Great 
Britain,  and  a  signer  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence. 

Livingston,  Robert  R.  (1746-1813),  graduated  at  King's  (now  Columbia) 
College  and  became  a  lawyer,  member  of  the  New  York  Assembly,  and 
delegate  to  the  Continental  Congress.  He  served  on  the  committee  of  five 
which  drafted  the  Declaration  of  Independence.  He  was  Secretary  for 
Foreign  Affairs  in  1781-1783,  and  was  a  prominent  Federalist  in  the  ratifying 
convention  at  Poughkeepsie  in  1788.  Meanwhile  from  1777  to  1801  he  was 
Chancellor  of  the  State  of  New  York,  and  in  this  position  he  administered 
the  oath  of  office  to  Washington  in  1789.  While  U.  S.  Minister  to  France 
in  1801-1805  he  helped  to  negotiate  the  Louisiana  Purchase.  He  is  remem- 
bered also  for  his  connection  with  many  societies  in  New  York  City,  and 
his  association  with  Fulton  in  the  beginnings  of  steamboat  navigation. 

Livingston,  William  (1723-1790),  was  a  delegate  from  New  Jersey  to  the 
Continental  Congress  from  1774  to  1776.  He  was  Governor  of  New  Jersey 
from  1776  to  1790.  In  1787  he  was  a  delegate  to  the  convention  that  framed 
the  Constitution  and  signed  that  instrument. 

Livingston  Manor,  in  New  York,  adjoining  that  of  Rensselaerswyck,  was 
granted  by  Governor  Dongan  in  1686  to  Robert  Livingston,  an  immigrant 
from  Scotland. 

Livingston  vs.  Jefferson.     (See  Batture  Cases.) 

Local  Government.  England,  at  the  time  when  the  first  settlements  were 
made  in  the  United  States,  had  well-developed  local  institutions,  the  country 
being  subdivided  into  counties,  the  counties  into  hundreds,  the  hundreds 
into  parishes  or  townships.  In  the  Southern  colonies,  where  the  plantation 
system  prevailed  and  the  settlers  were  scattered  over  a  large  area,  it  was 
natural  that,  of  the  institutions  to  which  the  settlers  were  accustomed,  they 
should  keep  in  use  rather  those  of  the  county.  In  the  New  England  colonies, 
where  population  was  more  compact,  it  was  rather  the  township's  set  of 
officers  and  institutions  that  were  employed.  Hence  there  grew  up  in  the 
United  States  two  types  of  local  government, — in  New  England  the  town- 
ship system,  in  the  South  the  county  system.  In  the  Middle  colonies  a  form 
of  local  government  was  instituted  which  kept  in  active  existence  both  sets 
of  institutions,  and  this  is  the  type  now  most  common  in  the  West.  History 
by  Howard. 

Local  Option,  the  determination  by  the  people  of  a  town  or  other  minor 
political  community  as  to  whether  or  not  any  licenses  to  sell  intoxicating 
liquors  shall  be  granted.  This  principle  is  established  in  many  sections  of 
the  various  States. 


376  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Locke,  David  R.  (1833-1888),  was  author  of  a  series  of  patriotic  satires 
known  as  the  "  Nasby  "  letters.  They  exerted  great  influence  during  the 
Civil  War  in  crushing  the  rebellion. 

Locke,  John  (1632—1704),  English  philosopher  and  statesman,  drew  up  a 
constitution  for  the  government  of  Carolina,  at  the  request  of  the  pro- 
prietaries. (See  "  Fundamental  Constitutions.") 

Lockwood,  Belva  A.  B.,  born  in  1820,  was  admitted  to  practice  before 
the  Supreme  Court  and  the  Court  of  Claims  in  1879.  She  was  the  candi- 
date of  the  Women's  National  Rights  party  in  California  for  President  of  the 
United  States  in  1884. 

Lockwood,  James  B.  (1852-1884),  accompanied  the  Lady  Franklin  Bay 
expedition  with  A.  W.  Greely  in  1882,  and  attained  the  most  northerly  point 
of  land  ever  reached,  at  83°  24'  N. 

Loco-foco,  the  radical  faction,  1835-1837,  of  the  Democratic  party, 
properly  of  New  York,  though  the  name  was  afterward  made  national. 
During  the  Federalist  control  of  the  Government,  the  method  of  granting 
bank  charters  and  controlling  banks  was  charged  by  the  opposing  faction 
with  favoritism  and  corruption.  Upon  their  gaining  control,  things  did  not, 
in  the. opinion  of  many,  improve;  and  in  1835  there  was  formed  in  New 
York  the  "  Equal  Rights  party,"  opposed  to  special  privileges  in  granting 
bank  charters  to  corporations.  At  a  meeting  in  Tammany  Hall,  October  29, 
1835,  the  regular  Tammany  Democrats  tried  to  gain  control.  Finding  them- 
selves outnumbered,  they  turned  out  the  lights  and  retired.  The  Equal 
Rights  men  produced  candles  and  "  loco-foco  "  matches,  and  continued  the 
meeting.  Hence  the  name.  This  party  was  beaten  at  the  elections,  but 
nevertheless  exercised  considerable  influence. 

Locust  Grove,  Va.,  a  battle  of  the  Civil  War  during  Meade's  operations  in 
Northern  Virginia.  This  battle  was  desultory  and  lasted  during  two  days, 
November  27-29,  1863.  Meade's  army  had  crossed  the  Rapidan,  and  at 
Payne's  Farm,  near  Locust  Grove,  French's  division  had  encountered  the 
Confederate  troops  of  Lee  under  Edward  Johnson  and  Lee.  That  night 
Sedgwick  and  Warren  were  ordered  to  meet  at  Locust  Grove  for  a  co-oper- 
ative attack  on  the  Confederates.  They  intended  to  mass  their  forces  and 
assault  the  Confederate  flank,  but  the  move  failed.  On  the  twenty-eighth 
there  was  a  sharp  battle  of  batteries,  which  accomplished  little.  The  Federals 
were  then  ordered  to  retire. 

Lodge,  Henry  Cabot,  born  in  1850,  was  assistant  professor  of  history  at 
Harvard  College,  and  in  1880  and  1881  a  member  of  the  Massachusetts  Leg- 
islature. He  was  elected  as  a  Republican  to  the  Congress  of  the  United 
States  from  Massachusetts  in  1886  and  served  till  1893,  when  he  entered  the 
Senate.  He  has  published  a  "  Short  History  of  the  English  Colonies  in 
America,"  "Studies  in  History"  and  lives  of  George  Cabot,  Alexander 
Hamilton  and  Daniel  Webster. 

Log  Cabin  and  Hard  Cider.  In  the  campaign  of  1840  the  Whig  candi- 
date, Harrison,  was  a  military  man  of  plain  manners.  One  of  the  Demo- 
cratic papers,  scoffing  at  the  Whigs  for  taking  a  candidate  not  of  the  first 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  377 

calibre,  advised  that  Harrison  be  given  a  log  cabin  and  a  barrel  of  hard 
cider,  and  he  would  stay  contentedly  in  Ohio.  This  was  taken  up  by  the 
Whigs,  and  really  helped  to  make  their  candidate  popular  with  the  masses. 
Log  cabins  were  erected  in  great  numbers  in  the  cities,  and  were  carried  in 
processions,  accompanied  with  barrels  of  cider. 

Logan,  Benjamin  (1752-1802),  a  Kentucky  pioneer,  renowned  for  his 
great  courage  and  endurance.  He  distinguished  himself  at  Fort  Logan, 
Chillicothe  and  Bryan's  Station  during  Indian  troubles. 

Logan,  John  (17257-1780),  chief  of  the  Mingo  tribe  of  Indians,  lived 
peacefully  among  the  whites  until  1774.  In  1774  his  family  were  massacred 
by  Ohio  settlers,  and  Logan  instigated  a  war.  The  terrible  barbarities  were 
termiiicx.ed  by  the  defeat  of  the  Indians  at  the  Great  Kanawha.  He  sent  a 
famous  pathetic  message  to  Lord  Dunmore,  Governor  of  Virginia,  reviewing 
his  wrongs. 

Logan,  John  Alexander  (1826-1886),  volunteered  in  the  Mexican  War, 
and  became  thereafter  a  lawyer  and  politician  in  Illinois.  He  was  a  Demo- 
cratic Congressman  in  1859-1861,  but  left  Congress  for  the  army,  fought  at 
Bull  Run,  and  was  made  a  colonel  of  Illinois  volunteers.  At  Belmont,  Fort 
Henry,  Fort  Donelson,  and  in  the  Western  army  generally  he  was  promi- 
nent, was  appointed  major-general,  commanded  a  division  in  the  Vicksburg 
campaign  and  a  corps  under  Sherman  in  1864,  and  on  the  battlefield  of 
Atlanta  succeeded  McPherson  in  the  Army  of  the  Tennessee.  "  Black 
Jack  "  Logan  was,  in  fact,  one  of  the  most  noted  non-West-Pointers  of  the 
war.  He  was  Republican  Congressman  1867-1871,  and  Senator  1871—1877 
and  1879-1886.  He  received  some  votes  at  the  Convention  of  1884,  and 
was  nominated  for  second  place  on  the  ticket  with  Blaine,  but  not  elected. 
He  wrote  "  The  Great  Conspiracy." 

Logstown,  a  small  settlement  on  the  Ohio  River  in  colonial  times,  notable 
from  the  fact  that  it  was  the  place  in  which  the  Virginia  government,  by  a 
treaty  with  Indians,  June  13,  1752,  secured  permission  to  erect  a  fort  at  the 
forks  of  the  Ohio.  The  undertaking  was  delayed,  and  the  French  antici- 
pated it  by  building  Fort  Duquesne. 

London  Company,  the  Virginia  Company  proper,  as  distinguished  from 
the  Plymouth  or  North  Virginia  Company.  It  was  chartered  in  1606, 
obtaining  permission  to  colonize  the  territory  between  Cape  Fear  and  Long 
Island.  The  first  settlement  was  at  Jamestown,  Va.,  in  1607.  The  charter 
was  taken  away  by  James  I.  in  1624,  and  the  company  dissolved. 

Long,  John  D.,  lawyer  and  statesman,  born  1838  in  Maine.  Speaker 
Massachusetts  Legislature  three  terms.  Lieutenant  Governor  1879,  an<^  Gov- 
ernor 1880-1881-1882.  Congressman  1883  to  1889.  Became  Secretary  of 
Navy  March  5,  1897. 

Long  Island,  N.  YM  was  settled  about  1636  by  the  Dutch,  The  English 
settled  the  eastern  portion  of  the  island  in  1640.  Long  Island  passed  into 
the  hands  of  the  Duke  of  York  in  1664,  and  again  came  under  Dutch  con- 
trol in  1673.  In  1674,  the  island  was  again  acquired  by  the  British.  At 
the  beginning  of  the  Revolution  Washington  made  efforts  to  defend  it 


378  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

against  the  English.     It  was  taken  by  Howe  in  1776,  and  was  held  by  Great 
Britain  until  the  close  of  the  war. 

Long  Island,  Battle  of,  August  27,  1776.  The  British  plan  of  campaign 
was  now  to  crush  Washington  in  New  York,  seize  the  Hudson  and  thus 
divide  the  colonial  forces.  As  Washington  was  inferior  in  numbers  and 
efficiency  he  occupied  Brooklyn  Heights  with  9000  men.  Howe's  only 
course  was  to  dislodge  him.  He  landed  his  men  at  Gravesend,  L.  I.,  and 
after  four  days'  reconnoitring  advanced  in  three  divisions,  20,000  strong. 
Two  divisions  met  the  American  outposts,  5000  in  number,  under  Stirling 
and  Sullivan.  On  the  arrival  of  the  third  division  in  their  rear  they  utterly 
routed  the  Americans  and  captured  Stirling  and  Sullivan  and  1000  of  their 
men.  The  British  now  appeared  before  the  American  position,  but  refrained 
from  an  assault,  preferring  a  siege.  Clearly  perceiving  the  danger  of  such 
a  course  Washington  conveyed  his  army  over  to  New  York  under  cover  of 
night,  thus  brilliantly  snatching  from  the  enemy  the  fruits  of  his  victory; 
for  although  New  York  had  been  taken,  the  colonial  army  was  still 
unsubdued. 

Longfellow,  Henry  W.  (1807-1882),  became  a  popular  poet  by  the  pro- 
duction of  "  The  Psalm  of  Life  "  in  1838.  This  was  followed  by  "  Hyperion," 
"  Hiawatha,"  "  Tales  of  a  Wayside  Inn,"  "  The  Courtship  of  Miles  Stan- 
dish,"  etc.,  and  a  translation  of  Dante.  The  historical  Craigie  House  was 
kis  home.  He  was  a  poet  of  genial  temperament,  beloved  by  all. 

Longstreet,  James,  born  in  1821,  a  Confederate  general,  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1842.  He  fought  in  the  Mexican  War,  and  had  reached  the  rank 
of  paymaster  when  he  entered  the  service  of  the  Confederacy.  He  distin- 
guished himself  at  Bull  Run,  Williamsburg,  the  Seven  Days'  battles,  led  a 
corps  at  the  second  battle  of  Bull  Run,  and  was  renowned  as  a  hard  fighter. 
He  commanded  the  Confederate  left  at  Fredericksburg,  the  right  at  Gettys- 
burg, and  the  left  at  Chickamauga.  Soon  after  he  was  sent  against  Knox- 
ville,  but  failed  to  take  it.  Returning  to  the  Army  of  Northern  Virginia 
he  fought  at  the  Wilderness  and  almost  constantly  down  to  Appomattox. 
After  the  war  he  held  various  offices  in  the  customs  and  revenue  service,  was 
postmaster  and  marshal,  and  under  President  Hayes  was  U.  S.  Minister  to 
Turkey. 

Longwoods,  Canada.  Here  Captain  Holmes,  while  on  the  way  to  attack 
Fort  Talbot,  was  attacked  by  the  British  March  3,  1814.  The  British  lost 
more  men,  but  the  Americans  were  forced  to  return  empty-handed. 

Lookout  Mountain.     (See  Chattanooga.) 

Lopez,  Narcisso,  a  military  adventurer  and  refugee  from  Havana,  who  in 
1849,  I^5°  an<i  J85i,  planned,  with  the  aid  of  Governor  Quitman,  of  Missis- 
sippi, and  other  Southerners,  the  capture  and  annexation  of  Cuba.  The  first 
expedition  was  frustrated  by  President  Tyler.  The  second,  300  strong, 
landed  at  Cardenas  and  captured  the  town,  but  was  quickly  expelled.  Lopez 
was  arrested  in  Savannah,  Ga.,  but  released  for  want  of  evidence.  The  third 
expedition  landed  at  Las  Pazas  in  1851.  The  inhabitants  fled  instead  of 
giving  their  aid.  The  invaders  were  set  upon  by  the  Government  troops 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  379 

and  quickly  dispersed.     Lopez  fled  to  the  mountains,  but  was  captured  and 
executed  at  Havana,  September  i,  1851. 

Loring,  William  W.  (1818-1886),  was  brevetted  lieutenant-colonel  for 
services  in  the  Mexican  War.  He  served  in  the  Confederate  Army  of 
Northern  Virginia,  and  commanded  a  division  at  Vicksburg  and  Chatta- 
nooga. 

Los  Angeles,  Cal.,  was  settled  by  the  Spaniards  in  1781.  Gold  dis- 
covered here  in  1842  was  the  first  authentic  finding  of  the  precious  metal  in 
California.  The  city  was  occupied  by  Stockton  in  1846,  but  was  retaken  by 
the  Californians.  It  was  again  captured  in  1847. 

Losantiville,  Ohio,  the  name  originally  given  to  the  settlement  which  is 
now  the  city  of  Cincinnati,  by  its  founders,  Patterson,  Denman  and  Filson, 
of  New  Jersey,  who  had  purchased  land  from  the  Scioto  Company  in  1788. 
The  name  is  compounded  of  "os,"  Latin  for  mouth;  "anti,"  Greek  for 
opposite;  "ville,"  French  for  city;  and  "  L,"  the  initial  of  the  Licking 
River.  The  name  was  changed  in  1790. 

Lossing,  Benson  J.  (1813-1891),  of  New  York,  author  and  wood-engraver, 
published  "  Pictorial  Field-Book  of  the  Revolution,"  and  others  of  the  Civil 
War  and  War  of  1812,  a  "National  History  of  the  United  States,"  the 
"Statesman's  Manual,"  lives  of  Zachary  Taylor,  Winfield  Scott,  Washing- 
ton, etc.,  a  history  of  New  York,  and  "  Biographies  of  Eminert  Americans." 

Lotteries.  The  history  of  American  lotteries  begins  with  that  which  the 
charter  of  1612  authorized  the  Virginia  Company  to  hold  for  the  benefit  of 
its  colonizing  schemes.  In  the  eighteenth  century  they  were  extraordinarily 
popular  in  America.  Legislatures  authorized  lotteries  for  every  species  of 
public  improvement,  for  the  building  of  churches  and  colleges,  for  the  repair 
of  losses  to  individuals  by  fire  and  otherwise;  e.  g.,  Faneuil  Hall,  after  the 
fire  of  1761,  was  rebuilt  by  lottery.  The  Continental  Congress  tried  to  raise 
money  by  lottery  in  1777.  The  sums  annually  employed  by  Americans  in 
lottery  speculations  probably  amounted  to  hundreds  of  thousands.  The  last 
lottery  supported  by  governmental  encouragement  was  the  Louisiana  State 
Lottery.  An  act  of  Congress  passed  in  1890  attemped  to  crush  it  by  forbid- 
ding it  the  use  of  the  U.  S.  mails. 

Loudon,  Forts.  There  were  two  fortifications  of  this  name  during  the 
colonial  period.  Both  were  erected  for  the  purpose  of  defence  against  the 
Indians.  One  was  erected  in  Loudon  County,  Tenn.,  on  the  Tennessee 
River,  about  1750,  and  was  the  scene  of  an  Indian  massacre  a  few  years 
later.  The  other  was  built  in  1752  near  Winchester,  Va.,  for  the  protection 
of  the  town.  It  was  a  square  with  four  bastions,  mounting  twenty-four  guns 
and  large  enough  to  contain  450  men. 

Loudoun,  John  C.,  Earl  of  (1705-1782),  succeeded  William  Shirley  as 
commander-in-chief  of  the  British  forces  in  North  America  in  1756.  He 
proved  incapable  and  irresolute  in  the  campaign  against  the  French  at  Louis- 
bourg.  He  laid  an  embargo  on  commerce  in  1757,  which  was  very  unpopular. 
In  1757  he  was  succeeded  by  General  Amherst, 


380  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Louis  XVI.  (1754-1 793),  succeeded  to  the  throne  of  France  in  1774. 
He  gave  the  American  colonies  very  considerable  aid  during  the  Revolution, 
and  burdened  France  with  a  debt  in  their  behalf.  His  war  with  Great 
Britain  lasted  from  1778  to  1782.  He  was  executed  in  1793.  (See  French 
Revolution.) 

Louisbourg,  Cape  Breton,  Canada,  a  fort  erected  by  the  French  in  1720. 
Upon  the  breaking  out  of  King  George's  War  in  1744,  privateers  were  sent 
out  from  Louisbourg  to  harass  the  New  England  coast.  Governor  Shirley, 
of  Massachusetts,  succeeded  in  raising,  in  1745,  a  strong  force  of  men  and 
ships,  to  which  all  the  New  England  States,  New  York  and  Pennsylvania 
contributed,  either  in  money  or  supplies.  An  army  of  3250  men  was  dis- 
patched against  the  fort  under  the  command  of  William  Pepperell,  of 
Maine.  This  force  began  the  siege  April  30.  Five  unsuccessful  attacks 
were  made.  Finally,  the  French  garrison  becoming  mutinous,  the  com- 
mander of  Louisbourg  surrendered,  June  17.  The  fort  was  restored  to  the 
French  by  the  Treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  in  1748.  It  was  again  captured  by 
Shirley  in  1758,  during  the  French  and  Indian  War.  On  June  2,  1758,  the 
British  appeared  before  this  fortress  with  10,000  men  under  Amherst,  and 
forty-one  sail  under  Boscawen.  The  fort  was  defended  by  3080  regulars, 
five  ships  and  seven  frigates.  On  June  8,  in  spite  of  surf  and  a  spirited 
resistance,  the  British  gained  a  foothold  on  the  island.  The  outposts  were 
soon  captured  and  lines  drawn  around  the  citadel.  The  French  ships  were 
burned  or  ciptured.  The  garrison  attempted  a  sortie,  but  was  repulsed. 
Half  the  men  were  in  hospitals.  On  July  27  the  fort  capitulated,  and  the 
strongest  point  in  America,  and  great  stores,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
English. 

Louisiana,  the  Creole  State,  was  acquired  by  purchase  from  France  in  1803. 
It  was  first  visited  by  the  Spaniard  De  Soto  in  1541,  who  was  buried  in  the 
Mississippi.  In  1682  La  Salle  descended  the  river  and  took  formal  possession 
of  the  region  in  the  name  of  Louis  XIV.,  in  whose  honor  it  was  named.  In 
1706  New  Orleans  was  founded  by  Bienville.  John  Law  secured  control  of 
the  colony  as  a  part  of  his  Mississippi  scheme  in  1717.  In  1762  France 
transferred  her  title  to  Spain,  who  restored  the  country  again  to  France  in 
1800.  Napoleon,  following  the  plan  of  La  Salle,  proposed  to  found  a  new 
France  in  America,  but  was  finally  induced  to  sell  the  entire  territory  to 
the  United  States  for  $15,000,000  (1803).  The  following  year  the  Territory 
of  Orleans  was  formed  from  the  portion  of  this  vast  purchase  south  of 
33°  north  latitude.  The  northern  portion  was  organized  as  the  Louisiana 
Territory,  the  name  of  which  was  afterward  changed  to  Missouri.  In  April, 
1812,  the  Territory  of  Orleans  became  the  State  of  Louisiana.  The  final 
battle  of  the  War  of  1812  was  fought  at  New  Orleans  after  peace  had  been 
made  at  Ghent,  but  before  the  news  had  reached  America.  General  Jackson 
repulsed  with  great  slaughter  the  attack  of  the  British  under  Sir  Edward 
Pakenham  upon  New  Orleans.  From  1812  until  1830  the  State  was  Demo- 
cratic. After  1830  until  1850  the  Whigs  were  usually  in  the  majority.  The 
State  was  carried  for  Polk  in  1844  by  fraud.  The  sugar  planters  wished  for 
protection  against  foreign  sugar.  An  ordinance  of  secession  was  passed  in 
convention  January  26,  1861.  New  Orleans  was  captured  by  United  States 


DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  381 

forces  April  25, 1862.  The  State  was  restored  to  its  place  in  the  Union  June  25, 
1868.  The  present  Constitution  was  made  in  that  year.  In  July,  1871,  the 
Republican  party  became  divided  into  two  factions,  led  by  Warmoth  and 
Kellogg.  In  January,  1872,  there  were  two  rival  Legislatures;  open  conflict 
had  been  prevented  by  troops.  Two  candidates,  McEnery  and  Kellogg,  were 
nominated  for  Governor,  and  on  January  14,  1873,  both  were  inaugurated  as 
Governor.  Two  rival  U.  S.  Senators  were  elected.  The  Kellogg  govern- 
ment was  supported  by  the  President  at  Washington.  In  1876  the  vote  of 
the  State  was  claimed  by  both  parties,  but  was  finally  given  to  the  Republi- 
cans by  the  Electoral  Commission.  Since  1876  the  State  has  been  Democratic 
in  all  elections.  The  population  in  1812  was  76,556;  in  1890,  1,118,587. 
History  by  Gayarre". 

Louisiana,  District  of.  In  1804,  when  that  southern  part  of  the  Louisiana 
Purchase  which  is  now  called  the  State  of  Louisiana  was  organized  as  the 
Territory  of  Orleans,  all  that  was  north  of  this  was  organized  as  the  "Dis- 
trict of  Louisiana,"  under  the  Governor  of  Indiana  Territory.  In  1805  it 
was  given  a  separate  government  as  the  Territory  of  Louisiana.  In  1812  its 
name  was  changed  to  Missouri  Territory. 

Louisiana  Historical  Society,  founded  at  New  Orleans  in  1860  and 
recently  reorganized.  It  is  now  in  a  flourishing  condition,  and  has  collected 
over  1000  manuscripts  and  volumes. 

Louisiana  vs.  Jumel,  an  important  case  before  the  U.  S.  Supreme  Court, 
decided  in  1882.  The  plaintiffs,  holding  bonds  issued  under  the  act  of  the 
Louisiana  Legislature  of  1874,  known  as  Act  No.  3,  demanded  payment  of 
these  bonds  in  1880.  Payment  was  refused  in  obedience  to  Article  3  of  the 
Louisiana  State  Debt  Act  of  1880,  carrying  out  provisions  contained  in  the 
new  Constitution  of  thpt  State.  This  article  recited  that  coupons  of  consol- 
idated bonds  falling  due  _n  January,  1880,  were  remitted.  Suit  was  brought 
against  officers  of  the  State.  The  Circuit  Court  of  Louisiana  decided  for  the 
defendant,  and  its  decision  was  confirmed  by  the  Supreme  Court  of  the 
United  States  on  the  ground  that  relief  could  not  be  awarded  against  officers 
obeying  the  supreme  power  of  the  State;  that  the  money  is  the  State's 
property,  not  held  in  trust  by  the  officers,  except  in  the  capacity  of  her  ser- 
vants. 

Louisville,  Ky.,  founded  in  1778  by  a  company  of  settlers  under  Colonel 
George  Rogers  Clark.  It  became  a  city  in  1828.  The  introduction  of 
steam  navigation  on  the  Ohio  in  1812  gave  it  importance  as  a  centre  of  river 
trade. 

"  Louisville  Courier-Journal,"  probably  the  most  influential  newspaper 
in  Kentucky.  In  1868  there  existed  in  Louisville  three  newspapers,  the 
Journal,  Courier  and  Democrat.  These  journals  were  consolidated  that 
same  year,  and  called  the  Louisville  Courier-Journal.  It  is  now  published 
daily  by  the  Courier-Journal  Company. 

Lovejoy,  Elijah  P.  (1802-1837),  established  the  St.  Louis  Observer  in 
1833,  i11  which  he  ardently  attacked  slavery.  He  was  compelled  by  violent 
pro-slavery  sentiment  to  remove  his  paper  to  Alton,  111.,  in  1836,  where  his 


382  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

establishment  was  sacked  three  times  by  a  mob.     At  the  fourth  attack  one 
of  the  mob  was  killed,  whereupon  he  was  shot  by  his  assailants. 

Lovejoy,  Ov/en  (1811-1864),  was  very  prominent  in  the  anti-slavery  cause 
in  Illinois  from  1836  to  1856.  He  represented  Illinois  in  the  U.  S.  Congress 
as  a  Republican  from  1857  to  1864. 

Lovelace,  Francis  (1618  7-1675?),  became  Governor  of  New  York  in 
1668.  He  established  an  arbitrary  rule,  and  so  oppressed  the  people  that 
New  York  surrendered  to  a  Dutch  fleet  in  1673  without  opposition.  He 
returned  to  England  in  1673. 

Lovell,  Mansfield  (1822-1884),  fought  at  Chapultepec  and  Monterey  in 
the  Mexican  War.  He  surrendered  New  Orleans  to  Admiral  Farragut  in 
1862,  commanded  at  Coffeeville  and  fought  against  Sherman  at  Kenesaw. 

Low,  Seth,  born  in  1850,  while  mayor  of  Brooklyn  from  1881  to  1885, 
introduced  many  reforms  and  carefully  guarded  public  interests.  He  became 
president  of  Columbia  College  in  1890. 

Lowell,  A.  Lawrence,  born  in  1856,  distinguished  writer  on  government. 

Lowell,  Edward  J.,  born  in  1845,  published  "  The  Hessians  and  the  other 
German  Auxiliaries  of  Great  Britain  in  the  Revolutionary  War,"  1884,  and 
"The  Eve  of  the  French  Revolution,"  1893. 

Lowell,  James  Russell  (1819-1891),  was  born  at  Cambridge,  graduated 
at  Harvard,  and  devoted  himself  to  belles-lettres,  becoming  eventually  pro- 
fessor of  that  department  and  of  modern  languages  at  his  university.  Aside 
from  his  work  as  editor  of  the  Atlantic  and  of  the  North  American  Review,  his 
essays,  "  Among  My  Books,"  etc.,  his  poems,  "  Fable  for  Critics,"  "  Cathedral," 
"  Commemoration  Ode,"  etc.,  his  political  activity  is  to  be  noted.  His  "  Big- 
low  Papers,"  1846-1848,  helped  powerfully  the  anti-slavery  cause;  a  second 
series  appeared  in  the  period  of  the  war.  Lowell  won  general  esteem  as 
U.  S.  Minister  to  Spain  1877-1880,  and  to  England  1880-1885.  The  vol- 
ume, "  Democracy  and  Other  Essays,"  contains  some  of  his  contributions  to 
political  philosophy. 

Lowell,  John  (1743-1802),  secured  the  insertion  of  the  clause  "all  men 
are  born  free  and  equal "  in  the  Massachusetts  bill  of  rights.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  Continental  Congress  from  1782  to  1783.  He  was  a  Judge  of 
the  U.  S.  Court  of  Appeals  from  1782  to  1789,  and  U.  S.  District  Judge 
from  1789. 

Lowell,  John  (1769-1840),  was  a  supporter  of  the  Federalist  party  and  a 
zealous  opponent  of  the  War  of  1812.  He  published  many  political  pam- 
phlets, among  them  an  "  Inquiry  into  the  Subject  of  the  *  Chesapeake '  "  and 
"  Mr.  Madison's  War." 

Lowell,  Mass.,  was  made  a  town  in  1826  and  incorporated  as  a  city  ten 
years  later.  The  first  cotton  mill  was  started  in  1823,  an(^  this  industry  has 
since  grown  to  mammoth  proportions. 

Lowndes,  Rawlins  (1722-1800),  was  appointed  a  Judge  in  South  Carolina 
by  the  crown,  and  affirmed  the  validity  of  unstamped  public  papers.  He 
was  president  of  the  province  from  1778  to  1780.  He  opposed  the  adoption 
of  the  Constitution  as  fatal  to  liberty. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  383 

Lowndes,  William  J.  (1782-1822),  was  a  member  of  the  South  Carolina 
Legislature  from  1806  to  1810.  He  represented  South  Carolina  in  the  U.  S. 
House  of  Representatives  from  1810  to  1822.  He  served  on  the  Committee 
of  Ways  and  Means  from  1818  to  1822.  He  earnestly  supported  the  War 
of  1812.  He  was  a  brilliant  debater,  and  called  by  Henry  Clay  "the  wisest 
man  he  had  ever  known  in  Congress." 

Loyal  Company,  a  land  company  chartered  June  12,  1749,  in  opposition 
to  the  Ohio  Company.  Its  patentees  obtained  a  grant  of  800,000  acres  in 
the  Northwest  Territory,  chiefly  along  the  Ohio  River. 

Loyalists.  From  1688  on,  there  was  in  every  colony  a  party  favorable  to 
the  crown.  When  the  Revolutionary  movements  began,  this  party  became 
more  active.  In  no  colony  was  there  an  overwhelming  majority  in  favor  of 
revolution.  In  some  the  majority  was  unfavorable.  The  loyalists  in 
New  England  and  the  Middle  States  comprised  a  large  part  of  the  most 
respectable  and  eminent  men.  It  is  now  recognized  that  a  large  number 
of  them  were  patriotic  in  their  resistance  to  the  efforts  to  overturn  the 
existing  government.  As  the  Revolution  progressed  they  were  treated 
with  increasing  harshness.  Tories  were  ostracized,  and  in  some  cases 
tarred  and  feathered.  Acts  banishing  them  and  confiscating  their  prop- 
erty were  passed  by  most  of  the  colonial  conventions  and  legislatures. 
During  the  British  occupation  of  New  York,  Philadelphia  and  the  Southern 
States,  loyalist  regiments  and  more  irregular  organizations  were  formed  and 
took  part  in  the  war,  often  with  great  bitterness.  Exasperation  against  them 
was  so  great  that  at  the  end  of  the  war  most  of  them  felt  obliged  to  go  into 
exile  when  the  British  troops  withdrew.  Thousands  from  the  North  went  to 
New  Brunswick,  Nova  Scotia  and  Canada.  From  the  South  many  went  to 
the  Bahamas  and  West  Indies.  In  the  Treaty  of  1783  the  British  endeavored 
to  have  articles  inserted  which  should  provide  compensation  for  the  dis- 
possessed loyalists,  but  no  more  was  secured  than  a  promise  to  recommend 
the  matter  to  the  States.  The  States  refused  to  do  anything  in  the  matter, 
though  subsequently  some  ameliorations  of  their  hardships  were  secured. 

Luce,  Stephen  B.,  rear-admiral,  born  in  1827,  was  engaged  in  the  battle 
of  Port  Royal,  on  the  "Wabash,"  in  1862.  He  commanded  the  monitor 
"  Nantucket"  in  1863,  an<^  tne  "  Pontiac  "  from  1864  to  1865.  He  wa§  rear- 
admiral  U.  S.  N.  from  1885  to  1890. 

Ludlow,  Roger  (1590-1665  ?),  removed  from  Massachusetts  to  Connecticut 
in  1635.  He  is  supposed  to  have  drafted  the  Connecticut  Constitution.  In 
1639  he  founded  the  town  of  Fairfield.  In  1654  he  went  to  Virginia. 

Lundy,  Benjamin  (1789-1839),  originated  an  anti-slavery  association  in 
Ohio  called  the  "  Union  Humane  Society  "  in  1815.  He  contributed  an<:i- 
slavery  articles  to  periodicals,  and  from  1812  to  1836  edited  The  Genius  of 
Universal  Emancipation,  published  at  Baltimore  after '1824.  He  advocated 
negro  colonization.  He  was  one  of  the  first  to  deliver  anti-slavery  lectures 
and  the  first  to  found  societies  for  the  encouragement  of  free  labor.  Gar- 
rison was  an  assistant  to  him  at  first.  Lundy  was  a  Quaker. 

Lundy's  Lane,  Canada,  a  battle  in  the  War  of  1812.  After  the  defeat 
of  the  British  at  Chippewa,  General  Drummond  advanced  to  meet  the 


384  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

victorious  American  army  led  by  General  Jacob  Brown.  The  latter  sent  for- 
ward General  Scott  to  menace  the  forts  on  the  Niagara  River.  Near  the 
Falls,  July  24,  1814,  he  fell  in  with  General  Riall  with  1800  men,  who  were 
posted  on  a  hill  near  Lundy's  Lane.  Scott  sent  forward  Major  Jesup,  who 
by  a  flank  movement  gained  the  British  rear  and  kept  back  reinforcements. 
Meantime  Scott  was  hotly  engaged  against  a  much  larger  force.  The 
American  main  army  soon  arrived,  and  Colonel  Miller  stormed  a  battery 
which  was  the  key  to  the  British  position.  The  British,  with  the  rein- 
forcements that  now  had  arrived,  attempted  in  vain  to  recapture  this  posi- 
tion. At  midnight,  after  six  hours  of  fighting,  the  battle  ceased.  The 
British  next  day  took  possession  of  the  battlefield  and  four  of  the  cannon 
captured.  Both  parties  claimed  the  victory.  The  Americans  lost  about  850 
men,  the  British  nearly  900  in  all. 

Lunt,  George  (1803—1885),  served  several  terms  in  the  Massachusetts 
Legislature.  He  was  a  U.  S.  District  Attorney  from  1849  to  1853.  While 
editor  of  the  Boston  Daily  Courier  from  1857  to  1865  ne  exerted  a  powerful 
influence  on  the  Democratic  politics  of  the  period.  He  wrote  "  Three  Eras 
of  New  England  "  and  "  Origin  of  the  Late  War." 

Luther  vs.  Borden,  a  celebrated  case  in  the  U.  S.  Supreme  Court.  In 
1842  Luther,  of  Massachusetts,  brought  action  of  trespass  in  the  Circuit 
Court  of  Rhode  Island  against  Borden  for  entering  his  house  by  force.  In 
1841  a  portion  of  the  people  of  Rhode  Island  had  framed  a  new  Constitution 
and  elected  Thomas  W.  Dorr  Governor  in  opposition  to  the  charter  govern- 
ment. (See  Dorr  War.)  That  government,  King  being  the  executive, 
declared  the  State  under  martial  law,  and  Luther's  house  was  searched,  he 
being  implicated  in  the  armed  conspiracy  against  the  constitutional  govern- 
ment. Luther  pleaded  the  constitutionality  of  the  new  government,  but 
the  Circuit  Court  found  judgment  against  him  and  this  the  Supreme  Court 
of  the  United  States  confirmed,  1842.  But  it  was  decided  that  the  question 
of  the  constitutionality  of  a  State  government  lay  rather  with  Congress  than 
the  judicial  courts.  Also  it  was  decided  that  under  martial  law  suspected 
persons  might  be  legally  arrested  by  State  authority. 

Lutherans  in  America.  Dr.  H.  M.  Miihlenberg  is  generally  regarded  as 
the  founder  of  this  church  in  America.  Lutherans  had  settled  in  the  coun- 
try as  early  as  1621,  and  sent  out  probably  the  first  missionaries  to  the 
Indians,  but  they  remained  unorganized  till  1742  when  Dr.  Miihlenberg  was 
induced  to  leave  Halle,  in  order  to  organize  the  churches  scattered  through- 
out the  colonies.  The  first  synod  was  held  in  1748,  and  others  were  held 
annually  thereafter.  The  church  grew  rapidly  under  the  care  of  its  organ- 
izer. Schools  were  established,  churches  built,  ministers  ordained,  and  its 
numbers  steadily  increased  till  his  death  in  1787.  The  Civil  War  broke  the 
church  into  Northern  and  Southern  Synods,  and  doctrinal  questions  divided 
the  former  into  two  sects,  but  there  is  now  a  movement  on  foot  to  unite  all 
bodies  into  one  General  Conference.  Membership  in  1890,  1,231,000. 

Luxemburg.  The  U.'itrd  States  concluded  an  extradition  treaty  with 
Luxemburg  in  1883. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  385 

Luzerne,  Anne  Cesar  de  la  (1741-1791),  French  diplomatist,  was  minister 
to  the  United  States  from  1779  to  1783. 

Lygonia,  a  plantation  in  what  is  now  the  State  of  Maine,  purchased  April 
7,  1643,  by  George  Cleves,  of  Casco,  and  Alexander  Rigby,  of  England. 
Cleves  immediately  set  up  his  authority,  claiming  jurisdiction  as  deputy- 
president  of  the  province  of  Lygonia,  over  a  large  portion  of  the  territory 
granted  to  Ferdinando  Gorges  in  1639.  The  Massachusetts  Bay  government 
was  called  in  as  arbitrator,  and  decided  in  favor  of  Cleves  and  Rigby  in 
1646,  after  much  dispute. 

Lyman,  Phineas  (1716-1774),  of  Connecticut,  in  1755  was  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  Connecticut  forces  at  Crown  Point,  and  erected  Fort  Edward. 
He  succeeded  Sir  William  Johnson  in  command  at  Lake  George  in  1755. 
He  commanded  the  Connecticut  troops  at  Ticonderoga  and  Crown  Point  in 
1759,  and  at  Oswego  and  Montreal.  He  commanded  in  the  Havana  expedi- 
tion in  1762. 

Lynch,  William  F.  (1801-1865),  planned  and  carried  out  the  exploration 
of  the  Jordan  and  the  Dead  Sea  in  1848.  He  entered  the  Confederate  navy, 
commanding  at  Roanoke  Island,  at  Albemarle  Sound  and  at  Smithville. 

Lynch-law,  the  law  administered  during  the  Revolutionary  period  by 
Charles  Lynch,  a  Virginia  planter,  and  his  associates,  to  .Tories  and  other 
British  sympathizers.  The  victims  were  hung  up  by  their  thumbs  until 
they  shouted:  "  Liberty  forever  !"  but  were  never  killed.  In  later  years  and 
at  the  present  time  the  term  is  applied  to  summary  executions  without  trial 
and  usually  by  mob  violence.  It  is  practiced  largely  in  the  West  and  South, 
lynch-law  executions  being,  in  the  United  States  at  large,  about  twice  as 
numerous  as  legal  ones. 

Lyon,  Mary  (1797-1849),  founded  Mount  Holyoke  Seminary  at  South 
Hadley,  Mass.,  in  1837,  and  was  its  principal  until  1849.  She  was  thus  a 
pioneer  in  the  higher  education  of  women  in  America. 

Lyon,  Matthew  (1746-1822),  came  to  America  from  Ireland  in  1759. 
He  represented  Vermont  in  the  U.  S.  Congress  as  an  Anti-Federalist  and 
Democrat  from  1797  to  1801.  He  was  a  U.  S.  Congressman  from  Kentucky 
from  1803  to  i Si  i.  A  strong  Democrat,  he  was  prosecuted  under  the  Sedi- 
tion Act  of  1798. 

Lyon,  Nathaniel  (1818-1861),  served  with  distinction  at  Contreras,  Churu- 
busco  and  the  city  of  Mexico  during  the  Mexican  War.  He  served  in 
Kansas  during  the  political  struggles  and  supported  the  cause  of  the  Free- 
Soil  party.  In  1861  he- was  placed  in  command  of  the  U.  S.  arsenal  at 
St.  Louis,  and  soon  afterward  succeeded  General  Harney  in  command  of  the 
department.  He  defeated  the  Confederates  at  Booneville  and  at  Dug  Spring 
under  McCulloch.  He  was  defeated  at  Wilson's  Creek  by  a  superior  force, 
and  during  the  battle  he  was  killed. 

Lyons,  Richard  B.  P.,  Viscount,  (Lord  Lyons)  (1817-1887),  was  British 
Minister  at  Washington  from  1858  to  1865.  During  the  trying  times  of  the 
Civil  War  he  successfully  conducted  intricate  negotiations  and  laudably  dis- 
charged the  duties  of  his  position. 

25 


386  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Lyon's  Creek,  Canada.  An  American  force  sent  to  destroy  some  supplies 
was  here  attacked  October  19,  1814,  by  the  British  under  Colonel  Murray. 
The  latter  was  defeated  with  the  loss  of  150  men,  the  Americans  lost  sixty- 
seven  in  all. 


McArthur,  Duncan  (1772-1839),  served  during  the  War  of  1812,  com- 
manding the  Army  of  the  West  in  1814.  He  was  a  Democratic  U.  S.  Con- 
gressman from  Ohio  from  1823  *°  1825.  He  was  Governor  of  Ohio  from 
1830  to  1832. 

McClellan,  George  Brinton  (December  3,  i826-October  29,  1885),  a 
noted  American  general,  was  born  at  Philadelphia,  educated  at  the  University 
of  Pennsylvania  and  at  West  Point,  where  he  was  graduated  in  1846.  His 
service  in  the  Mexican  War  was  followed  by  duty  as  instructor  in  the  Mili- 
tary Academy.  He  was  sent  to  Europe  as  an  expert  to  follow  the  course  of 
the  Crimean  War,  and  published  as  a  result,  "  The  Armies  of  Europe."  For 
a  few  years  he  was  engineer  for  the  Illinois  Central  Railroad,  and  a  railroad 
president.  Appointed  major-general,  and  entrusted  with  command  in  West 
Virginia  at  the  beginning  of  the  Civil  War  he  broke  up  Garnett's  army,  and  was 
summoned  to  Washington  after  the  Bull  Run  catastrophe.  In  August,  1861, 
he  became  commander  of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac,  and  in  November  he  suc- 
ceeded General  Scott  as  commander-in-chief.  McClellan's  services  in  organ- 
izing the  army  were  invaluable.  Excess  of  caution  and  friction  between 
the  Washington  authorities  and  himself  led  to  disappointments  in  his  achieve- 
ments against  the  enemy.  He  commanded  through  the  Peninsula  campaign, 
executing  his  famous  "  change  of  base,"  was  relieved  of  the  command, 
reappointed  September  7,  1862,  after  Pope's  disasters,  and  commanded  in 
the  Antietam  campaign.  On  November  7  he  was  removed  and  placed  on 
waiting  orders.  He  resigned  from  the  army  in  1864,  and  was  the  same  year 
the  Democratic  candidate  for  President,  receiving  twenty-one  electoral  votes. 
He  was  Governor  of  New  Jersey  1878—1881.  "  Little  Mac  "  was  phenome- 
nally popular  with  the  soldiers  of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac  in  spite  of  out- 
side criticism.  See  "  McClellan's  Own  Story  "  for  his  defence. 

McClelland,  Robert  (1807-1880),  represented  Michigan  in  the  U.  S.  Con- 
gress as  a  Democrat  from  1843  to  1849.  He  was  Governor  of  Michigan 
from  1852  to  1853.  He  was  Secretary  of  the  Interior  in  Pierce's  Cabinet 
from  1853  to  1857. 

McClernand,  John  A.,  born  in  1812,  represented  Illinois  in  theU.  S.  Con- 
gress as  a  Democrat  from  1843  t°  I^5I  an(^  from  1859  to  1861.  He  organ- 
ized a  brigade  in  1861,  and  commanded  it  at  Belmont  and  Fort  Donelson. 
He  commanded  a  division  at  Shiloh,  Vicksburg,  Arkansas  Post  and  on  the 
Big  Black  River.  He  retired  in  1864. 

McCloskey,  John  (1810-1885),  cardinal,  was  Bishop  of  Albany  from  1847 
to  1864.  He  was  Archbishop  of  New  York  from  1864.  In  1875  he  was 
made  a  cardinal. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  387 

McClure,  Alexander  K.,  born  in  1828,  was  elected  as  a  Republican  to  the 
Pennsylvania  Legislature  in  1857  and  1858,  and  to  the  Senate  in  1859.  He 
founded  the  Philadelphia  Times  in  1875,  which  met  with  unusual  success. 

McCook,  Alexander  McD.,  general,  born  in  1831,  commanded  a  regiment 
at  Bull  Run,  and  a  division  at  Shiloh  and  in  the  Tennessee  and  Mississippi 
campaigns.  He  commanded  a  corps  at  Perryville,  Stone  River  and  Chicka- 
mauga. 

McCormick,  Cyrus  H.  (1809-1884),  born  in  Virginia,  invented  the  reap- 
ing-machine in  1831. 

McCosh,  James,  born  in  1811,  came  to  America  from  Scotland  in  1868 
to  assume  the  presidency  of  the  College  of  New  Jersey  (Princeton),  and  held 
that  position  till  1888.  He  wrote  "  The  Methods  of  the  Divine  Govern- 
ment," and  "  An  Examination  of  Mill's  Philosophy."  Died  1894. 

McCrary,  George  W.  (1835-1890),  represented  Iowa  in  the  U.  S.  Congress 
as  a  Republican  from  1869  to  1877.  He  was  Secretary  of  War  in  Hayes' 
Cabinet  from  1877  to  1879.  He  was  a  U.  S.  Circuit  Judge  from  1879  to 
1884. 

McCrea,  Jane  (1753—1777),  was  taken  prisoner  by  Indians  led  by  Le  Loup, 
a  Wyandotte  chief,  in  1777.  On  the  way  to  the  English  camp  they  were 
met  by  other  Indians  led  by  Duluth,  sent  by  David  Jones,  Miss  McCrea's 
lover,  to  escort  her  to  the  English  camp,  where  they  were  to  be  married. 
During  the  ensuing  quarrel  Le  Loup  shot  Miss  McCrea.  The  versions  of 
this  event  are  many. 

McCulloch,  Benjamin  (1811-1862),  commanded  a  company  during  the 
Mexican  War  at  Monterey,  Buena  Vista  and  the  city  of  Mexico.  He  was  a 
U.  S.  Marshal  from  1853  to  I&57-  He  was  commissioned  brigadier-general 
in  the  Confederate  service  in  1861  and  fought  with  distinction  at  Wilson's 
Creek  and  Pea  Ridge,  where  he  met  his  death. 

McCulloch,  Hugh,  born  in  1808,  was  cashier  and  manager  of  a  bank  at 
Fort  Wayne,  Ind.,  from  1835  to  1856,  and  president  of  the  Indiana  State 
Bank  from  1856  to  1863.  While  Comptroller  of  the  Currency  (a  new  office) 
from  1863  to  1865  he  organized  the  bureau  and  inaugurated  the  national 
banking  system.  He  was  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  in  the  Cabinets  of 
Lincoln  and  Johnson  from  1865  to  1869.  He  successfully  accomplished  the 
funding  of  the  national  debt.  He  was  again  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  from 
1884  to  1885.  Died  1895. 

McCulloch  vs.  Maryland,  a  famous  case  in  the  U.  S.  Supreme  Court, 
brought  by  writ  of  error  from  the  Court  of  Appeals  of  Maryland  to  the 
Supreme  Court  in  1819.  McCulloch  was  cashier  of  a  branch  established  in 
Baltimore  by  the  Bank  of  the  United  States,  of  Philadelphia,  which  had 
been  incorporated  by  an  act  of  Congress  in  1816.  The  action  was  one  of 
debt  brought  by  the  State  of  Maryland  against  McCulloch,  who,  it  was 
averred,  had  refused  to  comply  with  an  act  of  the  Maryland  General  Assem- 
bly of  1818,  which  imposed  a  "tax  upon  all  banks  or  branches  thereof  in 
the  State  of  Maryland,  not  chartered  by  the  Legislature. "  The  decision  of  the 
Court  of  Appeals  of  Maryland  had  been  against  the  plaintiff.  The  Supreme 


388  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATUS  HISTORY. 

Court  reversed  this  decision,  declaring  that  the  Bank  Act  of  1816  was  con- 
stitutional, and  that  therefore  the  act  of  the  Maryland  Legislature  of  1818 
was  contrary  to  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States,  and  therefore  void, 
because  States  have  no  power,  by  taxation  or  otherwise,  to  impede  or  control 
the  operations  of  constitutional  laws  enacted  bv  Congress  to  carry  into  exe- 
cution any  of  the  powers  of  the  Federal  Government. 

McDonald,  Joseph  E.  (1819-1891),  was  a  county  prosecuting  attorney 
from  1843  to  1847.  He  represented  Indiana  in  the  U.  S.  Congress  as  a 
Democrat  from  1849  to  1851.  He  was  Attorney-General  of  Indiana  from 
1856  to  1860.  He  was  a  U.  S.  Senator  from  1875  to  1881,  and  was  in  favor 
of  hard  money  and  a  protective  tariff. 

Macdonough,  Thomas  (1783-1825),  commodore,  served  in  the  Tripoli 
expedition  under  Decaturfrom  1803  to  1804.  He  gained  a  celebrated  victory 
over  a  superior  British  squadron  under  Commodore  Downie  at  Plattsburg  on 
Lake  Champlain  in  1814.  The  British  fleet  consisted  of  sixteen  vessels  with 
ninety-five  guns  and  1000  men,  and  lost  about  200,  besides  prisoners.  The 
American  force  consisted  of  fourteen  vessels,  carrying  eighty-six  guns  and 
850  men,  and  lost  112  men. 

McDowell,  Irvin  (1818-1885),  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1838  and  served, 
like  so  many  other  West-Pointers,  in  the  Mexican  War.  In  1861  he  was 
appointed  brigadier-general,  and  placed  in  charge  of  the  Army  of  the 
Potomac.  His  plans  for  the  first  battle  of  Bull  Run  were  admittedly 
excellent,  but  nothing  could  check  the  demoralization  of  the  green  troops. 
His  reputation  as  a  general  was  unjustly  involved  in  the  collapse  of  the 
army,  and  he  was  never  again  intrusted  with  high  command.  He  was  a 
corps  commander  in  Virginia  in  1862,  fought  at  the  battles  of  Cedar 
Mountain  and  second  Bull  Run;  after  the  war  he  was  a  commander  of  various 
military  departments,  was  promoted  major-general  in  1872,  and  retired  in 
1882. 

McDuffie,  George  (1788-1851),  represented  South  Carolina  as  a  Democrat 
in  the  U.  S.  House  of  Representatives  from  1821  to  1834.  While  chairman 
of  the  Ways  and  Means  Committee  he  favored  the  maintenance  of  a  U.  S. 
bank.  He  drafted  the  address  of  South  Carolina  to  the  people  of  the  United 
States  in  1832.  He  was  Governor  of  South  Carolina  from  1834  to  1836,  and 
was  a  U.  S.  Senator  from  1842  to  1846. 

Mace.  The  mace  used  in  the  House  of  Representatives  from  1789  on 
(ebony  fasces  surmounted  by  a  silver  eagle  upon  a  silver  globe)  was  destroyed 
when  the  British  burned  the  Capitol  in  1814.  The  present  one  was  made 
in  1842. 

"  Macedonian,"  frigate.     (See  "  United  States.") 

"  McFingal,"  the  most  famous  political  satire  of  the  Revolutionary 
period,  was  written  by  John  Trumbull,  of  Connecticut  (1750-1831),  and  was 
published  in  1782.  It  is  an  imitation  of  Butler's  "Hudibras." 

McGillivray,  Alexander  (1740-1793),  chief  of  the  Creek  Indians,  aided 
the  British  during  the  Revolution.  He  afterward  conducted  atrocious  raids 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  389 

along  the  Cumberland  River.     He  had  a  strong  mind,  but  was  treacherous 
and  cruel. 

McGlynn,  Edward,  Roman  Catholic  priest,  born  in  1837,  aided  in  found- 
ing the  Anti-Poverty  So9iety  in  1887.  He  was  removed  from  the  pastorate 
of  St.  Stephen's  Church,  New  York,  on  account  of  discountenancing  paro- 
chial schools  and  advocating  in  public  the  land  theories  of  Henry  George, 
but  was  restored  to  favor  in  1892. 

McHenry,  James  (1753-1816),  came  to  Philadelphia  from  Ireland  about 
1771.  He  served  during  the  Revolution  as  surgeon  and  aide.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  Maryland  Senate  from  1781  to  1786,  a  delegate  from  Mary- 
land to  the  Continental  Congress  from  1783  to  17.86,  and  a  member  of  the 
Constitutional  Convention  in  1787.  He  was  Secretary  of  War  from  1796  to 
1801  in  the  Cabinets  of  Washington  and  Adams. 

McHenry,  Fort,  Baltimore,  garrisoned  by  1000  men  under  Major  Armistead 
during  the  War  of  1812,  guarded  Baltimore  against  an  attack  by  sea.  Sep- 
tember 13,  1814,  Admiral  Cochrane  with  sixteen  heavy  war-vessels  opened 
bombardment  upon  the  fort.  Its  guns  failed  to  reach  the  fleet  till  some  of 
the  British  vessels  approached  nearer.  They  met  so  warm  a  reception  that 
they  withdrew,  badly  damaged.  A  force  of  1000  men,  landed  to  surprise  the 
fort  in  the  rear,  was  repulsed.  At  midnight  the  firing  ceased;  next  day  the 
British  withdrew  and  Baltimore  was  safe.  The  only  damage  was  on  the 
American  side,  four  killed  and  twenty-four  wounded.  During  the  bombard- 
ment Francis  S.  Key,  a  prisoner  on  board  the  British  fleet,  wrote  the  "  Star- 
Spangled  Banner." 

McHenry  Case  (1851).  One  McHenry,  a  respectable  colored  resident  of 
Syracuse,  N.  Y.,  was  arrested  in  October  as  a  fugitive  slave.  He  escaped 
the  officers,  but  was  recaptured.  A  convention  of  the  Liberty  party  was 
then  in  session,  and  fully  2000  people  hastened  to  the  court  house  and 
rescued  McHenry,  who  escaped  to  Canada.  The  U.  S.  Marshal  was  tried 
for  kidnapping,  but  acquitted. 

McKean,  Thomas  (1734-1817),  Governor,  was  prominent  in  the  Stamp- 
Act  Congress  of  1765  as  a  delegate  from  Delaware,  and  aided  in  drafting  the 
memorial  to  the  lords  and  commons.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Continental 
Congress  from  Delaware  from  1774  to  1783,  and  its  president  in  1781.  He 
aided  in  drafting  the  Articles  of  Confederation,  and  was  prominent  in  securing 
the  Declaration  of  Independence,  of  which  he  was  one  of  the  signers.  He 
was  Chief  Justice  of  Pennsylvania  from  1777  to  1799,  and  Governor  from 
1799  to  1808. 

McKenna,  Joseph,  born  in  1843.  Member  of  California  Legislature, 
member  of  Congress  1884  to  1892,  U.  S.  Circuit  Judge  1892  to  1897,  U.  S. 
Attorney-General  1897,  Associate  Justice  of  the  U.  S.  Supreme  Court  1897. 

Mackinaw  (originally  Michillimackinac),  was  from  the  middle  of  the 
seventeenth  century  a  centre  of  the  Northwestern  fur-trade.  In  the  War  of 
1812  the  first  move  of  the  British  was  to  send  a  body  of  two  hundred 
regulars  and  Canadians,  with  Indian  allies,  who,  on  July  17,  1812,  captured 
this  American  post.  An  attempt  to  recapture  it  in  1814  was  unsuccessful. 

McKinley,  John  (1780—1852),  represented  Alabama  in  the  U.  S.  Senate  as 
a  Democrat  from  1826  to  1831.  He  was  a  U.  S.  Congressman  from  1833  to 
1835.  From  1837  to  1852  he  was  a  Justice  of  the  U.  S.  Supreme  Court. 


390  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

McKinley,  Wm.,  Jr.,  Congressman  and  Governor  of  Ohio,  was  born  at 
Niles,  O.,  in  1844,  and  served  as  a  volunteer  in  the  Civil  War.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  House  of  Representatives  from  1877  to  1891,  and  as  chair- 
man of  the  Committee  of  Ways  and  Means  had  the  chief  hand  in  framing 
the  Tariff  Act  of  October  i,  1890,  commonly  called  the  McKinley  Act. 
From  January,  1892,  to  January,  1896,  he  was  Governor  of  Ohio.  Elected 
President  of  the  United  States  Nov.  3,  1896,  inaugurated  March  4,  1897. 

McKinley  Act,  a  bill  submitted  in  Congress  by  Representative  McKinley, 
of  Ohio,  and  which  became  law  October  i,  1890.  It  provided  for  a  high  rate 
of  duty  on  a  large  number  of  articles  imported  from  foreign  countries,  but 
made  sugar  free.  This  act  was  designed  to  reduce  the  national  revenue  and 
increase  protection. 

McLane,  Louis  (1786-1857),  of  Delaware,  was  Representative  in  Congress 
from  1817  to  1827,  Senator  from  1827  to  1829,  Minister  to  England  from 
1829  to  1831,  and  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  in  Jackson's  Cabinet  from  1831 
to  1833,  when  he  resigned  rather  than  order  the  removal  of  the  deposits 
(see  art.  Deposits).  He  was  then  Secretary  of  State  for  a  year.  In  1845—46 
he  was  again  Minister  to  England. 

McLane,  Robert  M.  (1815-1898),  was  a  Democratic  U.  S.  Congressman 
from  Maryland  from  1847  to  ^51'  He  was  Minister  to  China  from  1854  to 
1856,  to  Mexico  from  1859  to  1860  and  to  France  from  1885  to  1889. 

McLaws,  Lafayette,  born  in  1821,  was  graduated  at  West  Point,  resigned 
from  the  U.  S.  army  in  1861,  and  became  a  major-general  in  the  Confederate 
service.  He  distinguished  himself  as  a  division  commander  at  Harper's 
Ferry,  Antietam,  Fredericksburg,  Chancellorsville  and  Gettysburg.  Died 
1897. 

McLean,  John  (1785—1861),  born  in  New  Jersey,  but  brought  up  in  Ohio, 
was  a  Representative  from  Ohio  from  1813  to  1817,  and  Postmaster-General 
from  1823  to  1829,  in  tne  administrations  of  Monroe  and  John  Quincy 
Adams.  From  1830  to  1861  he  was  an  Associate  Justice  of  the  Supreme 
Court  of  the  United  States.  In  the  Dred  Scott  case  he  dissented  from  the 
opinion  of  Chief  Justice  Taney. 

McLeod,  Alexander,  a  Canadian  temporarily  in  New  York  State  in  1841, 
was  arrested  and  indicted  for  participation  in  the  "  Caroline  "  affair  (see  art.). 
The  British  Minister  demanded  his  release,  alleging  that,  the  case  being 
international,  jurisdiction  over  it  belonged  to  the  U.  S.  Government,  not 
to  the  State  courts.  Such  was  also  the  view  of  the  U.  S.  Government.  But 
the  courts  of  New  York  held,  on  the  contrary,  that  the  burning  of  the 
"  Caroline  "  was  not  an  act  of  magistracy  on  the  part  of  the  Canadian  Gov- 
ernment, that  McLeod  was  therefore  individually  responsible  and  amenable 
to  the  New  York  courts.  He  proved  an  alibi. 

McMaster,  John  Bach,  born  in  1852,  is  the  author  of  a  "  History  of  the 
People  of  the  United  States  from  the  Revolution  to  the  Civil  War,"  of 
which  three  volumes  have  appeared,  and  a  "  Life  of  Benjamin  Franklin." 

McMillin,  Benton,  born  in  Kentucky  in  1845,  was  a  Representative  in 
Congress  from  Tennessee  from  1879  to  the  present  time  (1897),  and  of  late 
one  of  the  most  prominent  Democratic  leaders. 


if& 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  391 

Macomb,  Alexander  (1782-1841),  entered  the  U.  S.  army  in  1799,  and  at 
the  outbreak  of  the  War  of  1812  was  adjutant-general  of  the  army.  Taking 
service  in  the  field  he,  in  September,  1814,  won  the  victory  of  'Plattsburg 
over  Sir  George  Provost,  and  was  made  major-general.  From  1835  to  1841 
he  was  commander-in-chief  of  the  army. 

Macon,  Nathaniel  (i757~l837))  of  North  Carolina,  Representative  from 
1791  to  1815,  was  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Representatives  from  1801  to 
1807.  From  1815  to  1828  he  was  a  Senator  from  North  Carolina.  A  Demo- 
cratic-Republican of  the  strictest  type,  he  was  noted  for  his  political  upright- 
ness and  purity.  He  was  a  principal  member  of  the  faction  called  "  Quids." 

Macon,  Fort,  N.  C.,  captured  from  the  Confederates  by  General  Parke, 
commanding  35,000  troops  from  Burnside's  army,  April  23,  1862.  The  fort 
was  garrisoned  by  500  Confederates  under  Colonel  White. 

"  Macon  Bill  No.  2,"  a  bill  so  called  from  its  author,  Nathaniel  Macon, 
was  passed  by  Congress  on  May  i,  1810,  as  a  means  of  extricating  the 
United  States  from  the  difficulties  caused  by  the  aggressions  of  England  and 
France.  It  provided  that  commerce  should  be  free,  but  that  if  either  Eng- 
land should  withdraw  her  Orders  in  Council  or  France  her  Berlin  and  Milan 
Decrees,  intercourse  should  be  prohibited  with  the  nation  which  retained 
them. 

Macon  Road,  Ga. ,  a  battle  during  Sherman's  investment  of  Atlanta,  July 
26,  1864.  McCook,  commanding  4000  Federals,  was  defeated  and  captured 
by  6000  Confederates  of  Hood's  army  under  Ransom. 

McPherson,  James  B.  (1828-1864),  a  brilliant  young  general  of  the  Civil 
War,  was  graduated  from  West  Point  in  1853.  In  1862  and  1863  he  was 
wi  th  Grant  in  the  Tennessee  and  Vicksburg  campaigns,  commanding  a  corps 
with  distinguished  success.  In  the  spring  of  1864  he  was  put  in  command 
of  the  Army  of  the  Tennessee,  and  assisted  Sherman  in  his  advance  into 
Georgia.  He  had  a  most  important  part  in  the  fighting  against  Johnston  at 
Resaca,  New  Hope  Church,  Dallas  and  Kenesaw  Mountain.  He  was  killed 
in  the  battle  against  Hood  at  Atlanta,  July  22,  1864. 

McPherson,  John  R.,  born  in  1833,  was  a  member  of  the  New  Jersey 
Senate  from  1870  to  1873.  He  was  elected  to  the  U.  S.  Senate  from  New 
Jersey  as  a  Democrat  in  1876,  1883  and  1889.  Died  1897. 

MacVeagh,  Wayne,  lawyer,  born  in  Pennsylvania  in  '1833,  was  U.  S. 
Minister  to  Turkey  from  1870  to  1871,  headed  a  commission  of  investigation 
in  Louisiana  appointed  by  President  Hayes  in  1877,  was  Attorney-General 
of  the  United  States  under  Garfield  in  1881,  and  in  1893  was  appointed 
Minister  to  Italy. 

Madagascar.  The  United  States  concluded  a  commercial  treaty  with 
Madagascar  in  1867,  which  was  modified  and  enlarged  in  1881. 

Madison,  Dorothy  Paine  (1772-1849),  wife  of  President  Madison,  was  a 
beautiful  and  accomplished  Quakeress.  Her  first  husband  was  John  Todd,  a 
Philadelphia  lawyer.  She  married  Mr.  Madison  in  1794,  and  was  unusually 
successful  as  a  President's  wife. 


392  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Madison,  James  (1751-1836),  fourth  President  of  the  United  States,  was 
born  in  King  George  County,  Va.  He  was  well  educated,  graduated  at  Prince- 
ton in  1772,  and  was  early  distinguished  for  sound  judgment,  discretion, 
acquirements,  industry  and  patriotism.  In  1774  he  was  a  member  of  the 
Committee  of  Public  Safety  of  Orange  County,  and  in  1776  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Virginia  Convention.  From  1780  to  1784  he  was  a  member  of 
the  Continental  Congress,  and,  in  spite  of  his  youth  and  modesty,  had  a 
leading  share  in  its  deliberations,  and  especially  its  committee-work,  for 
which  his  sensible  and  methodical  mind  was  peculiarly  apt.  In  the  Virginia 
Assembly  (1784-87)  he  did  great  service  in  securing  religious  liberty  and  in 
promoting  the  movement  toward  a  better  union  of  the  States.  Probably  no 
one  else  contributed  more  to  this  end  in  all  America.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  Alexandria-Mount-Vernon  Conference  of  1785,  of  the  Annapolis  Con- 
vention of  1786,  and  of  the  Constitutional  Convention  of  1787,  in  which 
he  had  the  most  influential  part,  through  his  own  talents  for  constructive 
statesmanship  and  also  through  his  persuasive  and  conciliatory  spirit. 
In  1788  he  wrote  a  portion  of  the  Federalist,  and  did  more  than  any 
one  else  to  secure  the  ratification  of  the  Constitution  by  Virginia.  From 
1789  to  1797  he  was  a  leading  member  of  Congress,  inclining  more  and 
more  to  the  doctrines  and  party  of  Jefferson.  He  wrote  the  Virginia  reso- 
lutions of  1798.  From  1801  to  1809  he  was  Secretary  of  State  in  Jeffer- 
son's Cabinet,  and  from  1809  to  1817  he  was  President  of  the  United 
States,  being  elected  over  C.  C.  *Pinckney  in  1808,  and  over  DeWitt  Clinton 
in  1812.  The  chief  event  in  his  administration  was  the  War  of  1812,  which 
he  managed  feebly.  His  Cabinet  consisted  of  Robert  Smith  (1811-17  James 
Monroe),  Secretary  of  State;  Albert  Gallatin  (1814  G.  W.  Campbell,  1814 
A.  J.  Dallas,  1816  W.  H.  Crawford),  Secretary  of  the  Treasury;  William 
Eustis  (1813  John  Armstrong,  1814  J.  Monroe,  1815  W.  H.  Crawford),  Sec- 
retary of  War;  Paul  Hamilton  (1813  William  Jones,  1814  B.  W.  Crownin- 
shield),  Secretary  of  the  Navy;  Caesar  A.  Rodney  (1811  William  Pinckney, 
1814  Richard  Rush),  Attorney-General.  The  Vice-Presidents  were  George 
Clinton,  1809-1813;  Elbridge  Gerry,  1813-1814.  From  1817  to  his  death 
Madison  lived  in  retirement  at  Montpelier,  Va.  Life  by  Rives. 

Madison,  Fort  (near  St.  Louis).  Attacked  September  5,  1812,  by  a  party 
of  Winnebagoes.  After  three  days'  fighting  the  Indians  withdrew.  The 
American  loss  was  one  man. 

Madison,  Wis.,  was  chosen  as  the  State  capital  in  1836,  while  yet  a 
wilderness. 

Madoc,  or  Madog,  a  Welsh  prince,  son  of  Owain  Gwynedd,  is  said,  in 
accordance  with  a  tradition  first  published  in  the  sixteenth  century,  to  have 
sailed  west  about  1171  and  discovered  America.  The  first  mention  of  this 
Madog  is  in  a  Welsh  poem  of  the  fourteenth  century.  He  is  not  known  to 
have  existed,  and  the  story  of  his  discovery  is  not  now  believed  by  the  most 
competent  authorities. 

Magazines.  The  first  American  literary  periodical  was  the  "General 
Magazine  and  Historical  Chronicle,"  issued  by  Franklin  at  Philadelphia  in 
1741.  In  the  same  year  and  place  appeared  the  "American  Magazine,"  but 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  393 

neither  lived  a  year.  In  1743  an  "American  Magazine  and  Historical 
Chronicle"  began  to  be  published  in  Boston.  The  first  which  appeared  in 
New  York  was  the  "  Independent  Reflector,"  weekly,  1752.  Other  important 
magazines  of  the  eighteenth  century  were  the  "  Pennsylvania  Magazine  "  of 
1775,  the  "American  Museum,"  1787-1797;  the  "Massachusetts  Magazine," 
1789-1796,  and  the  "New  York  Magazine,"  1790-1797.  Of  much  more 
value  were  the  "Portfolio,"  Philadelphia,  1801-1825,  an^  the  "Monthly 
Anthology,"  Boston,  1803-1811.  The  first  important  review  was  the  "  North 
American  Review,"  founded  in  1815  at  Boston.  The  chief  predecessor  of  the 
modern  literary  and  miscellaneous  magazines  of  America  was  the  "  Knick- 
erbocker," 1832-1860.  Of  the  leading  magazines  of  the  present  time, 
Harper's  was  founded  in  1850,  Scribner's  (later  the  "  Century  Magazine  ") 
in  1870,  the  "Atlantic  Monthly"  in  1857. 

Magoffin,  Beriah  (1815-1885),  a  prominent  member  of  the  Democratic 
party,  was  Governor  of  Kentucky  from  1859  to  1862.  His  sympathies 
inclined  toward  the  Confederates,  but  he  maintained  a  policy  of  neutrality. 

Magruder,  John  B.  (1810-1871),  Confederate  major-general,  commanded 
the  forces  in  the  Peninsula  in  1862,  the  Department  of  Texas  during  the 
remainder  of  the  war,  after  which  he  served  under  Maximilian  in  Mexico. 

Maguaga,  Mich.,  about  fourteen  miles  from  Detroit,  scene  of  a  minor 
engagement  in  the  War  of  1812,  August  9,  1812.  Colonel  Miller,  attempt- 
ing to  clear  the  road  to  Detroit,  attacked  the  British  and  Indians,  under 
General  Proctor  and  Tecumseh.  Though  successful,  he  was  obliged  to  give 
up  his  advance  movement. 

Mahan,  Alfred  Thayer,  born  in  1840.  Rose  to  be  captain  in  the  U.  S. 
navy.  Authority  on  naval  strategy  and  history. 

Mahon,  Philip  H.  Stanhope,  Lord  (afterward  Earl  Stanhope)  (1805-1 87 5), 
an  English  statesman,  wrote  a  "  History  of  England  from  the  Peace  of 
Utrecht  to  the  Peace  of  Versailles  (1713-1783),"  which  is  recognized  as  a 
standard  work,  and  presents  a  moderate  English  view  of  the  Revolution. 

M  ah  one,  William,  born  in  1826,  Confederate  major-general,  and  noted  for 
hard  fighting  in  several  battles,  especially  at  Petersburg,  about  1878  organ- 
ized and  became  the  leader  of  the  party  called  Readjusters,  advocating 
repudiation  of  the  State  debt  of  Virginia.  From  1881  to  1887  he  was  a 
Senator  from  Virginia.  Died  October  8,  1895. 

Maine,  name  probably  meaning  main-land,  as  distinguished  from  the 
islands  off  its  coast.  It  was  first  settled  by  a  party  led  by  George  Popham 
in  1607,  but  this  was  temporary.  By  grants  of  1622,  1629  and  l639>  sir 
Ferdinando  Gorges  obtained  the  territory  between  the  Piscataqua  and  the 
Kennebec.  In  1652  and  again  in  1668,  Massachusetts  obtained  possession 
of  this  part  of  Maine.  Eastern  Maine,  held  by  the  Duke  of  York  from  1664, 
fell  to  Massachusetts  in  1691.  The  "District  of  Maine  "  remained  a  part  of 
Massachusetts  till  1820,  when  it  was  admitted  to  the  Union  as  a  separate 
State  on  April  15.  Its  Constitution,  framed  in  that  year,  is  still  in  operation. 
In  1842  the  Ashburton  Treaty  settled  the  long-standing  dispute  regarding 
its  northeast  boundary.  Its  boundary  with  New  Hampshire  had  been  set- 
tled in  1737.  The  "Maine  law,"  prohibiting  the  manufacture  and  sale  of 
intoxicating  liquors,  was  passed  in  1851  and  permanently  in  1858.  Maine 


394  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

was  almost  constantly  Democratic  from  1820  to  1854;  almost  constantly 
Republican  from  1856  to  the  present  time  (1894).  In  1880  a  Democratic 
Governor  and  council  "  counted  in  "  a  Democratic-Greenback  Legislature, 
and  for  a  brief  period  there  were  two  bodies  claiming  to  be  Legislatures. 
In  1790  the  population  of  Maine  was  97,000,  in  1820  298,000,  in  1890 
661,000. 

Maine  Historical  Society,  founded  in  1822,  has  published  several 
volumes.  • 

Maine  Law,  a  law  prohibiting  the  sale  of  intoxicating  liquors  as  a  bever- 
age, first  adopted  in  Maine  in  1851. 

"  Maine,"  U.  S.  battleship,  was  blown  up  in  the  harbor  of  Havana  on  the 
night  of  February  15,  1898,  by  a  mysterious  explosion  from  without,  and 
266  men  were  lost,  including  several  officers.  Captain  Charles  D.  Sigsbee 
was  in  command. 

Maiden,  Upper  Canada,  was  during  the  earlier  part  of  the  War  of  1812 
the  centre  of  British  operations  against  Detroit  and  the  Northwest.  After 
Harrison's  victory  on  the  Thames  it  was  evacuated,  October,  1813. 

Mallory,  Stephen  R.  (1813-1873),  of  Florida  (though  of  New  England 
parentage),  was  a  Senator  from  Florida  from  1851  to  1861.  During  most 
of  this  time  he  was  chairman  of  the  Committee  on  Naval  Affairs.  On  the 
formation  of  the  Confederate  Government  he  was  appointed  by  President 
Davis  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  which  office  he  held  during  the  continuance  of 
the  Confederacy. 

Malvern  Hill,  a  battle  in  the  Civil  War,  the  last  of  the  "  Seven  Days' " 
battles,  July  i,  1862,  by  which  McClellan  completed  his  change  of  base  to 
the  James  River.  After  the  battle  of  Frayser's  Farm,  McClellan  had 
retreated  with  his  85,000  Federal  troops  to  Malvern  Hill,  a  strong  position 
on  an  elevated  plateau  shaped  like  an  amphitheatre.  His  lines  were  securely 
posted  behind  fences,  ditches  and  hedges,  their  batteries  and  infantry  com- 
manding the  slope  which  the  Confederates  must  ascend  to  attack  them. 
Lee  ordered  an  attack,  which  was  meant  to  be  made  simultaneously  by  all 
parts  of  his  line  at  a  given  signal,  the  "  Confederate  yell."  But  his  lieuten- 
ants were  so  separated  that  the  signal  could  not  be  heard,  and  the  attacks 
were  therefore  feeble  and  disorganized.  D.  H.  Hill  and  Magruder  bore  the 
brunt  of  the  fight.  Time  after  time  they  charged  the  impregnable  Federal 
position,  but  in  vain.  They  were  always  driven  back  with  fearful  slaughter. 
The  battle  lasted  until  nightfall.  During  the  night  McClellan  retired  under 
cover  of  a  violent  storm. 

Manassas,  Va.,  the  field  of  two  engagements  during  the  Civil  War. 
July  21,  1861,  Johnston  and  Beauregard,  with  31,000  Confederates,  defeated 
28,000  Federals  under  McDowell.  August  29-30,  Pope,  Federal,  with  40,000 
troops,  was  defeated  by  Lee  and  Jackson. 

"  Mandamus  Councillors,"  a  name  opprobriously  applied  by  the  revolu- 
tionary party  in  Massachusetts  to  those  members  of  the  council  of  the 
province  who,  in  August,  1774,  accepted  appointment  by  writ  of  mandamus 


DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  395 

at  the  hands  of  Governor  Gage.  By  the  charter  of  1691  councillors  had 
been  elected  by  the  House  of  Representatives.  The  Massachusetts  Charter 
Act  of  1774,  to  punish  Massachusetts,  gave  Gov.  power  to  appoint  them. 

Mandans,  a  small  tribe  of  Indians,  numbering  about  500,  now  dwelling 
on  a  reservation  in  Dakota.  They  are  first  heard  of  about  1772.  They 
then  lived  on  the  Missouri,  about  1500  miles  up  from  its  mouth.  They  are 
of  light  complexion,  hence  many  vain  attempts  to  trace  their  descent  from 
the  supposed  Welsh  colony  of  Prince  Madoc. 

Manderson,  Charles  F.,  born  in  1837,  was  appointed  colonel  during  the 
Civil  War.  He  was  elected  to  the  U.  S.  Senate  as  a  Republican  from 
Nebraska  in  1883  and  1887,  serving  till  1893. 

Mangoaks,  a  tribe  of  Indians  in  North  Carolina,  into  whose  country 
Ralph  Lane,  commander  of  Raleigh's  colony,  in  1586  attempted  an  expedi- 
tion, on  information  of  a  pearl  fishery  among  them. 

Mangum,  Willie  P.  (1792-1861),  of  North  Carolina,  was  a  Representative 
from  that  State  from  1823  to  1826,  and  Senator  from  1831  to  1836  and  from 
1840  to  1853,  serving  as  a  Whig.  In  1836  he  received  the  electoral  votes 
of  South  Carolina  for  the  Presidency. 

Manhattan,  the  original,  apparently  Indian,  name  of  the  island  on  which 
New  York  is  now  situated.  In  1613  the  first  settlement  was  made,  of  the 
nature  of  a  trading-post.  In  1626  Peter  Minuit,  director  for  the  Dutch 
West  India  Company,  bought  the  island  of  the  Indians  for  sixty  guilders  ($24). 
•  Manila,  Battle  of  (Philippines),  May  i,  1898.  The  U.  S.  Naval  Squadron, 
viz.,  the  "  Olympia,"  "  Baltimore,"  "  Raleigh,"  "  Petrel,"  "  Concord,"  and 
"  Boston,"  under  Commodore  Dewey,  destroyed  the  Spanish  squadron  under 
Admiral  Montojo,  viz.,  the  "  Reina  Christina,"  u  Castilla,"  "  Don  Antonia  de 
Ulloa,"  "  Isla  de  Luzon,"  "  Isla  de  Cuba,"  "  General  Lezo,"  "  Marquis  de 
Duero,"  "  Cano  Velasco,"  and  "  Isla  de  Mindanao,"  and  silenced  the  land 
batteries.  Spanish  lost  two  commanders  and  about  650  men  killed  and 
wounded.  Americans  hid  six  men  wounded. 

Manley,  John  (1733-1793),  born  in  England,  but  settled  in  Marblehead, 
Mass.,  was  commissioned  by  Washington  to  cruise  off  Boston  and  intercept 
Gage's  supplies,  October  24,  1775.  He  opened  the  naval  operations  of  the 
Revolution  by  capturing  the  "  Nancy,"  laden  with  military  supplies,  on 
November  29.  In  1776  he  was  made  the  second  captain  in  the  U.  S.  navy, 
and  commanded  the  "  Hancock  "  in  1776  and  1777,  an(^  privateers  subse- 
quently. He  was  twice  made  a  prisoner. 

Mann,  Horace  (1796-1859),  of  Massachusetts,  educator,  was  graduated  at 
Brown  University  in  1819.  From  1837  to  1848  he  was  secretary  of  the 
Massachusetts  State  Board  of  Education.  He  reformed  the  educational 
system  of  the  State,  introducing  normal  schools  and  teachers'  conventions, 
and  exerted  a  wide  influence  throughout  the  country  in  regard  to  educational 
matters.  From  1848  to  1853  he  was  an  anti-slavery  Whig  Congressman, 
and  from  1853  to  his  death  was  president  of  Antioch  College. 

Manning,  Daniel  (1831-1887),  of  New  York,  chairman  of  its  Democratic 
State  Committee  from  1881  to  1884,  was  appointed  Secretary  of  the  Treas- 
ury by  President  Cleveland  in  1885,  and  served  as  such  till  1887. 


396  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Manors,  in  the  United  States.  Manors  of  the  English  type,  t.  £.,  landed 
estates  granted  on  such  terms  that  the  right  of  property  carried  with  it 
rights  of  jurisdiction,  were  created  in  several  of 'the  colonies.  In  1636  the 
Proprietor  of  Maryland  ordained  that  every  grant  of  2000  acres  to  any  man 
should  be  erected  into  a  manor.  Bohemia  Manor,  My  Lady's  Manor  and 
Doughoregan  Manor  are  celebrated,  as  also  Penn  Manor  in  Pennsylvania. 
Under  the  Duke  of  York  Martha's  Vineyard  was  the  Manor  of  Tisbury. 
In  New  Netherland  the  Dutch  West  India  Company  erected  manors  for  the 
patroons.  (See  Patroons,  Anti-renters.) 

Mansfield,  J.  K.  F.  (1803-1862),  general,  was  commander  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Washington  during  the  earlier  part  of  the  Civil  War,  and  was 
killed  at  Antietam. 

Mansfield,  William  Murray,  Lord  (1704-1793),  the  most  eminent  of  Eng- 
lish judges,  was  Chief  Justice  of  the  King's  Bench  from  1756  to  1788.  He 
maintained  the  right  of  Great  Britain  to  tax  the  American  colonies  and  was 
one  of  the  most  zealous  opponents  of  the  repeal  of  the  Stamp  Act.  (See  also 
Sommersett's  Case.) 

Manteo,  a  friendly  Indian  of  the  Roanoke  region,  was  helpful  to  Raleigh's 
colony  of  1585-86.  He  had  visited  England  with  Amidas  and  Barlow  just 
before. 

Manufactory  Bank,  a  short-lived  scheme  in  Massachusetts  in  1740  to 
establish  a  bank  by  securing  its  issues  by  a  mortgage  on  the  real  estate  of 
each  subscriber  to  the  amount  of  his  subscription.  It  was  supported  by 
traders  and  people  in  the  rural  districts  and  by  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives, but  was  opposed  by  a  strong  party.  It  issued  ^50,000  of  notes  and 
then  failed. 

Manufactures.  American  manufactures  began  with  the  making  of  glass 
at  the  Jamestown  colony.  At  first  the  chief  manufactures  in  the  colonies 
were  of  ships,  lumber  and  iron.  Domestic  manufactures  continued  till  long 
after  the  Revolution  to  be  an  important  portion,  especially  in  the  article 
of  cloth.  Soon  the  amount  of  American  exports  of  manufactured  articles 
was  so  great  that  English  manufacturers  complained.  In  1699  Parlia- 
ment enacted  that  no  woolen  mamifactures  should  be  shipped  from  the 
colonies.  The  iron  manufacture  was  repressed  by  a  series  of  laws  beginning 
in  1719-  Export  of  hats  was  forbidden  in  1731,  and  several  other  similar 
prohibitions  were  enacted.  The  Revolution  stimulated  manufactures  and 
States  tried  to  foster  them  by  bounties.  Yet  in  1789  they  were  still  in  their 
infancy.  The  country  was  mainly  agricultural,  though  there  were  some 
important  manufactures  of  heavy  iron  goods,  paper,  glass,  gunpowder,  rum, 
leather  and  textiles,  and  excellent  ships  were  built.  The  slightly  protective 
tariff  of  1789  increased  manufactures,  the  War  of  1812  still  more  so,  inso- 
much that  in  1815  the  amount  of  capital  in  the  cotton  and  woolen  industries 
was  probably  $50,000,000.  After  the  war  a  great  development  of  Ameri- 
can manufactures  began,  those  created  by  the  war  demanding  increased 
protection,  and  receiving  it  in  the  tariffs  of  1824  and  1828.  Manufacturing 
towns  arose,  and  American  life  ceased  to  be  exclusively  agricultural  and 
rural.  This  development,  however,  was  almost  entirely  in  the  North. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  397 

When  the  Civil  War  broke  out,  the  South  was  almost  without  manufactures, 
while  the  industrial  life  of  the  North  was  becoming  more  and  more  varied. 
Since  the  war  the  manufactures  of  the  United  States  have  developed  to  such 
an  extent  that  they  are  the  leading  manufacturing  country  of  the  world,  and 
make  one-fourth  of  its  entire  total  of  manufacturing.  The  amount  of 
manufacturing  done  in  the  United  States  seems  to  have  about  doubled  from 
1880  to  1890.  The  history  of  some  of  the  leading  industries  is  treated  in 
separate  articles. 

Marble,  Manton,  born  in  1835,  was  proprietor  and  editor  of  the  New 
York  World,  a  free-trade  Democratic  journal,  from  1862  to  1876.  He  has 
published  an  account  of  the  election  of  1876. 

Marbois,  Francois  de  Barbe-,  Marquis  de  (1745-1837),  was  sent  from 
France  to  the  United  States  as  secretary  of  legation  in  1779,  and  remained 
until  1785.  When  appointed  to  cede  Louisiana  to  the  United  States  in 
1803,  he  secured  30,000,000  francs  more  than  the  French  administration 
had  demanded.  He  wrote  "  Complot  d'Arnold  et  Sir  Henry  Clinton  centre  les 
Etats-Unis  d'Ame'rique,"  and  "  L'Histoire  de  la  Louisiane  et  de  la  Cession." 

Marbury  vs.  Madison.  William  Marbury  and  others,  having  been 
appointed  justices  of  the  peace  in  the  District  of  Columbia  by  President 
Adams,  with  the  consent  of  the  Senate,  and  having,  on  President  Jefferson's 
accession,  failed  to  receive  their  respective  commissions  of  appointment, 
moved  the  Supreme  Court  to  issue  a  mandamus  to  James  Madison,  Secre- 
tary of  State,  commanding  him  to  deliver  their  several  commissions.  The 
court  decided  that  Marbury  was  legally  entitled  to  his  commission,  but  that 
the  Constitution  did  not  invest  it  with  the  authority  to  issue  a  mandamus 
in  such  a  case.  The  rule  was  discharged  February,  1803.  Thus  the  court 
declared  unconstitutional  a  portion  of  an  Act  of  Congress,  the  Judiciary  Act 
of  1789,  which  purported  to  grant  such  authority.  This  was  the  first 
important  case  in  which  the  Court  set  aside  an  act  of  Congress  because  of 
conflict  with  the  Constitution. 

March  Fourth,  the  day  chosen  for  the  Presidential  inauguration.  Its 
choice  dates  from  the  year  1788,  that  day  being  designated,  after  the  ratifi- 
cation of  the  Constitution  by  the  States,  as  inauguration  day,  by  the  Congress 
of  the  old  Confederation.  They  fixed  on  the  first  Wednesday  in  January, 
1789,  for  the  choice  of  the  electors;  the  first  Wednesday  in  February  for  the 
voting  by  the  electors;  the  first  Wednesday  in  March  (March  4  that  year) 
for  the  inauguration.  The  Twelfth  Amendment  makes  this  the  constitu- 
tional day. 

March  to  the  Sea,  General  Sherman's  celebrated  march  from  Atlanta  to 
Savannah  with  a  Union  army  of  over  60,000  men,  November  15  to  Decem- 
ber 21,  1864.  Burning  the  Confederate  shops,  depots  and  storehouses,  and 
leaving  Thomas  with  two  corps  to  look  after  Hood,  Sherman  set  out  with 
the  Fifteenth,  Seventeenth,  Fourteenth  and  Twentieth  corps  of  infantry, 
5063  cavalry  under  Kilpatrick,  1812  artillerymen,  and  enormous  trains  of 
wagons  and  ambulances.  The  line  of  march  extended  nearly  sixty  miles 
through  the  very  ^heart  of  the  Confederacy,  passing  through  Rough  and 
Ready,  Jonesboro,  Covington,  McDonough,  Macon,  Milledgeville,  Gibson, 


398  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY 

Louisville,  Millen,  Springfield  and  many  smaller  towns.  The  march  was 
300  miles  in  length.  The  soldiers  were  allowed  to  pillage  freely,  discrimin- 
ating between  the  rich  and  poor.  The  Georgia  Central  Railroad  was  wholly 
destroyed,  besides  thousands  of  dollars'  worth  of  other  property.  Foraging 
parties  preceded  the  army,  and  scouts  were  kept  constantly  on  the  lookout 
for  Confederate  attacks.  Sherman  lost  764  men  on  the  march.  Savannah 
was  captured,  after  some  days  of  siege,  December  21,  Sherman  presenting  the 
city  to  Lincoln  as  a  "  Christmas  present." 

Marcy,  Randolph  B.  (1812-1887),  served  in  the  Mexican  War,  and  was 
brevetted  major-general  for  services  during  the  Civil  War.  From  1869  to 
1881  he  was  inspector-general.  He  published  "Exploration  of  the  Red 
River"  in  1852. 

Marcy,  William  Lamed  (1786-1857),  an  American  Cabinet  officer,  gradu- 
ated at  Brown,  became  a  lawyer,  took  part  in  the  War  of  1812,  and  became 
a  Democratic  editor  in  Troy.  He  was  one  of  the  leaders  in  the  "Albany 
Regency,"  and  a  master  in  political  management.  In  1823-1829  he  was 
Comptroller  of  New  York,  Associate  Justice  of  the  .State  Supreme  Court 
1829-1831,  and  in  1831-1833  member  of  the  U.  S.  Senate,  where  he  made 
his  famous  "  to  the  victors  belong  the  spoils  "  speech.  He  was  Governor  of 
New  York  1833-1839,  Secretary  of  War  1845-1849,  and  Secretary  of  State 
1853-1857.  In  the  latter  office  he  has  won  general  regard  for  his  able  treat- 
ment of  difficult  international  questions. 

Margry,  Pierre,  born  in  1818,  made  extensive  investigations  and  valuable 
discoveries  while  archivist  of  the  marine  and  colonies  in  Paris,  concerning 
La  Salle  and  explorations  in  the  Mississippi  Valley. 

Mariana,  a  tract  of  country,  which  included  a  large  portion  of  the  present 
State  of  New  Hampshire,  granted  to  John  Mason  in  1629,  by  the  council 
for  New  England.  It  extended  from  the  Salem  River  to  the  Merrimac. 

Marine,  Secretary  of,  an  office  created  by  act  of  the  Continental  Con- 
gress, February  7,  1781,  to  supersede  the  Board  of  Admiralty  in  the  super- 
vision of  naval  affairs.  The  duties  corresponded  to  those  of  the  present 
Secretary  of  the  Navy,  with  certain  restrictions,  but  before  the  end  of  the 
year  its  duties  were  given  to  the  Treasury  Department. 

Marine  Hospital  Service.  In  1798  an  act  was  passed  in  accordance  with 
which  twenty  cents  per  month  might  be  detained  from  the  wages  of  all  sea- 
men, to  be  paid  over  to  the  collector  of  the  ports  where  ships  might  enter 
on  their  return  voyages,  toward  a  fund  for  the  erection  of  hospitals  for  mer- 
chant seamen.  This  service  has  been  placed  under  the  charge  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  the  Treasury. 

Marines.  The  United  States  Marine  Corps  was  first  established  by  Act 
of  Congress  November  10, 1775,  authorizing  the  enlistment  of  two  battalions 
to  be  called  the  "first  and  second  battalions  of  marines."  The  Marine  Corps 
was  re-established  by  Act  of  Congress  July  u,  1798.  By  this  act  the  marines 
are  at  any  time  liable  to  jdo  duty  in  the  forts  and  garrisons  of  the  United 
States.  While  enlisted  they  are  exempt  from  arrest  for  debt  or  contract. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  399 

There  is  no  regimental  organization,  but  the  corps  may  be  formed  into  com- 
panies as  the  President  directs.  The  marines  are  at  all  times  subject  to  the 
laws  and  regulations  of  the  navy.  By  the  Act  of  1874,  the  commander-in- 
chief  of  marines  is  entitled  to  the  rank  and  pay  of  a  colonel. 

Marion,  Francis  (1732-1795),  a  Revolutionary  general,  was  a  South  Caro- 
linian planter,  of  Huguenot  descent.  He  fought  in  the  Cherokee  War  and 
sat  in  the  Provincial  Congress.  Enlisting  at  the  opening  of  the  Revolution 
he  was  present  at  the  British  repulse  off  Charleston  1776,  and  took  part  in 
the  unfortunate  Savannah  expedition  of  1779.  His  noted  period  is  the  last 
three  years  of  the  war.  He  organized  in  1780  a  celebrated  partisan  corps, 
"  Marion's  brigade,"  famous  for  the  activity  of  its  movements,  telling  blows 
and  simplicity  of  fare.  Marion,  surnamed  the  "  Swamp-Fox,"  operated  in 
the  neighborhood  of  the  Pedee  River  and  other  parts  of  the  Carolinas.  He 
was  engaged  in  the  capture  of  Fort  Watson,  took  Georgetown,  commanded 
the  right  at  Eutaw  Springs,  and  continued  his  harassing  of  the  British 
through  1782.  He  was  subsequently  a  State  Senator. 

Mark,  a  silver  coin  weighing  eleven  pennyweights  six  grains,  offered  by 
Morris  to  the  Continental  Congress  in  1783  for  consideration  as  a  national 
coin,  but  not  accepted.  It  was  equivalent  to  ten  of  his  "  cents,"  seventy  of 
ours.  Obverse:  An  eye,  the  centre  of  a  glory,  thirteen-points  cross,  equi- 
distant a  circle  of  as  many  stars.  Legend:  Nova  Constellatio.  Reverse: 
U.  S.  i. ooo,  a  wreath  surrounding.  Legend:  Libertas.  Justitia.  1783.  This, 
with  the  quint,  were  known  as  the  Nova  Constellatio  patterns. 

Markham,  William  (1635  7-1704),  came  from  England  in  1681,  and  was 
Deputy-Governor  of  Pennsylvania  and  Delaware  until  1682.  He  was 
Deputy-Governor  of  Delaware  from  1691  to  1693  and  Lieu  tenant-Governor 
of  Pennsylvania  from  1694  to  1699. 

Marmaduke,  John  S."  (1833-1887),  was  promoted  major-general  in  the 
Confederate  service,  and  fought  at  Shiloh,  Little  Rock  and  Fort  Scott  He 
was  elected  Governor  of  Missouri  in  1884,  and  served  till  his  death. 

"  Marmion,"  Case  of  the.  Under  an  act  of  the  South  Carolina  Legislature 
passed  in  1822,  any  free  negroes  entering  the  ports  of  the  State  on  ships 
could  be  imprisoned  until  the  ship  departed.  This  was  done  in  the  case  of 
the  "  Marmion."  In  1824  tne  Attorney-General  and  in  1823  tne  District 
Court  of  the  United  States  rendered  opinions  that  this  law  was  incompatible 
with  the  Constitution  and  the  international  obligations  of  the  United 
States. 

Marquette,  Jacques  (1637-1675),  one  of  the  most  noted  of  the  "pioneers 
of  France  in  the  New  World,"  was  born  at  Laon  in  France,  and  entered  the 
Jesuit  order.  In  1666  he  emigrated  to  Canada.  In  the  course  of  his  mis- 
sionary work  among  the  Indians  in  the  Great  Lake  region  he  made  various 
explorations.  He  founded  a  mission  at  Sault  Sainte  Marie  and  one  at 
Mackinaw.  Marquette  and  Joliet,  in  1673,  made  a  long  journey  by  canoes 
by  way  of  the  Illinois  River  to  the  Mississippi  and  down  that  stream  to 
Arkansas;  of  this  voyage  Marquette  has  left  an  account  in  his  journal.  The 
next  year  he  built  a  log  hut  on  the  site  of  Chicago,  and  thence  pished  o/ 


4oo 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 


to  Kaskaskia.     While  laboring  among  the  Illinois  Indians  his  health  gave 
way,  and  he  died  on  his  return  to  the  North. 

Marsh,  George  P.  (1801-1882),  represented  Vermont  in  the  U.  S.  Con- 
gress as  a  Whig  from  1843  to  1849.  He  was  Minister  to  Turkey  from  1849 
to  1853,  and  to  Italy  from  1861  to  1882,  and  was  a  distinguished  scholar. 

Marshall,  Humphrey  (1812-1872),  represented  Kentucky  in  the  U.  S. 
Congress  as  a  Whig  from  1849  to  l852>  anc*  from  1855  to  1859.  He  was  a 
brigadier-general  in  the  Confederate  army  and  a  Confederate  Senator. 

Marshall,  James  W.  (1812-1885),  discovered  the  first  gold  in  California 
while  superintending  the  construction  of  a  mill-race  in  Coloma. 

Marshall,  John  (September  24,  i755~July  6,  1835),  the  greatest  of  Ameri- 
can jurists;  was  born  at  Germantown,  Fauquier  County,  Va.  He  was 
deprived  of  a  collegiate  education,  and  was  a  youth  when  the  Revolutionary 
War  began.  Young  Marshall  served  as  a  regimental  officer  through  the 
struggle,  and  fought  at  Brandy  wine,  Monmouth,  etc.  He  then  applied  him- 
self to  the  law,  entered  the  Virginia  House  of  Burgesses  and  the  council. 
As  a  member  of  the  convention  for  ratifying  the  Federal  Constitution  in 
1788,  he  contended  on  the  Federalist  side  ably  and  successfully  against  the 
eloquence  of  Patrick  Henry  and  his  colleagues.  With  Gerry  and  C.  C. 
Pinckney  he  was  Envoy  to  France  in  1797  at  the  time  of  Talleyrand's 
attempted  bribery  of  the  United  States.  Returning  the  next  year  he  served 
as  Congressman  in  1799-1800,  and  as  Secretary  of  State  1800-1801.  Presi- 
dent Adams  in  1801  appointed  Marshall  Chief  Justice  of  the  Supreme  Court, 
which  position  he  held  until  his  death.  He  is  famous  in  the  national  annals 
for  his  great  opinions  defining  and  interpreting  the  Federal  Constitution, 
and  aiding  to  consolidate  the  Union.  He  presided  over  the  Burr  trial,  and 
in  1829  was  a  member  of  the  Virginia  convention  for  revising  the  State 
Constitution.  Marshall  wrote  a  life  of  Washington  in  five  volumes,  after- 
ward revised-  and  condensed  in  two  volumes.  His  writings  were  edited  by 
Story. 

Marshals.  The  Judiciary  Act  of  1789  provided  for  officers  called  marshals, 
whose  functions  with  respect  to  the  Federal  courts  were  to  be  like  those  of 
sheriffs  with  respect  to  the  State  courts.  In  1790  they  were  entrusted  with 
the  census  enumeration,  and  so  frequently  with  respect  to  later  censuses. 

Marshfield,  Mass.,  noted  as  the  home  of  Daniel  Webster.  He  died  and 
was  buried  there. 

Martha's  Vineyard,  discovered  in  1602  by  Bartholomew  Gosnold,  who 
gave  the  name  to  a  smaller  island  now  called  No  Man's  Land,  whence  it 
was  transferred.  Martha's  Vineyard  was  at  first  called  Capawak.  It  was 
settled  in  1642  by  Thomas  Mayhew,  an  English  merchant,  who  purchased 
the  island  from  Lord  Stirling,  to  whom  it  had  been  granted  with  other  terri- 
tory. Mayhew  established  a  missionary  post  and  made  many  converts 
among  the  Indians.  In  1644,  the  island  was  placed  under  the  jurisdiction 
of  Massachusetts  by  the  Federal  Commissioners  of  New  England.  It  was 
later  transferred  to  New  York,  but  was  restored  to  Massachusetts  in  1692. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  401 

Martin,  Francois  X.  (1762-1846),  born  in  France,  became  a  printer  in 
North  Carolina,  then  moved  to  New  Orleans.  He  was  for  thirty  years  a 
Judge  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Louisiana,  and  Chief-Justice  from  1837  to 
1845.  He  wrote  histories  of  North  Carolina  and  Louisiana. 

Martin,  Luther  (1744-1826),  Attorney-General  of  Maryland,  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Annapolis  Convention.  He  was  a  delegate  from  Maryland  to  the 
Continental  Congress  from  1784  to  1785.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Consti- 
tutional Convention  of  1787,  but  opposed  the  adoption  of  the  Constitution. 
He  was  counsel  for  defence  in  the  trials  of  Judge  Chase  and  Aaron'  Burr, 
having  in  his  later  years  become  a  Federalist. 

Martin  vs.  Hunter's  Lessee,  Virginia.  In  1791  Martin  brought  a  suit 
of  ejectment  against  the  defendant  in  the  District  Court  of  Virginia  for  the 
recovery  of  certain  lands.  This  court  decided  for  the  defendant.  The 
Court  of  Appeals  of  Virginia  reversed  this  decision,  and  their  judgment 
was  in  turn  reversed  by  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States  in  1816. 
This  judgment  the  Court  of  Appeals  of  Virginia  refused  to  execute,  being 
of  the  "  unanimous  opinion  that  the  appellate  power  of  the  Supreme  Court 
of  the  United  States  does  not  extend  to  this  court  under  a  sound  construc- 
tion of  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States,"  and  "  that  the  Act  of  Con- 
gress to  that  effect  is  not  in  pursuance  of  the  said  Constitution."  The 
Supreme  Court  overruled  this  decision  and  established  its  prerogative  upon 
such  points. 

Martling  Men,  in  New  York  political  history,  the  members  of  a  union  of 
Burrites  and  Lewisites  (followers  of  Morgan  Lewis),  mostly  Democrats, 
formed  in  1807.  So  called  because  their  usual  place  of  meeting  was  "  Mart- 
ling's  long  room."  They  were  connected  with  the  Tammany  Society,  and 
were  later  known  as  Bucktails. 

Maryland,  one  of  the  original  thirteen  States.  Maryland  was  founded  by 
Cecil  Calvert,  Lord  Baltimore,  a  Roman  Catholic,  in  1634.  His  father, 
George  Calvert,  was  a  member  of  the  London  Company  and  Secretary  of 
State  under  James  I.  from  1618  to  1625.  He  had  made  an  unsuccessful 
attempt  to  found  a  colony  on  Newfoundland  in  1621  (see  Avalon)  and  in 
1629  he  had  landed  in  Virginia  with  forty  Catholic  colonists,  but  they  were 
not  welcomed  by  the  Protestants  of  Virginia  and  soon  returned  home. 
Charles  I.  then  gave  to  Baltimore  a  charter  for  the  land  north  of  the  Potomac 
River  as  far  as  the  forty-first  degree  of  latitude  and  to  the  source  of  the 
Potomac  River  on  the  west.  This  territory  lay  within  the  grant  to  Virginia. 
The  name  Maryland  was  given  in  honor  of  the  queen,  Henrietta  Maria. 
The  government  of  the  colony  was  to  be  in  the  hands  of  the  proprietor. 
St.  Mary's,  the  first  settlement,  was  founded  in  1634  by  two  hundred  colonists, 
many  of  whom  were  Protestants.  Baltimore  maintained  toleration  for  all. 
But  from  1691  until  the  Revolution  the  Protestants  were  strong  enough  to 
disfranchise  the  Catholics.  In  1635  Clay  borne,  a  Virginian  who  had  a 
trading  post  on  Kent  Island,  within  the  grant  to  Maryland,  and  who  had 
been  ejected  by  Calvert,  invaded  Maryland  at  the  head  of  a  party  of  rangers 
and  obtained  temporary  control  of  the  colony. — Maryland  refused  to  ratify 
the  Articles  of  Confederation  which  had  been  adopted  by  Congress  in  1777 
26 


402  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

until  March  i,  1781.  The  State  had  no  western  territory  herself  and 
demanded  that  Virginia,  New  York  and  other  States  should  surrender  their 
claims  to  lands  beyond  the  Alleghanies  to  the  General  Government.  When 
their  intention  to  do  this  was  signified  by  those  States,  Maryland  ratified  the 
articles  and  they  became  at  once  binding  on  all  the  States.  The  Constitution 
was  adopted  April  28,  1788,  by  a  vote  of  sixty-three  to  eleven.  The  Feder- 
alists controlled  the  State  until  1802.  In  1812  the  Hanson  riots  in  Baltimore, 
caused  by  an  attack  on  a  Federalist  newspaper  office,  resulted  in  the  restora- 
tion of  the  State  to  the  Federalist  party.  From  1820  to  1850  the  State  was 
Anti-Democratic  (Whig).  The  American  party  controlled  the  State  from  1854 
to  1859.  In  1 860-6 1  the  people  generally  were  opposed  to  secession.  The 
Civil  War  began  with  the  Baltimore  riots  in  1861.  From  1868  to  the  present 
time  (1894)  the  State  has  been  Democratic.  The  population  of  the  State  in 
1790  was  319,728;  in  1890,  1,042,390.  History  by  Scharf. 

"  Maryland  Gazette,"  earliest  newspaper  published  in  Maryland.  It  was 
established  at  Annapolis  in  1727  by  William  Parks,  and  continued  irregu- 
larly as  a  weekly  until  about  1736,  when  it  was  suspended.  In  1745  another 
Gazette  appeared,  which,  with  the  exception  of  a  short  suspension  in  1765 
on  account  of  the  Stamp  Act,  was  published  regularly  during  the  Revolu- 
tion, and  still  exists  as  a  weekly  journal,  there  being  but  one  newspaper  in 
the  United  States  of  prior  origin.  Maryland  was  the  fourth  colony  in  which 
a  newspaper  was  established. 

Maryland  Historical  Society  was  founded  in  1844,  an^  has  issued  many 
separate  publications,  and  also  the  printed  archives  of  the  colony. 

Maryland  in  Liberia,  a  negro  colony,  composed  largely  of  Maryland  free 
negroes,  founded  in  Liberia  in  February,  1834,  by  the  Maryland  State  Coloni- 
sation Society,  which  had  been  organized  three  years  before.  Expeditions 
had  been  sent  out  and  landed  at  Monrovia  in  1831  and  1832,  but  these  had 
proved  unsuccessful,  and  the  colonists  were  removed  to  Cape  Palmas,  where 
the  "  Maryland  "  settlement  was  finally  made.  This  settlement  was  an  entire 
success.  John  Russworm,  a  citizen  of  Monrovia,  was  chosen  as  the  first 
Governor  m  1836. 

"  Maryland  Journal  and  Baltimore  Advertiser,"  the  third  newspaper 
established  in  Maryland.  It  appeared  in  Baltimore  in  1773,  and  together 
with  the  Maryland  Gazette  constituted  the  entire  Revolutionary  press  of  the 
State.  This  paper  was  edited  and  published  by  William  Goddard.  Its  pub- 
lication was  finally  suspended  in  1797. 

Mason,  Charles  (1730-1787),  an  English  surveyor,  was  commissioned 
with  Jeremiah  Dixon  from  1763  to  1767  to  survey  the  boundary  line  between 
Pennsylvania  and  Maryland,  famous  as  marking  the  boundary  between  the 
free  and  the  slave  States. 

Mason,  George  (1725—1792),  an  American  Revolutionary  leader,  was  one 
of  the  great  Virginians  of  that  epoch.  He  drafted  in  1769  the  "non- 
importation "  resolutions  in  the  Virginia  Assembly,  and  was  one  of  the 
chief  members  of  that  body.  In  1776  he  drafted  the  Bill  of  Rights  and  the 
new  State  Constitution.  He  had  an  active  part  in  the  debates  of  the  Federal 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  403 

Convention  of  1787,  but  refused  to  sign  the  Constitution,  and  went  home  to 
throw  the  weight  of  his  great  influence  on  the  Anti-Federalist  side  in  the 
ratifying  Convention  of  1788.  Life  by  Miss  K.  M.  Rowland. 

Mason,  James  M.  (1798-1871),  Senator,  was  a  member  of  the  Virginia 
House  of  Delegates  from  1826  to  1832.  He  represented  Virginia  in  the 
U.  S.  Congress  as  a  Jackson  Democrat  from  1837  to  l839-  He  was  a  U.  S. 
Senator  from  1847  to  1861.  He  was  author  of  the  Fugitive  Slave  Law  of 
1850.  He  was  appointed  Confederate  Commissioner  to  England  in  1861, 
serving  till  1865.  (See  art.  "  Trent  Affair.") 

Mason,  Jeremiah  (1768-1848),  was  Attorney-General  of  New  Hampshire 
in  1802.  He  was  a  Federalist  U.  S.  Senator  from  New  Hampshire  from 
1813  to  1817.  His  reappointment  as  president  of  the  Portsmouth  branch 
of  the  U.  S.  Bank  caused  dissatisfaction  in  Jackson's  administration,  and  led 
to  the  destruction  of  the  U.  S.  Bank.  He  was  one  of  the  most  vigorous, 
acute  and  powerful  advocates  America  has  produced. 

Mason,  John,  born  in  England,  died  in  1635.  He  came  to  Newfound- 
land as  Governor  in  1616.  In  1622  he,  with  Sir  Ferdinando  Gorges, 
obtained  a  grant  of  the  territory  from  the  Merrimac  to  the  Kennebec.  In 
1629  ne  secured  New  Hampshire  (Laconia)  as  a  separate  grant. 

Mason,  John  (1600-1672),  came  to  America  from  England  in  1630.  He 
was  one  of  the  founders  of  Windsor,  Conn.,  in  1635.  He  successfully  con- 
ducted the  Pequot  War  in  1637.  He  was  major  of  the  Connecticut  forces 
from  1637  to  T672,  and  Deputy-Governor  of  Connecticut  from  1660  to  1670. 
He  published  "  Relation  of  Trouble  by  the  Indians." 

Mason,  John  Y.  (1799-1859),  represented  Virginia  in  Congress  as  a  Dem- 
ocrat from  1831  to  1837.  He  was  Secretary  of  the  Navy  in  Tyler's  Cabinet 
from  1844  to  1845,  Attorney-General  in  Folk's  from  1845  to  1846,  and 
Secretary  of  the  Navy  from  1846  to  1849.  He  was  Minister  to  France  from 
1854  to  1859,  and  joined  with  Buchanan  and  Soule  in  the  Ostend  Manifesto. 

Mason  and  Dixon's  Line,  the  boundary  line  between  Pennsylvania  and 
Maryland,  so  called  from  the  names  of  the  two  English  surveyors,  Charles 
Mason  and  Jeremiah  Dixon,  who  were  employed  by  William  Penn  and  Lord 
Baltimore  to  mark  it  off  in  1766,  after  the  settlement  of  the  case  of  Penn 
vs.  Baltimore.  Mason  and  Dixon  marked  the  line  with  boundary  posts, 
having  on  one  side  the  arms  of  Penn  and  on  the  other  those  of  Baltimore. 
The  line  was  famous  as  the  line  between  free  States  and  slave  States. 

Massachusetts  derives  its  name  from  an  Indian  word  meaning  the  "  great 
hills,"  i.  £.,  the  Blue  Hills  near  Boston.  The  first  settlement  made  by  Gosnold 
on  Cuttyhunk,  in  1602,  was  a  failure.  The  first  permanent  settlement  was 
made  (1620)  at  Plymouth,  by  120  English  Independents  from  Leyden.  The 
colonists  who  came  over  in  the  "Mayflower"  intended  to  found  a  settlement 
in  Northern  Virginia,  and  had  obtained  a  charter  from  the  London  Company 
for  that  purpose.  When  forced  to  land  in  Massachusetts  they  signed  the 
famous  compact  on  board  the  "  Mayflower,"  in  which  they  agreed  to  abide 
by  such  laws  as  should  be  passed  for  the  welfare  of  the  colony.  Their 


4o4 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 


leaders  were  John  Carver  and  William  Bradford.  For  four  years  they  strug- 
gled under  the  disadvantage  of  a  system  of  communism.  In  1627,  the  colo- 
nists purchased  the  financial  interest  of  the  London  merchants  who  had 
advanced  money  for  the  enterprise.  The  colony  was  never  able  to  obtain  a 
charter  from  the  king  because  of  its  avowed  opposition  to  the  Church  of 
England,  and  in  1691  it  was  incorporated  with  Massachusetts  Bay  colony. 
The  foundation  of  the  latter  colony  was  laid  by  some  Dorchester  merchants, 
who  in  1623  made  a  settlement  on  Cape  Ann  for  trading  purposes.  In  1626 
this  settlement  was  moved  to  Salem  by  ConanL  Two  years  later  certain 
leading  Puritans  of  England  obtained  a  grant  from  the  Plymouth  Company 
for  the  land  from  three  miles  south  of  the  Charles  River  to  three  miles  north 
of  the  Merrimac,  and  westward  to  the  "  South  Sea."  Organizing  ostensibly 
as  a  trading  company,  they  obtained  a  charter  from  Charles  I.  In  1630  the 
government  of  the  company  was  moved  to  America,  and  one  thousand  con- 
forming Puritans  came  over  under  Winthrop,  Dudley,  Higginson  and  Skel- 
ton,  and  founded  Charlestown,  Cambridge,  Watertown,  Roxbury  and  Boston. 
None  but  church  members  were  allowed  to  vote.  In  1631,  upon  the  refusal 
of  Watertown  to  pay  a  tax,  because  of  no  representation,  the  House  of  Rep- 
resentatives was  formed  of  two  members  from  each  town.  In  1644,  the  Gen- 
eral Court  became  bicameral.  Massachusetts  prepared  to  resist  by  force  an 
attack  from  England  on  her  charter  in  1634.  Harvard  College  was  founded 
(1636),  and  Roger  Williams  banished  from  the  colony  for  preaching  against 
the  connection  of  church  and  State.  In  1637  occurred  the  trouble  with 
Anne  Hutchinson  and  the  Antinomians.  In  the  same  year  the  Pequods  of 
Connecticut  were  crushed.  In  1641  the  first  body  of  statutes,  called  the 
"  Body  of  Liberties,"  was  adopted.  Massachusetts  joined  the  New  England 
confederation  in  1643.  In  1648  the  Cambridge  platform  was  formulated, 
and  four  years  later  a  colonial  mint  was  established.  The  first  Quakers 
arrived  in  Boston  in  1656,  and  a  law  was  soon  passed  against  "  Quakers  and 
Ranters."  In  1674  King  Philip's  War  broke  out.  The  charter  was  revoked 
in  1684,  and  two  years  later  Andros  was  sent  over  as  royal  Governor.  A 
new  charter  was  obtained  in  1691,  by  which  the  religious  qualification  was 
abolished  and  the  colony  made  a  royal  province,  its  Governor  to  be  appointed 
by  the  crown.  Witchcraft  appeared  at  Salem  and  twenty  persons  were  exe- 
cuted as  witches  in  1692.  Massachusetts  aided  England  in  the  French  and 
Indian  Wars,  by  capturing  Port  Royal  in  1690,  and  Louisbourg  in  1745.  The 
boundary  line  with  New  Hampshire  was  settled  in  1737.  From  1765  to 
1776,  the  history  of  the  State  is  the  history  of  the  American  Revolution. 
1765:  Stamp  Act  passed  and  Massachusetts  issued  a  call  for  the  u  Stamp- Act 
Congress  "  to  meet  in  New  York.  1768:  English  troops  were  sent  to  Bos- 
ton. 1770:  "  Boston  Massacre."  1773:  "  Boston  Tea-Party,"  when  $100,- 
ooo  worth  of  tea  was  destroyed.  1774:  Boston  port  was  closed  by  the 
English.  The  colony,  .being  virtually  deprived  of  her  charter,  organized  a 
government  of  her  own.  1775:  April  19,  battles  of  Lexington  and  Concord. 
June  17,  battle  of  Bunker  Hill.  Massachusetts  furnished,  all  years  together, 
92,563  men  to  the  army.  In  1780  a  new  State  Constitution  was  adopted, 
which  was  drawn  up  largely  by  John  Adams.  By  a  judicial  interpretation 
of  the  preamble  of  this  Constitution,  the  institution  of  slavery  was  destroyed. 
In  1786  occurred  Shay's  Rebellion  at  Worcester  and  Springfield,  A  severe 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  405 

struggle  took  place  over  the  adoption  of  the  Federal  Constitution,  which  was 
finally  adopted  February  6,  1788,  by  a  vote  of  187  to  168.  The  opponents 
of  the  Constitution  were  led  by  S.  Adams,  Hancock  and  Gerry.  Its  advo- 
cates were  Rufus  King,  Theophilus  Parsons  and  Fisher  Ames.  The  State  was 
usually  kept  Federalist  until  1823  by  the  ability  of  the  Federalist  leaders 
and  her  large  commercial  interests,  injured  by  the  foreign  policy  of  the 
Democrats.  The  Embargo  Act  caused  great  indignation  in  the  State.  It 
was  opposed  to  the  War  of  1812,  and  in  1814  sent  representatives  to  the 
Hartford  Convention.  In  1820  Maine  became  a  separate  State.  In  1823 
the  Democrats  came  into  power  permanently,  and  the  Federalists  became 
extinct.  From  this  time  Massachusetts  allied  herself  with  Pennsylvania, 
Kentucky,  Louisiana  and  other  States  in  the  support  of  a  protective  tariff. 
This  change  was  caused  by  the  growth  of  her  manufacturing  industries.  In 
1833  the  Congregationalist  church  was  dis-established.  Davis,  a  Whig,  was 
elected  Governor  in  1834.  In  1839  Morton  was  elected  Governor  by  the 
Democrats  by  a  majority  of  two.  The  State  cast  a  large  vote  for  the  candi- 
dates of  the  Liberty  party  in  1844  and  1845,  and  for  those  of  the  Free-Soil 
party  in  1848  and  1849.  In  1850,  by  a  coalition  of  Democrats  and  Free- 
Soilers,  the  latter  secured  the  election  of  Charles  Sumner  as  U.  S.  Senator. 
The  Republicans  controlled  the  State  from  1856  to  1874.  In  1878  B.  F. 
Butler  was  elected  Governor  by  the  discontented  Democrats  and  the  Green- 
back party.  The  Democrats  elected  the  Governor  in  the  years  1882,  1890, 
1891  and  1892.  The  State  is  uniformly  Republican  in  Presidential  elec- 
tions. The  population  of  Massachusetts  in  1790  was  378,787;  in  1840, 
737>6995  in  l89°>  2,238,943.  History  by  Barry. 

Massachusetts  Company.  On  March  19,  1628,  there  was  granted  to  six 
patentees,  of  whom  John  Humphrey  and  John  Endicott  were  destined  to  be 
most  prominent,  territory  extending  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Western  Ocean, 
and  in  width  from  a  line  running  three  miles  north  of  the  Merrimac  to  one 
running  three  miles  south  of  the  Charles.  This  was  the  Massachusetts  Bay 
Company.  Endicott  was  sent  over  the  same  year  and  effected  a  settlement 
at  Naumkeag,  or  Salem,  September  6.  March  4,  1629,  a  charter  was  granted 
to  the  Governor  and  Company  of  Massachusetts  Bay,  and  under  this  instru- 
ment Massachusetts  conducted  her  affairs  for  fifty-five  years.  The  colony 
was  ruled  by  the  Governor  and  thirteen  councillors.  The  charter  was  trans- 
ferred from  England  to  America  with  Winthrop. 

Massachusetts  Historical  Society,  the  first  historical  association  estab- 
lished in  the  United  States.  It  was  organized  at  Boston  in  1791  "to  collect, 
preserve  and  communicate  materials  for  a  complete  history  of  the  country." 
It  has  published  fifty-six  volumes  of  "  Collections  "  and  twenty-one  of  "  Pro- 
ceedings," upon  a  great  variety  of  historical  subjects.  Since  the  establish- 
ment of  this  association,  students  of  history  in  many  of  the  other  States 
have  founded  similar  societies. 

Massachusetts  Indians,  at  the  time  of  the  English  settlement  of  the 
State,  were  composed  of  five  Algonquin  tribes,  recently  decimated  by  pesti- 
lence. The  Nipmticks  occupied  central  Massachusetts,  the  Pennacooks  what 
is  now  New  Hampshire,  the  Massachusetts  the  lands  around  Massachusetts 


406  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Bay,  the  Nausets  Cape  Cod,  while  the  Pokanokets  lived  in  the  south- 
eastern portion  of  the  State.  All  except  the  Nausets  were  friendly  to  the 
settlers,  and  this  tribe  entered  into  a  peace  with  the  Plymouth  colonists. 
Missions  were  begun  on  Martha's  Vineyard  in  1644,  and  in  1651  Indian  con- 
verts under  John  Eliot  were  gathered  at  Natick.  The  converts  were  termed 
Praying  Indians.  At  length  discontent  arose  which  in  1675  led  to  King 
Philip's  War. 

"  Massachusetts  Spy,"  founded  at  Boston,  August  I,  1770.  This  news- 
paper was  established  to  support  the  Whig  element  in  the  New  England 
colonies  in  opposition  to  the  Boston  Chronicle,  which  favored  the  British 
Government.  It  was  edited  by  Isaiah  Thomas,  and  was  suspended  in  six 
months  for  a  time,  but  was  begun  again  and  removed  to  Worcester.  Con- 
tributions were  at  first  made  by  members  of  both  political  parties,  but  its 
sympathies  were  so  evidently » revolutionary  that  the  royalist  writers  with- 
drew. Notable  among  the  contributions  concerning  political  questions  were 
those  signed  "  Centinel,"  "  Leonidas  "  and  "  Mucius  Scsevola."  It  is  still 
published  daily  and  weekly. 

Massasoit  (15807-1660),  chief  of  the  Wampanoag  Indians,  made  a  treaty 
of  peace  and  mutual  protection  with  the  Plymouth  colony  in  1621,  which 
was  kept  for  over  fifty  years.  He  resided  in  what  is  now  the  town  of 
Warren,  R.  I.  He  was  always  friendly  to  the  colonists,  and  warned  them 
of  intended  Indian  attacks.  He  was  father  of  King  Philip. 

Mather,  Cotton  (1663-1728),  graduated  from  Harvard  before  he  was  six- 
teen years  old.  He  was  active  in  urging  on  the  witchcraft  persecutions. 
He  wrote  much  against  intemperance,  and  in  every  way  aimed  at  being  use- 
ful to  society,  but  was  exceedingly  meddlesome,  pedantic  and  conceited. 
He  was  probably  the  most  learned  man  in  America  at  the  time  in  which  he 
lived,  having  a  wide  acquaintance  with  books  and  foreign  languages.  His 
works  number  382.  The  chief  is  his  "  Magnalia  Christi  Americana,"  a 
church  history  of  New  England,  published  in  1702. 

Mather,  Increase  (1639-1723),  was  pastor  of  the  North  Church,  Boston, 
from  1664  till  his  death.  He  was  prominent  both  in  church  and  State.  He 
was  opposed  to  the  "  half-way  covenant,"  and  secured  the  summoning  of  the 
synods  of  1679  and  1680.  He  zealously  opposed  the  surrender  of  the  Massa- 
chusetts charter  to  Charles  II.  in  1683,  and  secured  a  new  charter  for  the 
colony  in  1688.  He  was  president  of  Harvard  College  from  1685  to  1701. 
He  wrote  a  life  of  Reverend  Richard  Mather,  "  A  History  of  the  War  with 
the  Indians,"  and  many  other  works. 

Mather,  Richard  (1596-1669),  came  to  Massachusetts  from  England  in 
1635.  He  was  pastor  of  the  church  in  Dorchester  from  1636  till  his  death. 
He  drew  up  the  celebrated  "  Cambridge  Platform "  of  church  discipline, 
aided  in  making  the  New  England  version  of  the  Psalms,  and  published  an 
elaborate  defence  of  the  New  England  churches.  He  was  an  able  and  a 
powerful  preacher. 

Matthews,  Stanley  (1824-1889),  commanded  a  brigade  at  Murfreesboro, 
Chickamauga  and  Lookout  Mountain  in  the  Civil  War.  He  represented 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  407 

Ohio  in  the  U.  S.  Senate  as  a  Republican  from  1877  to  1879.     He  was  a 
Justice  of  the  U.  S.  Supreme  Court  from  1881  to  1889. 

Maurepas,  Jean  F.  P.,  Comte  de  (1701-1781),  was  French  Minister  of 
State  from  1738  to  1749  and  from  1774  to  1781.  He  aided  in  negotiating 
the  treaty  of  alliance  with  the  United  States  in  1778. 

Maury,  Matthew  F.  (1806-1873),  naval  officer,  wrote  a  famous  "Physi- 
cal Geography  of  the  Seas."  In  1861  he  commanded  in  the  Confederate 
navy,  and  afterward  was  Confederate  Commissioner  in  Europe. 

Maxey,  Samuel  B.,  born  in  1825,  served  during  the  Mexican  War,  and 
was  made  major-general  in  the  Confederate  service.  He  represented  Texas 
in  the  U.  S.  Senate  as  a  Democrat,  from  1875  to  1887.  Died  1895. 

Maximilian,  (Ferdinand  Max.  Joseph)  (1832-1867),  Archduke  of  Austria, 
became  prominent  for  his  enlightened  administration  of  the  L,ombardo- 
Venetian  kingdom.  In  1863  France  called  an  assembly  of  notables  in 
Mexico,  which  approved  a  monarchical  form  of  government  and  offered  the 
crown  of  Mexico  to  Maximilian.  He  became  emperor  in  1864,  but  his 
reign  was  disturbed  by  a  powerful  republican  faction.  He  was  able  to  main- 
tain his  position  only  by  aid  of  French  troops,  which  were  withdrawn  at 
the  solicitation  of  the  United  States.  Maximilian  was  soon  afterward  deposed 
and  shot. 

"  Mayflower"  Compact,  the  compact  made  by  the  Pilgrim  Fathers  in  the 
cabin  of  the  "Mayflower,"  in  Provincetown  harbor,  November  11,  1620, 
whereby,  before  landing,  they  bound  themselves  into  a  "  civil  body  politic," 
and  promised  obedience  to  the  laws  they  should  make  as  such. 

Maynard,  Horace  (1814-1882),  represented  Tennessee  in  the  U.  S.  Con- 
gress as  an  American  and  Republican  from  1857  to  1863  an^  fr°m  J866  to 
1875.  He  was  Minister  to  Russia  from  1875  to  1880.  He  was  Postmaster- 
General  in  Hayes'  Cabinet  from  1880  to  1881. 

Mazzei  Letter,  a  private  business  letter  written  by  Thomas  Jefferson  to 
an  Italian  named  Mazzei  in  1796.  The  paragraph  therein  contained,  to  the 
effect  that  "  an  Anglican  monarchical  aristocratical  party  "  had  sprung  up  in 
America,  whose  avowed  object  was  "  to  draw  over  us  the  substance,  as  they 
had  already  done  the  forms,  of  the  British  Government,"  did  much  toward 
arousing  animosity  against  Jefferson,  when  the  letter  became  public  property 
in  1797.  It  had  been  translated  into  Italian,  then  into  French,  and  finally 
appeared  in  an  English  paper.  An  allusion  in  it  to  men  who  had  been 
"  Samsons  in  the  field  and  Solomons  in  the  council "  was  construed  as  an 
attack  on  Washington. 

Meade,  George  Gordon  (1815-1872),  a  Federal  general  in  the  Civil  War, 
graduated  at  West  Point  in  1835,  fought  in  the  Mexican  War  and  against 
the  Seminoles,  and  was  busy  in  the  surveying  department.  Soon  after  the 
Rebellion  had  commenced,  he  was  assigned  to  a  brigade  in  the  Army  of  the 
Potomac,  was  wounded  in  the  Seven  Days'  battles,  and  fought  at  the  second 
battle  of  Bull  Run.  At  Antietam  and  Fredericksbtirg  he  commanded  a 
division,  and  at  Chancellorsville  a  corps.  At  the  end  of  June,  1863,  Meade 


408  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY, 

was  appointed  to  supersede  Hooker  in  command  of  the  Army  of  the 
Potomac;  Lee's  great  invasion  of  the  North  was  in  progress,  and  Meade  was 
near  Frederick.  Almost  immediately  afterward  occurred  the  battle  of 
Gettysburg  (which  see).  The  chief  credit  for  this  decisive  Union  victory  is 
variously  claimed  for  the  commander-in-chief,  for  Hancock,  Howard,  Rey- 
nolds and  other  corps  commanders;  Meade  arrived  on  the  battlefield  about 
noon  of  the  second  day.  He  was  made  brigadier-general  in  the  regular 
army,  and  the  next  year  major-general.  Under  Grant  in  1864-65  he  was  in 
immediate  charge  of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac,  and  after  the  war  held  com- 
mand of  different  departments. 

Meagher,  Thomas  F.  (1823-1867),  was  banished  from  Ireland  in  1849 
for  political  reasons,  and  came  to  the  United  States  in  1852.  He  commanded 
a  New  York  brigade  at  Manassas,  Antietam  and  Fredericksburg. 

Mechanicsville,  Va.,  a  battle  of  the  Civil  War  occurring  June  26,  1862, 
during  McClellan's  attempted  approach  to  Richmond.  Lee  crossed  the 
Chickahominy  with  35,000  Confederates,  intending  to  join  Jackson's  25,000 
troops  and  demolish  Porter's  command  of  20,000  of  McClellan's  troops 
and  cut  off  the  latter's  communications  with  his  base.  Jackson  was  for 
once  late  in  arriving,  and  Richmond  was  for  a  time  in  considerable  danger. 
A.  P.  Hill's  division  advanced  first  and  encountered  at  Mechanicsville  a  small 
force  of  Union  troops,  who  were  dispersed.  Just  beyond  the  town  McCall 
was  drawn  up  with  a  strong  force  on  Beaver  Dam  Creek.  The  Confederates 
attempted  to  turn  McCall's  flanks,  but  were  repulsed  with  great  loss  each 
time. 

Mecklenburg  Declaration.  It  has  been  vigorously  affirmed  and  vigor- 
ously denied  that,  on  May  20,  1775,  a  convention  of  the  inhabitants  of 
Mecklenburg  County,  North  Carolina,  passed  resolutions  in  favor  of  inde- 
pendence from  Great  Britain,  and  actually  declaring  the  independence  of 
Mecklenburg  County.  The  declaration  first  became  generally  known  in 
1818.  It  was  alleged,  however,  that  the  original  documents  were  destroyed 
by  fire  in  1800.  The  probability  is  that  the  story  arises  from  action  taken 
on  May  31,  1775,  when  resolutions  were  passed  importing  resistance  to  the 
royal  governor,  but  not  independence. 

Mecklenburg- Schwerin.  Mecklenburg-Schwerin  acceded  to  the  com- 
mercial treaty  between  the  United  States  and  Hanover  in  1846  and  to  the 
German  extradition  treaty  in  1853. 

Mecklenburg-Strelitz.  Mecklenburg-Strelitz  acceded  to  the  extradition 
treaty  between  Germany  and  the  United  States  in  1853. 

Medary,  Samuel  (1801-1864),  founded  the  Ohio  Statesman,  a  powerful 
Democratic  paper,  and  edited  it  until  1858.  He  is  said  to  have  originated 
the  campaign  cry,  "  Fifty-four  forty  or  fight." 

Mediterranean  Fund.  In  1 801-02  the  wars  with  the  Barbary  pirates 
necessitated  a  slight  increase  in  import  duties,  and  the  money  thus  accruing 
was  termed  the  "  Mediterranean  Fund."  This  was  made  a  basis  for  the 
increase  of  protection  in  the  tariff  levied  in  1816. 


Thaddeus    Steven 


STATESMEN    OF  THE   CIVIL  WAR    PERIOD. 

Horace   Greeley. 
Edwin   M.   Stanton. 


Horatio  Seymour. 

B.   F.   Wade. 


Thurlow  Weed. 
Wm.   H.   Seward. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  409 

Meigs,  Montgomery  C.,  born  in  1816,  was  superintending  engineer  in 
the  construction  of  Forts  Wayne,  Porter,  Niagara,  Ontario  and  Montgomery. 
He  was  quartermaster-general  of  the  U.  S.  army  from  1861  to  1882,  when 
he  retired. 

Meigs,  Return  Jonathan  (1734-1823),  was  a  major  in  Arnold's  expedition 
to  Quebec  in  1775.  At  Sag  Harbor  in  1777  he  took  ninety  prisoners, 
destroyed  twelve  ships  and  much  forage  without  the  loss  of  a  man.  He 
commanded  a  regiment  at  Stony  Point. 

Meigs,  Return  Jonathan,  Jr.  (1765-1825),  represented  Ohio  in  the  U.  S. 
Senate  as  a  Democrat  from  1809  to  1810.  He  was  Governor  of  Ohio  from 
1810  to  1814.  He  was  Postmaster-General  from  1814  to  1823  in  the  Cabi- 
nets of  Madison  and  Monroe. 

Meigs,  Fort  (War  of  1812).  After  the  massacre  at  the  River  Raisin,  the 
main  body  of  Americans  entrenched  themselves  on  the  Maumee,  building  the 
fort.  Here  they  were  besieged,  April  26,  1813,  by  more  than  2000  British 
and  Indians,  commanded  by  General  Procter  and  the  chief  Tecumtha.  On 
May  5  General  Clay  arrived  with  reinforcements  for  the  Americans.  Of 
these  800  attacked  the  British  batteries,  and  the  rest  ,tried  to  cut  their  way 
through  the  enemy.  The  batteries  were  taken,  but  recaptured  by  the  British, 
the  Americans  losing  all  of  the  800  but  170  who  escaped  to  Fort  Meigs. 
The  other  detachment,  aided  by  timely  sorties  from  the  fort,  defeated  the 
force  opposed  to  them  and  thus  broke  up  the  siege.  The  Indian  allies 
deserted  the  British,  who  returned  to  Canada. 

Melville,  George  W.,  born  in  1841,  became  chief  engineer  of  the  De 
Long  Arctic  expedition  in  1879,  and  commanded  the  only  party  which  sur- 
vived the  expedition.  He  was  made  a  chief  engineer  in  the  U.  S.  navy  in  1881. 

Melville,  Herman  (1819-1891),  deserted  from  a  whaling  vessel  in  the 
Marquesas  Islands,  and  spent  several  months  among  the  Typees.  His  novels 
and  accounts  of  his  adventures  were  very  popular. 

Memminger,  Charles  G.  (1803-1888),  born  in  Germany,  settled  in  South 
Carolina.  He  was  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  in  the  government  of  the  Con- 
federate States. 

Memphis,  Tenn.,  was  laid  out  as  a  village  in  1820  and  incorporated 
in  1831.  During  the  Civil  War  it  was  early  held  by  the  Confederates  with 
a  fleet  of  eight  vessels  under  Commodore  Montgomery.  It  was  rendered 
defenceless  and  captured  by  the  Federals  June  6,  1862.  Commodore  Davis 
left  Fort  Pillow  June  4,  with  nine  Union  vessels,  and  proceeded  at  once  to 
Memphis,  before  which  the  Confederate  fleet  lay.  An  attack  upon  these 
ships  was  immediately  begun.  Four  ram-boats  under  the  Union  commander, 
Ellet,  joined  Davis  and  did  much  toward  destroying  the  Confederate  fleet. 
Several  of  the  Confederate  ships  had  their  boilers  shot  through  and  their 
crews  scalded  to  death.  Their  fleet  was  utterly  demolished.  During  1870-80 
the  city  was  ravaged  by  yellow  fever. 

Menendez  de  Avile's,  Pedro  (d.  1574),  Spanish  commander,  in  1565 
founded  St.  Augustine,  Fla.,  and  destroyed  the  French  Huguenot  settlement 
at  Port  Royal. 


410  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Mennonites,  a  sect  that  sprang  up  in  Holland  and  Germany  about  the 
time  of  the  Reformation,  through  the  influence  of  Simon  Menno.  In  doc- 
trine they  are  allied  to  the  Baptists*  Members  of  this  body  came  to  this 
country  as  early  as  1683,  and  by  invitation  of  William  Penn  settled  in 
Pennsylvania.  In  1727  they  published  a  Confession  of  Faith.  In  this 
country  there  are  several  varieties  of  Mennonites,  differing  mainly  in  exter- 
nals, and  numbering  in  all  about  60,000  members. 

Menomonees,  a  tribe  of  Algonquin  Indians,  were  unfriendly  to  the  Eng- 
lish, but  took  sides  against  the  colonists  during  the  Revolution.  In  1812 
also  they  allied  themselves  with  the  British,  taking  part  in  several  engage- 
ments. Treaties  were  made  in  1817,  1825,  and  1827.  In  1831  they  began 
to  cede  their  lands  around  Green  Bay  and  Lake  Michigan.  They  aided  the 
Government  in  the  Sac  and  Fox  War  and  in  the  Rebellion. 

Mercer,  Hugh  (17207-1777),  came  to  America  from  Scotland  in  1747.  He 
served  in  the  French  and  Indian  War.  He  was  chosen  brigadier-general  in 
1776,  with  command  of  the  flying  camp.  He  commanded  a  column  at 
Trenton  and  led  the  advance  at  Princeton,  where  he  was  surrounded  by  the 
British  and  fought  to  the  death  rather  than  surrender. 

Mercer,  John  F.  (1759-1821),  served  during  the  Revolution.  He  rep- 
resented Virginia  in  the  Continental  Congress  from  1782  to  1785.  He  was  a 
U.  S.  Congressman  from  Maryland  from  1792  to  1794,  and  Governor  of  Mary- 
land from  1801  to  1803. 

Mercer,  Fort,  Capture  of,  November,  1777.  Fort  Mercer,  on  the  Jersey 
shore  of  the  Delaware,  below  Philadelphia,  with  Fort  Mifnin  opposite,  com- 
manded the  stream.  To  ensure  his  supplies,  Howe  attempted  to  carry  the 
forts  October  22.  He  lost  400  Hessian  troops  and  their  commander,  Donop; 
American  loss,  thirty-seven.  After  a  month's  hard  work,  assisted  by  6000 
men  from  New  York,  he  carried  the  works  and  wrested  control  of  the  Dela- 
ware from  the  Americans. 

Merchant  Marine.  In  early  colonial  times  American  shipbuilders  and 
merchants  became  such  dangerous  commercial  competitors,  from  the  superi- 
ority of  their  ships  and  the  greater  efficiency  of  their  sailors,  that  the  British 
Government,  by  the  Navigation  Acts,  beginning  in  1645,  prohibited  importa- 
tion into  the  colonies  except  in  English  or  colonial-built  vessels.  While  the 
Navigation  Acts  restricted  trade,  they  fostered  shipbuilding.  The  merchant 
marine  continued  to  thrive  after  the  Revolution.  Between  1789  and  1797 
the  registered  tonnage  increased  384  per  cent,  owing  chiefly  to  the  general 
state  of  war  in  Europe  and  the  consequent  increase  in  carrying  trade.  From 
1837  to  I^47  the  tonnage  rose  from  810,000  to  1,241,000,  to  2,268,000  in 
1857,  and  culminated  with  2,496,000  tons  in  1861.  The  maximum  tonnage 
of  the  United  States  at  any  one  time  registered  and  enrolled  (or  engaged  in 
foreign  and  domestic  trade),  and  in  the  fisheries,  was  in  1861,  reaching 
5>539>8i3  tons.  It  thus  nearly  equaled  the  tonnage  of  the  whole  of  the  rest 
of  the  maritime  world,  excepting  Great  Britain,  whose  tonnage  was  slightly 
greater.  But  since  this  time,  from  various  causes,  the  American  merchant 
marine  service  has  declined  until  it  is  now  wholly  insignificant.  This  is 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  411 

due  largely  to  the  fact  that,  when  iron  and  steam  vessels  began  to  be  used, 
the  facilities  for  constructing  them  were  limited,  and  the  navigation  laws 
prohibited  merchants  from  taking  advantage  of  British  superiority  in  con- 
struction. Income  taxes  and  heavy  taxes  on  gross  receipts,  especially  since 
the  Civil  War,  have  greatly  handicapped  shipowners.  The  coastwise  trade, 
too,  has  fallen  largely  into  the  hands  of  foreigners. 

Meredith,  William  M.  (1799-1873),  was  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  in 
Taylor's  Cabinet  from  1849  to  1850.  He  was  Attorney-General  of  Pennsyl- 
vania from  1 86 1  to  1867,  and  president  of  the  Pennsylvania  Constitutional 
Convention  of  1873. 

Merry  Mount,  a  settlement  on  Massachusetts  Bay  instituted  by  Thomas 
Morton  and  a  band  of  unruly  followers  shortly  after  the  landing  of  the  Pil- 
grims (1625).  ^n  J628  John  Endicott,  one  of  the  six  patentees  of  the  Bay 
colony,  visited  the  Merry  Mount  settlement  and  broke  it  up  by  force,  "caused 
their  May-pole  to  be  cut  down,  rebuked  them  for  their  profaneness,  admon- 
ished them  to  look  there  should  be  better  walking."  Morton  was  in  England 
at  that  time. 

Merryman's  Case,  a' case  before  the  U.  S.  Supreme  Court.  The  petitioner 
was  arrested  at  his  home  in  Maryland,  in  1861,  for  treason,  by  order  of  a 
major-general  of  the  National  army.  He  was  imprisoned  at  Fort  McHenry, 
Baltimore.  Chief  Justice  Taney,  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States, 
granted  a  writ  of  habeas  corpus,  which  the  officer  in  charge  at  Fort  McHenry 
refused  to  execute,  on  the  ground  that  the  President  had  suspended  the  writ 
of  habeas  corpus.  The  majority  of  the  court  decided  that  no  such  power  was 
vested  in  the  President,  Congress  alone  having  such  privilege;  that  a  military 
officer  has  no  right  to  arrest  a  person  not  subject  to  the  rules  and  articles  of 
war,  except  in  the  aid  of  judicial  authority. 

Message,  a  written  communication  to  Congress  by  the  President.  Regular 
messages  are  sent  at  the  opening  of  each  session  of  Congress;  special  mes- 
sages, whenever  an  occasion  for  them  arises.  During  the  administrations  of 
Washington  and  John  Adams  the  messages  were  delivered  orally  by  the 
President  to  the  two  Houses  assembled  together.  From  Jefferson's  time  they 
have  been  delivered  in  writing  through  the  President's  private  secretary,  and 
then  printed  for  distribution. 

Methodist  Episcopal  Church.  This  denomination  first  assumed  its 
present  name  at  the  conference  held  1784.  Previous  to  that  time  the  scat- 
tered followers  of  this  belief  had  met  in  societies,  like  those  established  in 
Great  Britain  by  Rev.  John  Wesley.  At  the  same  conference  the  church 
was  organized  for  missionary  and  pioneer  work  under  charge  of  bishops  sent 
to  this  country  by  Mr.  Wesley,  who  was  recognized  as  the  spiritual  father  of 
the  denomination.  Its  success  during  the  next  few  years  was  remarkable. 
The  zeal  and  energy  of  its  preachers  and  the  work  of  the  lay  members 
brought  about  within  sixteen  years  an  increase  of  membership  and  preachers 
almost  fourfold.  This  church  was  the  first  officially  to  acknowledge  the 
U.  S.  Constitution,  and  was  very  active  in  every  anti-slavery  movement. 
The  first  session  of  its  general  conference  was  held  in  1792,  at  which  time 
the  membership  was  about  195,000.  In  1843  the  Abolitionist  party  in  the 


4I2  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

church  withdrew  in  dissatisfaction  and  founded  the  Wesleyan  Methodist 
connection.  Two  years  later  the  Southern  Methodists,  dissatisfied  in  their 
turn,  separated  and  formed  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  South.  The 
Northern  church,  however,  maintained  its  power  and  now  has  one  and  a  half 
million  members.  In  literature,  education  and  mission  work  it  has  always 
displayed  great  energy.  In  1890  it  numbered  2,240,000  members. 

Methodist  Episcopal  Church  South.  This  body  was  identified  with  the 
main  Methodist  body  until  1845.  The  rules  of  the  church  forbade  any 
preacher  to  own  slaves,  where  emancipation  was  possible.  When  in  1844 
Bishop  Andrew,  of  Georgia,  came  into  possession  of  slaves  by  marriage,  the 
question  of  slavery  was  brought  to  a  head,  and  an  arrangement  was  made 
for  an  amicable  separation  into  two  bodies,  the  Southern  having  about  half 
a  million  members.  Difficulties  arose  as  to  details,  and  the  Northern  body 
ceased  to  recognize  the  Southern.  The  war  greatly  hindered  the  progress  of 
the  new  church,  but  since  that  time  it  has  made  rapid  progress,  and  has  greatly 
aided  in  missionary  work  in  the  border  States  and  destitute  parts  of  the 
South.  Number  of  members  in  1890,  1,210,000. 

Methodist  Protestant  Church  is  the  name  assumed  by  a  body  that 
seceded  from  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  in  1830.  The  sect  differs 
from  its  parent  church  mainly  in  ecclesiastical  government.  They  abolish 
the  episcopal  office  and  admit  the  laity  to  an  equal  participation  with  the 
clergy  in  administration  and  government.  The  slavery  question  divided 
this  denomination,  and  both  wings  are  growing  slowly,  but  now  are  prac- 
tically one  in  work  and  aims.  Number  of  members  in  1890,  142,000. 

Metric  System.  This  system  was  legalized  by  Act  of  Congress  in  July, 
1866;  and  in  1873  and  1876  appropriations  were  made  for  procuring  metric 
standards  for  the  States  and  for  the  construction  and  verification  of  standard 
weights  and  measures  for  the  custom  house  and  the  several  States. 

Mexican  War,  April,  1846,  to  September,  1847.  The  cause  of  the  war 
was  the  revolt  of  Texas  from  Mexico  and  the  subsequent  annexation  of  that 
State  to  the  Union  in  1845.  Not  only  had  Texas  revolted,  but  she  claimed 
and  carried  into  the  Union  with  her  a  far  more  extended  territory  than  had 
been  accorded  in  the  original  Mexican  arrangements.  In  November  of 
1845,  President  Polk  sent  Slidell,  a  member  of  Congress  from  the  South,  to 
Mexico  to  treat  with  President  Herrera  concerning  some  indemnity  for 
Texas  and  also  to  negotiate  for  California.  Slidell  was  not  received,  for 
Paredes,  the  soldier,  had  succeeded  Herrera.  Polk  at  once  ordered  General 
Zachary  Taylor,  then  commanding  the  army,  to  advance  through  the  dis- 
puted territory  and  take  a  position  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rio  Grande  River. 
Here,  near  Matamoras,  April  23,  1846,  he  was  attacked  by  the  Mexicans 
under  Arista,  and  a  portion  of  his  forces  were  captured.  While  Taylor 
struck  Mexico  General  Kearney  marched  into  New  Mexico,  conquered  the 
whole  country,  raised  the  United  States  flag,  and,  sending  Doniphan  to  join 
Wool  at  Chihuahua,  he  proceeded  to  California,  which  was  speedily  con- 
quered, chiefly  through  the  efforts  of  Lieutenant  Fremont.  Scott  now 
assumed  command  of  the  army  in  Mexico,  but  Taylor  continued  to  com- 
mand in  the  North.  Taylor  fortified  himself  at  Corpus  Christi  for  a  time  in 
the  defence  of  Texas,  but  later  advanced  into  the  heart  of  Mexico,  leaving 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  413 

a  garrison  at  Fort  Brown  opposite  Matamoras.  This  place  was  afterward 
bravely  defended  by  Major  Brown.  The  battle  of  Palo  Alto  was  the  first 
great  battle  of  the  war,  occurring  May  8,  1846.  The  Mexicans  under 
Ampudia  and  Arista  were  defeated.  Then  followed  in  quick  succession  the 
battles  of  Resaca  de  la  Palma,  Buena  Vista  and  a  number  of  lesser  fights, 
all  disastrous  to  the  Mexican  cause.  Thus  Taylor  penetrated  into  northern 
Mexico.  Then  Scott  landed  at  Vera  Cruz  and  marched  on  the  Mexican 
capital.  Santa  Anna,  the  Mexican  general,  was  badly  defeated  at  the  battles 
of  Cerro  Gordo,  Contreras  and  Churubusco.  Finally,  General  Scott,  after 
a  series  of  brilliant  victories,  marched  on  the  city  of  Mexico,  arriving  in 
August,  1847.  After  detailed  operations  of  siege  and  bombardment,  which 
terminated  in  the  Mexican  defeat  at  Molino  del  Rey,  September  7  and  8, 
and  a  final  scathing  bombardment,  the  capital  surrendered  September  14, 
thus  terminating  the  war.  The  war  was  plainly  one  of  unjust  aggression 
on  a  minor  power,  with  the  object  of  winning  more  territory  for  new  slave 
States. 

Mexico.  The  independence  of  Mexico  was  recognized  by  the  United 
States  in  March,  1822.  A  treaty  of  limits  was  signed  in  1828,  with  addi- 
tional articles  in  1831  and  1835  and  a  commercial  treaty  in  1831.  The  war 
of  1846  was  caused  by  Mexico's  resentment  over  the  annexation  of  Texas  by 
the  United  States.  After  a  succession  of  victories  the  United  States  obtained 
in  February,  1848,  the  treaty  of  Guadalupe  Hidalgo,  by  which  Mexico  ceded 
California,  Utah,  Arizona  and  New  Mexico  to  the  United  States  in  con- 
sideration of  a  payment  of  $15,000,000  by  the  United  States  and  the  assump- 
tion of  $3,000,000  of  unsettled  claims  against  Mexico  which  were  paid  by 
the  U.  S.  Government  in  1851.  By  the  Gadsden  Treaty  of  1853  a  nalf 
million  of  square  miles  of  territory  were  added  to  the  United  States,  and 
rights  of  transit  over  the  Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec.  In  1861  an  extradition 
treaty  was  concluded,  and  in  1868  a  naturalization  convention  and  a  con- 
vention for  the  establishment  of  a  claims  commission.  Claims  against 
Mexico  were  finally  allowed  to  the  amount  of  about  $4,000,000,  and  against 
the  United  States  to  the  amount  of  about  $150,000.  A  reciprocity  conven- 
tion was  concluded  in  1883,  but  is  not  in  operation  owing  to  a  failure  of  the 
necessary  legislation.  The  boundary  between  Mexico  and  the  United  States 
was  fixed  by  the  Convention  of  1884. 

Mexico,  City  of.  By  the  fights  of  Contreras,  Churubusco,  Molino  del  Rey 
and  Chapultepec,  Scott's  forces  approached  closer  and  closer  to  the  capital. 
As  a  sequel  of  the  last-named  fight,  he  was  in  possession  of  two  of  the  gates 
on  the  evening  of  September  13,  1847.  Next  morning,  the  officials  of  the 
republic  having  fled,  the  authorities  of  the  city  surrendered  unconditionally. 
Scott  made  a  triumphal  entry  into  the  city,  unopposed  by  any  organized 
resistance. 

Miantonomo,  sachem  of  the  Narragansett  Indians,  died  in  1643.  He  con- 
cluded an  alliance  with  Massachusetts  in  1636  and  aided  in  the  Pequot  War. 
He  deeded  the  present  site  of  Providence  to  Roger  Williams. 

Michigan,  a  State  of  the  American  Union,  was  formed  from  the  North- 
west Territory.  It  was  first  explored  and  settled  by  the  French.  Marquette 


414  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

in  1668  established  a  mission  at  Sault  Ste.  Marie.  In  1701  Detroit  was 
founded.  In  1763  the  French  surrendered  their  claims  to  the  English,  who 
in  1783  surrendered  it  to  the  United  States,  although  actual  possession  was 
not  given  until  1796.  In  1787  Michigan  was  included  in  the  Northwest 
Territory  which  was  organized  by  the  ordinance  of  that  year.  In  1805  it 
was  created  a  separate  territory.  During,  the  War  of  1812  the  inhabitants 
suffered  from  the  English.  A  boundary  dispute  with  Ohio  was  settled  in 
favor  of  that  State  by  the  Act  of  Congress  of  1836,  which  provided  for  the 
admission  of  Michigan.  The  inhabitants  accepted  the  conditions,  and 
Michigan  became  a  State  January  26,  1837.  Except  in  the  year  1840  the 
State  was  Democratic  until  1856,  since  which  time  it  has  been  Republican 
in  Presidential  elections.  The  "Maine  Liquor  Law"  was  passed  in  1855 
and  repealed  in  1875.  In  1840  Michigan  had  a  population  of  212,267,  in 
1890  2,093,889.  The  present  Constitution  was  made  in  1850.  History  by 
Cooley. 

Michigan,  Historical  Society  of,  founded  in  1874.  It  published  three 
volumes  of  "Pioneer  Collections,"  between  1877  and  1880. 

Michigan,  University  of,  Ann  Arbor.  Its  founding  is  due  to  grants  of 
land  made  by  Congress.  First  opened  to  students  1842.  It  was  the  first 
State  university  to  attain  high  distinction.  Its  school  of  medicine  was 
established  in  1850,  its  law  school  in  1859,  its  school  of  homoeopathy  in  1875. 

Middlebury  College,  Middlebury,  Vt,  was  chartered  in  1800,  by  Congre- 
gationalists. 

Middleton,  Arthur  (1742-1787),  aided  in  framing  the  South  Carolina 
Constitution  in  1776.  He  represented  South  Carolina  in  the  Continental 
Congress  from  1776  to  1778,  and  signed  the  Declaration  of  Independence. 
He  served  during  the  Revolutionary  War,  and  was  a  member  of  the  Conti- 
nental Congress  from  1781  to  1783.  He  was  author  of  several  influential 
political  essays  signed  "Andrew  Marvell." 

Midnight  Appointments,  official  appointments  of  sixteen  circuit  judges 
and  other  inferior  officers  made  by  John  Adams  during  the  last  three  weeks 
of  his  Presidential  term,  many  of  the  papers  being  signed  just  before  mid- 
night of  March  3,  1801.  These  appointments  were  made  in  a  spirit  of  pique 
at  Jefferson's  success,  and  the  officers  chosen  were  in  every  instance  Federal- 
ists, bitterly  opposed  to  Jefferson's  principles. 

Mifflin,  Thomas  (1744-1800),  had  served  in  the  Pennsylvania  Legislature 
before  he  entered  the  first  Continental  Congress.  In  the  war  he  was  at  first 
aide-de-camp  to  Washington,  and  then  quartermaster-general.  He  covered 
the  retreat  of  the  army  in  the  evacuation  of  Brooklyn  in  1776,  and  soon 
afterward  was  appointed  major-general  and  a  member  of  the  Board  of  War. 
With  Conway  and  Gates  he  was  associated  in  the  intrigues  against  Washing- 
ton, and  in  1778  he  was  retired  from  the  office  of  quartermaster-general. 
He  was  president  of  Congress  in  1783,  member  of  the  Federal  Convention 
of  1787,  and  a  signer  of  the  Constitution.  He  was  Governor  of  Pennsylvania 
from  1790  to  1799. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  415 

Mifflin,  Fort.  Fort  Mifflin,  on  an  island  in  the  Delaware  and,  with  Fort 
Mercer,  commanding  the  stream,  was  captured  by  the  British  in  the  latter 
part  of  November,  1777.  (See  Mercer,  Fort.) 

Milan  Decree,  a  decree  issued  by  Napoleon  December  7,  1807,  in  which 
he  declared  to  be  "  denationalized,"  whether  found  in  Continental  ports  or  on 
the  high  seas,  any  vessel  which  should  submit  to  search  by  a  British  vessel, 
or  should  touch  or  set  sail  for  or  from  Great  Britain  or  her  colonies.  This 
was  in  retort  to  the  British  Orders  in  Council  of  November  n,  1807,  which 
declared,  among  their  provisions,  any  vessel  and  cargo  good  prize  if  it  carried 
a  French  consular  certificate  of  the  origin  of  the  cargo. 

Mileage..  The  First  Congress  provided  that  each  member  should  receive, 
beside  his  pay,  six  dollars  for  each  twenty  miles  traveled  in  going  and 
returning.  In  1818  this  was  raised  to  eight  dollars.  An  act  of  1856  limited 
this  to  two  sessions.  In  1866,  the  railroad  having  long  since  come  in,  the 
mileage  was  reduced  to  twenty  cents  a  mile. 

Miles,  Nelson  A.,  born  in  1839,  was  distinguished  at  Fair  Oaks  and 
Malvern,  commanded  a  brigade  at  the  Wilderness,  Spottsylvania  and  Freder- 
icksburg.  He  has  since  been  successful  in  the  Western  Indian  campaigns, 
in  1890  became  a  major-general,  and  in  September,  1895,  commander-in-chief 
of  U.  S.  Army.  Personally  commanded  Porto  Rican  expedition,  1898.  His 
criticisms  of  the  conduct  of  the  Spanish-American  War,  although  not  borne 
out  by  the  commissions  investigating  them,  received  much  popular  support. 

Military  Academy.  This  academy  was  established  at  West  Point,  in  New 
York  State,  in  1802,  and  is  connected  with  and  under  the  supervision  of  the 
National  War  Department.  At  first  provision  was  made  for  only  ten  cadets, 
but  in  1812  Congress  authorized  provision  for  250.  The  present  corps  of 
cadets  consists  of  one  from  each  Congressional  district,  one  from  each  terri- 
tory, one  from  the  District  of  Columbia  and  ten  from  the  United  States  at 
large.  Most  of  the  leading  generals  of  the  Civil  War,  on  both  sides,  were 
graduates  of  West  Point. 

Militia.  The  Constitution  empowers  Congress  to  "  provide  for  calling  forth 
the  militia  to  execute  the  laws  of  the  Union,  suppress  insurrections  and 
repel  invasions."  In  1792  an  act  was  passed  "to  provide  for  the  national 
defence  by  establishing  a  uniform  militia  throughout  the  United  States,"  by 
the  enrollment  of  "  every  free  able-bodied  white  male  citizen,"  between  the 
ages  of  eighteen  and  forty-five.  The  Act  of  March  2,  1867,  permitted  the 
enrolling  of  negroes.  In  1862,  the  length  of  time  for  which  the  militia 
might  be  called  out  was  fixed  at  nine  months.  The  militia  has  been  called 
out  three  times:  in  1794,  at  the  time  of  the  Whisky  Insurrection  in  Penn- 
sylvania; during  the  War  of  1812,  and  in  1861  during  the  Civil  War. 

Mill  at  Newport,  an  ancient  stone  structure  at  Newport,  R.  I.  When 
and  by  whom  it  was  constructed  is  still  a  disputed  question.  Former 
antiquarians  have  proclaimed  it  the  work  of  Northmen  of  the  eleventh  cen- 
tury. 'But  more  recent  investigations  have  quite  satisfactorily  proved  it  to 
have  been  a  windmill  erected  by  Governor  Arnold,  of  Rhode  Island,  some 
time  between  1670  and  1680.  The  design  corresponds  to  that  of  a  mill  in 
Chesterton,  England. 

Mill  Springs,  or  Fishing  Creek,  Ky.  Here  General  Crittenden,  com- 
manding 5000  Confederates,  was  defeated  by  General  Thomas  and  a  Union 


4I6  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

army  of  8000,  January  19,  1862.  Crittenden  planned  a  night  attack, 
which'  miscarried,  owing  to  Thomas'  strong  position.  The  Confederates 
made  a  desperate  charge,  but  were  repulsed  by  an  Ohio  regiment  and  took 
refuge  in  an  intrenched  camp.  General  ZollicofFer,  Confederate,  was  killed. 
Mill-boy  of  the  Slashes,  a  designation  applied  to  Henry  Clay,  who  was 
born  in  humble  circumstances  in  the  portion  of  Hanover  County,  Virginia, 
known  as  the  "  Slashes,"  and,  like  other  farm-boys,  used  to  ride  to  mill. 

Miller,  Cincinnatus  H.  ( Joaquin),  born  in  1841,  was  a  Western  adventurer 
until  1866,  when  he  became  judge  of  Grant  County,  Ore.,  and  served  till 
1870.  He  has  published  several  poetical  and  prose  works,  among  them 
"  Songs  of  the  Sierras." 

Miller,  James  (1776-1851),  entered  the  army  as  major  in  1810.  He  com- 
manded at  Brownstown  in  1812,  and  fought  at  Fort  George,  Chippewa  and 
Lundy's  Lane.  He  was  Governor  of  Arkansas  from  1819  to  1825. 

Miller,  Samuel  F.  (1816-1890),  was  an  ardent  anti-slavery  advocate  and  a 
Republican  leader  in  Iowa.  He  was  a  Justice  of  the  U.  S.  Supreme  Court 
from  1862  to  1890,  and  was  regarded  by  many  as  its  leading  member. 

Miller,  Warner,  born  in  1838,  was  a  member  of  the  New  York  Legisla- 
ture from  1874  to  1878.  He  represented  New  York  in  the  U.  S.  Congress 
as  a  Republican  from  1878  to  1881,  and  in  the  Senate  from  1881  to  1887. 

Miller,  William  (1782-1849),  born  in  Massachusetts,  served  on  the  Cana- 
dian frontier  in  1812.  He  proclaimed  that  the  coming  of  Christ  would 
occur  in  1843,  anc*  founded  the  sect  of  "  Millerites,"  or  "  Adventists." 

Miller,  William  H.s  H.,  born  in  1841,  became  a  law-partner  with  General 
B.  Harrison  in  1874.  He  was  Attorney-General  in  Harrison's  Cabinet  from 
1889  to  1893. 

Milligan's  Case,  a  case  decided  by  the  U.  S.  Supreme  Court  in  1866. 
This  case  involved  the  right  of  a  citizen  to  demand  a  writ  of  habeas  corpus 
under  particular  circumstances.  In  October,  1864,  during  the  Civil  War, 
Milligan  was  brought  before  a  military  commission  convened  at  Indianapolis 
by  General  Hovey.  He  was  tried  and  sentenced  to  death  for  participation 
in  rebellious  schemes.  By  the  Habeas  Corpus  Act  of  Congress,  1863,  ^sts 
were  to  be  furnished  in  each  State  of  persons  suspected  of  violating  national 
laws.  But  any  such  persons,  arrested  and  no  indictment  found  against  them 
by  the  Circuit  Court,  should  be  freed  on  petition  verified  by  oath.  Milligan 
was  not  indicted  by  the  Circuit  Court.  He  objected  to  the  authority  of  the 
military  commission  and  sued  for  a  writ  of  habeas  corpus  in  the  Circuit  Court. 
There  was  a  division  of  opinion  and  the  case  came  before  the  Supreme  Court 
in  1866.  That  body  decided  that  the  writ  should  be  issued  and  the  prisoner 
discharged.  Regarding  the  military  commission,  it  was  maintained  that 
such  power  of  erecting  military  jurisdictions  remote  from  the  seat  of  war  was 
not  vested  in  Congress,  and  that  it  could  not  be  exercised  in  this  particular 
case;  that  the  prisoner,  a  civilian,  was  exempt  from  the  laws  of  war  and 
could  only  be  tried  by  a  jury ;  and  finally,  that  the  writ  of  habeas  corpus 
could  not  be  suspended  constitutionally,  though  the  privilege  of  that  writ 
might  be. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  417 

Milliken's  Bend,  La.  In  this  engagement  of  the  Civil  War,  a  colored 
regiment  which  lay  in  intrenchments  commanded  by  the  Union  General 
Dennis,  was  destroyed,  June  6  and  7,  1863,  by  2500  Confederates  led  by 
Henry  McCulloch. 

Mills,  Robert  (1781-1855),  of  South  Carolina,  was  architect  of  the  Gen- 
eral Post-Office,  Treasury  and  Patent-Office  buildings  at  Washington.  He 
made  the  original  design  of  the  Washington  Monument. 

Mills,  Roger  Q.,  born  in  1832,  was  a  member  of  the  Texas  Legislature 
in  1859  and  1860.  He  represented  Texas  in  the  U.  S.  Congress  as  a  Demo- 
crat from  1873  to  1892,  when  he  was  elected  to  the  U.  S.  Senate.  When 
chairman  of  the  Ways  and  Means  Committee  from  1887  to  1889,  he  drafted 
the  Mills  bill,  making  marked  reductions  in  the  tariff. 

Milwaukee,  Wis.,  dates  its  development  from  1833,  before  which  time 
it  was  known  only  as  an  Indian  trading  post,  occupied  by  Solomon  Juneau, 
who  is  generally  regarded  as  the  founder  of  the  city.  He  settled  there 
in  1818. 

Mims,  Fort,  Ala.,  thirty-five  miles  above  Mobile,  on  the  Alabama  River. 
August  30,  1813,  this  fort,  then  held  by  some  500  men,  women  and  children, 
whites,  half-breeds,  Indians  and  negroes,  and  commanded  by  two  half-breeds, 
Beasley  and  Bailey,  was  attacked  by  800  Creek  warriors,  led  by  McQueen 
and  Weathersford,  two  half-breeds.  The  fort  was  completely  taken  by  sur- 
prise and  could  offer  little  resistance.  Beasley  and  Bailey  and  over  200 
others  were  scalped,  but  the  negroes  were  saved  for  slaves. 

Mining.  The  early  land  grants  to  corporations  and  individuals  reserved  a 
certain  per  cent  of  all  minerals  which  might  be  discovered  therein,  to  the 
crown.  The  Congress  of  the  Confederation  also  passed  a  law  to  a  somewhat 
similar  effect.  By  an  Act  of  1807  the  President  was  authorized  to  lease  lands 
containing  minerals,  but  this  method  was  found  ineffectual  because  of  the 
immense  number  of  illegal  entries.  This  was  especially  noticeable  in  the 
Lake  Superior  copper  district.  The  Acts  of  1846  and  1847  authorized  the 
sale  of  mineral  lands  in  Arkansas,  Illinois,  Iowa,  Wisconsin  and  Michigan 
and  granted  the  right  of  pre-emption,  though  not  on  the  same  basis  as  in  the 
case  of  non-mineral  public  lands.  In  1847-48  the  discovery  of  gold  in  Cali- 
fornia caused  great  excitement.  Thousands  of  miners  entered  upon  the 
public  lands  and  took  the  Government  so  by  surprise  that  during  twenty 
years  they  remained  in  undisturbed  possession.  Gold  mining  began  in 
Arizona  in  1850,  in  Oregon  in  1852,  in  Colorado  in  1859,  in  Idaho  and 
Montana  in  1860.  The  first  mining  was  the  "  gulch  "  and  "  placer,"  and 
these  "  placer "  miners  adopted  regulations  of  their  own  which  afterward 
were  recognized  by  the  Government  as  ruling  the  distribution  of  claims,  so 
long  as  they  did  not  interfere  with  the  Government  requirements.  A  great 
many  laws  have  been  passed  to  govern  the  distribution  of  mines  and  mining 
lands.  This  distribution  is  now  ruled  by  the  ordinary  common-law  right  to 
the  surface  and  all  beneath  it,  plus  a  certain  addition  and  minus  a  certain 
deduction,  the  addition  being  the  right  of  the  locator  to  follow  veins  of 
which  his  land  contains  the  apex,  downward,  between  the  end  planes  of  his 


4I8  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

location,  into  his  neighbor's  land;  and  the  deduction  being  a  similar  right 
possessed  by  the  adjoining  neighbor. 

Mining  District.  In  1849  the  great  rush  for  the  mineral  belts  of  the 
Sierra  Nevada  and  the  Rocky  Mountains  occurred.  In  1866  there  were  500 
organized  districts  in  California,  200  in  Nevada,  100  each  in  Arizona,  Idaho 
and  Oregon.  These  districts  were  created  and  organized  by  "all  the  free- 
men of  the  camp,"  who  elected  officers  and  clothed  them  with  authority  to 
enforce  the  laws  they  ordained.  These  laws  were,  as  a  rule,  obeyed  in  the 
strictest  sense. 

Minisink,  N.  Y.  During  1779  constant  raids  were  made  by  the  British 
and  Indians  along  the  border  settlements  of  New  York.  On  the  night  of 
July  19,  1779,  Brant,  an  Indian  chief,  commanding  a  force  of  160  miscel- 
laneous troops,  descended  upon  Minisink,  a  village  in  Ulster  County.  The 
citizens  of  Goshen,  120  strong,  under  Colonel  Hathorn,  went  in  pursuit. 
They  were  completely  cut  to  pieces  and  Minisink  was  raided,  though  Sulli- 
van's army  of  2312  men  was  not  far  away. 

Minneapolis,  Minn.,  was  incorporated  as  a  city  in  1867.  In  1872  the 
city  of  St.  Anthony,  incorporated  in  1860,  was  united  to  Minneapolis. 

Minnesota,  a  State  of  the  Union,  was  formed  partly  from  the  Northwest 
Territory  and  partly  from  the  Louisiana  Purchase.  In  1678  Duluth  visited 
the  territory,  and  in  1680  Hennepin  discovered  and  named  the  Falls  of  St. 
Anthony.  In  1763  France  ceded  the  eastern  part  to  England,  by  whom  it 
was  ceded  to  the  United  States  in  1783;  the  rest  was  acquired  in  1803. 
Settlements  were  made  near  St.  Paul  by  1830,  and  at  Stillwater  in  1843. 
Minnesota  was  organized  as  a  territory  in  1849,  and  included  the  modern 
territory  of  the  Dakotas.  It  had  been  a  part  of  the  territory  of  Missouri,  and 
later  of  Iowa.  May  u,  1858,  Minnesota  became  a  State.  In  1862  serious 
attacks  were  made  by  the  Sioux  Indians.  The  State  has  always  been  Repub- 
lican. Its  present  Constitution  was  made  in  1857.  The  population  of  the 
State  in  1860  was  172,023;  in  1890  it  was  1,301,826.  History  by  Neill. 

Minnesota,  Historical  Society  of,  founded  in  1849.  It  published  a  vol- 
ume of  "  Annals  "  in  1856.  A  considerable  portion  of  its  collections  was 
lost  by  fire  in  1881. 

"  Minnesota  Register,"  the  first  newspaper  of  any  importance  issued  in 
Minnesota.  It  was  printed  at  Cincinnati  and  dated  St.  Paul.  McLean  and 
Owens  edited  and  published  this  journal.  In  August,  1849,  it  was  consoli- 
dated with  the  Chronicle,  and  was  then  called  the  Chronicle  and  Register. 
Its  publication  was  continued  until  1851,  and  since  that  time  has  been 
suspended. 

Mints.  The  first  U.  S.  mint  was  established  at  Philadelphia  for  the  purpose 
of  national  coinage  by  the  Act  of  Congress  of  April  2,  1792.  The  machinery 
and  first  metal  used  were  imported.  In  1792—93,  coppers  were  coined,  in 
1794  silver  dollars,  and  in  1795  gold  eagles.  Steam  power  was  introduced 
in  1816.  In  1835  branch  mints  were  established  at  New  Orleans,  at  Char- 
lotte, N.  C,  at  Dahlonega,  Ga.,  in  1852  at  San  Francisco,  in  1864  at  Dallas 
City,  Ore.,  and  in  1870  at  Carson  City,  Nev.  Assay  offices  were  established 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  419 

at  New  York  in  1854,  at  Denver,  Colo.,  in  1864,  and  at  Boise  City,  Idaho,  in 
1872.  These  were  considered  branches  of  the  Philadelphia  mint  until  1873, 
when  the  coinage  act  of  that  year  made  them  separate  mints  and  assay  offices. 
These  mints  are  bureaus  of  the  Treasury  Department  and  are  all  under  the 
general  supervision  of  the  chief  officer  of  that  department.  The  mints  at 
Charlotte  and  Dahlonega  were  suspended  in  1861,  that  of  New  Orleans  from 
1860  to  1879,  that  of  Dallas  in  1875,  that  of  Carson  in  1885.  In  1652  Massa- 
chusetts had  established  a  colonial  mint  at  Boston  for  the  purpose  of  coin- 
ing shillings  and  minor  pieces,  but  this  soon  became  inoperative. 

Minuit  or  Minnewit,  Peter  (1580  7-1641),  born  in  Wesel,  Germany,  was 
made  Governor  of  New  Netherlands  by  the  Dutch  West  India  Company  in 
1625.  He  purchased  Manhattan  Island  from  the  Indians,  built  Fort  Amster- 
dam, and  held  office  till  1631.  Under  the  auspices  of  the  Swedish  West 
India  Company,  he  planted  a  Swedish  settlement  on  the  Delaware,  and  built 
Fort  Christiana  in  1638. 

Minute-men,  members  of  a  military  force  authorized  by  the  Provincial 
Congress  of  Massachusetts  in  1774.  They  were  to  hold  themselves  ready  to 
take  the  field  at  a  minute's  notice. 

Miranda's  Plot,  a  scheme  devised  by  some  of  the  Federalist  leaders  of 
1798,  notably  King  and  Hamilton,  to  join  Great  Britain  in  obtaining  posses- 
sion of  the  French  and  Spanish  lands  in  America.  One  Miranda,  of  Caracas, 
undertook  to  secure  the  disaffection  of  the  Spanish  provinces.  By  this  joint 
enterprise  Great  Britain  was  to  obtain  the  West  Indies,  and  the  United  States 
Florida  and  Louisiana  east  of  the  Mississippi.  The  plot  fell  through  because 
President  Adams  refused  to  favor  it. 

Mischianza,  an  elaborate  spectacular  entertainment  given  to  General 
Howe  by  his  officers  on  his  departure  from  Philadelphia  in  1778.  It  was 
devised  by  Andre*. 

Missionary  Ridge.     (See  Chattanooga.) 

Missiones,  Spanish  religious  establishments  conducted  by  Franciscan 
friars  for  the  civilization  and  conversion  of  the  Indians  in  Mexico  and  Cali- 
fornia. The  first  mission  founded  in  California  was  at  San  Diego,  in  1769; 
a  second  was  established  at  Monterey  a  few  months  later.  Before  many 
years  had  elapsed  there  was  a  line  of  twenty-one  prosperous  missiones 
between  San  Diego  and  Point  Reyes.  In  1834  there  were  30,650  Indians 
connected  with  the  missiones.  The  property  of  the  missiones  was  very 
extensive.  Their  decline  began  in  the  attempt  at  secularization  by  the 
Spanish  Government.  The  priests  had  absolute  control  over  the  Indians, 
treating  them  more  like  slaves  than  free  men,  yet  they  taught  them  much 
both  of  religious  and  practical  matters. 

Mississippi  was  admitted  as  a  State  December  10,  1817.  It  was  explored 
by  De  Soto,  a  Spaniard,  in  1539,  and  by  the  Frenchmen,  Joliet  and  Mar- 
quette,  who  came  down  the  Mississippi  in  1673.  In  1682  La  Salle  took 
formal  possession  of  the  territory  for  the  King  of  France.  Biloxi  was 
settled  by  the  French  under  Iberville  in  1699.  After  the  Louisiana  bubble 


420 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 


the  colonies  in  Mississippi  grew  slowly.  The  French  ceded  the  territory  to 
England  in  1763,  and  it  was  included  within  the  State  of  Georgia  until 
1798,  when  it  was  organized  as  a  territory  by  the  U.  S.  Government  under 
provisions  like  those  of  the  Ordinance  of  1787,  with  the  exception  of  the 
article  relative  to  slavery.  The  State  has  cast  its  electoral  votes  for  Demo- 
cratic candidates  except  in  the  years  1840,  1848  and  1872.  In  1842  the 
State  repudiated  its  bonds  to  the  amount  of  $5,000,000.  In  1850  Jefferson 
Davis  and  Henry  S.  Foote  were  candidates  for  U.  S.  Senator,  and  canvassed 
the  State  on  the  issue  of  the  advisability  of  secession.  Davis,  the  leader  of 
the  pronounced  Secessionists,  was  beaten  by  a  small  majority.  An  ordi- 
nance of  secession  was  passed  by  a  State  Convention  January  7,  1861,  but 
was  not  submitted  to  a  popular  vote.  The  State  furnished  the  President, 
Jefferson  Davis,  of  the  Confederacy.  Mississippi  was  readmitted  February 
23,  1870.  In  1875  the  white  Democracy  resorted  to  intimidation  to  keep 
the  blacks  from  the  polls,  and  succeeded  in  securing  possession  of  the  State, 
which  has  been  Democratic  since  that  date.  The  population  of  the  State 
in  1817  was  75,512;  in  1890  it  had  increased  to  1,289,600.  The  present 
Constitution  was  made  in  1891. 

Mississippi  Company.  This  land  company  was  started  in  1769  by  some 
wealthy  and  prominent  Virginians  as  a  rival  to  the  Walpole  Company, 
which,  in  1766,  had  obtained  a  grant  of  500,000  acres  along  the  Scioto 
River. 

Mississippi  Company.     (See  Compagnie  de  1'Occident.) 

Missouri  was  formed  originally  from  the  Louisiana  cession.  The  country 
was  first  settled  by  the  French.  In  1805  the  southern  portion  of  the  Louisi- 
ana country  was  organized  as  a  territory  under  the  name  of  Orleans,  and 
the  northern  portion  under  that  of  Louisiana.  When  Louisiana  was  admitted 
as  a  State,  in  1812,  the  northern  portion  was  called  Missouri  Territory.  In 
1817  Missouri  asked  leave  of  Congress  to  frame  a  State  Constitution.  This 
was  the  cause  of  a  fierce  contest  in  Congress  over  the  question  of  the  exist- 
ence of  slavery  in  Missouri,  which  was  settled  by  the  famous  compromise 
(1820)  of  Henry  Clay.  (See  Missouri  Compromise.)  This  provided  for  the 
admission  of  Missouri  as  a  slave  State,  but  that  in  future  slavery  should  be 
prohibited  in  all  territory  forming  part  of  the  Louisiana  cession  north  of  36° 
30'.  Missouri  adopted  a  State  Constitution  July,  1820,  which  established  sla- 
very and  forbade  the  immigration  into  the  State  of  free  negroes.  This  negro 
clause  led  to  another  contest  in  Congress,  and  another  compromise,  whereby 
Missouri  was  admitted  August  10,  1821.  The  electoral  vote  of  the  State 
was  cast  for  Clay  in  1824,  since  which  time  the  State  has  been  Democratic 
except  during  the  period  from  1862  to  1870,  when  the  Republicans  were  in 
control.  In  1849  tne  Democratic  party  in  the  State  split  into  the  "hards," 
or  Benton  men,  and  the  "  softs,"  or  pro-slavery  party.  A  State  Convention 
met  in  1861,  which  proved  to  be  of  Union  sentiment.  An  unsuccessful 
attempt  was  made  by  the  State  officers  to  make  an  armed  rebellion  against 
the  Union,  and  they  were  forced  to  flee  from  the  State.  The  powers  of 
government  were  then  assumed  by  the  convention,  which,  in  1863,  passed 
an  ordinance  of  gradual  abolition  of  slavery.  In  1864  Lincoln  carried  the 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  421 

State.  The  Republicans  divided  in  1870  over  the  disfranchising  clauses  of 
the  Constitution.  The  "  Liberal  "  Republicans,  headed  by  Carl  Schurz  and 
B.  G.  Brown,  elected  Brown  Governor  of  the  State.  In  1872  the  State 
elected  Greeley  electors,  and  in  1874  the  Republican  party  disappeared. 
Since  then  the  State  has  been  Democratic.  The  population  of  the  State  in 
1821  was  66,586;  in  1890,  2,679,184.  The  present  Constitution  of  the  State 
was  made  in  1875.  History  by  Carr. 

Missouri  Compromise,  a  compromise  effected  by  the  Act  of  Congress  of 
March  3,  1820,  between  those  who  desired  the  extension  of  slavery  into  the 
regions  beyond  the  Mississippi  and  those  who  desired  its  restriction.  Missouri 
having  applied  for  admission  as  a  State,  Tallmadge,  of  New  York,  in  Feb- 
ruary, 1819,  proposed  an  amendment  which  would  ultimately  destroy  slavery 
in  the  new  State.  The  House  passed  the  bill  with  this  amendment;  the 
Senate  refused  to  concur.  Next  year  the  bill,  in  the  same  form,  passed  the 
House  again.  The  Senate  v^oted  to  admit  Maine,  provided  Missouri  was 
admitted  as  a  slave  State.  The  House  rejected  the  proposal.  Thomas,  of 
Illinois,  proposed  as  a  compromise  the  arrangement  mentioned  in  the  pre- 
ceding article.  When  Missouri's  Constitution  was  laid  before  Congress,  how- 
ever, it  appeared  that  she  had  introduced  clauses  excluding  free  negroes  from 
the  State.  The  House  then  refused  to  admit  Missouri.  Clay  effected  a 
further  compromise,  whereby  Missouri  agreed  not  to  deprive  of  his  rights 
any  citizen  of  another  State. 

"  Missouri  Gazette."  This  newspaper  was  established  at  St.  Louis  in 
1808  by  Joseph  Charles.  The  name  was  changed  in  1822  to  the  Missouri 
Republican,  under  which  title  it  is  published  at  the  present  time,  daily,  tri- 
weekly and  weekly. 

Mitchel,  Ormsby  M.  (1809-1862),  secured  the  establishment  of  the  obser- 
vatory at  Cincinnati,  O.,  in  1843.  He  invented  numerous  astronomical 
instruments.  He  made  extensive  observations  of  stars,  nebulae  and  sun- 
spots.  He  served  in  the  Army  of  the  Ohio  from  1861  to  1862,  engaging  at 
Bowling  Green,  Nashville  and  Bridgeport.  He  commanded  the  Depart- 
ment of  the  South  in  1862,  but  died  of  yellow  fever. 

Mitchell,  Donald  G.,  born  in  1822,  a  graceful  and  pleasant  American 
author,  has  published  "  Reveries  of  a  Bachelor,"  "  Dream  Life  "  and  the 
"  Edgewood  "  books. 

Mitchell,  John  H.,  born  in  1835,  represented  Oregon  in  the  U.  S.  Senate 
as  a  Republican  from  1873  to  1879.  He  was  again  elected  in  1885  and  1891; 
his  present  term  will  expire  in  1897. 

Mobile,  Ala.,  was  founded  as  a  fort  by  Lemoyne  d'Iberville  in  1711.  In 
1763,  by  the  Treaty  of  Paris,  Mobile  was  ceded  to  Great  Britain,  but 
was  recovered  for  the  United  States  in  1813,  having  previously  passed  into 
the  possession  of  the  Spanish  in  1780.  In  1819  it  was  incorporated  as  a 
city.  Mobile  was  besieged  and  bombarded  March  27  to  April  9,  1865,  by 
45,000  Federal  troops  led  by  General  Canby.  Maury  held  the  city  with 
9000  Confederates.  His  defences  consisted  of  a  system  of  irregular  earth- 
works called  Spanish  Fort.  This  was  invested  April  4  by  Smith  and 


^22  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Granger,  and  was  bombarded  without  much  success.  On  the  eighth,  how- 
ever, 300  yards  of  the  Confederate  defences  were  captured,  together  with  500 
prisoners  and  fifty  guns.  The  works  were  then  evacuated.  On  the  morning 
of  the  ninth  a  general  assault  was  made  upon  the  city,  and  nearly  all  the 
works  were  carried,  3423  men  and  forty  guns  being  captured.  Mobile  was 
evacuated  two  days  later  and  surrendered  by  its  mayor  April  12. 

Mobile  Bay,  Ala.,  scene  of  a  naval  engagement  between  the  Federal  and 
Confederate  fleets,  August  5  to  23,  1864.  Farragut  commanded  the  National 
fleet  of  eighteen  vessels,  fourteen  of  these  being  of  wood  and  four  ironclads, 
the  "Tecumseh,"  "Winnebago,"  "Manhattan"  and  "  Chickasaw."  The 
Confederate  Admiral  Buchanan  had  far  fewer  vessels,  three  gunboats,  the 
"Morgan,"  "Gaines"  and  "Selma"  and  the  ram  "Tennessee."  Still  he 
was  defended  by  three  strongly  garrisoned  forts,  Gaines,  Morgan  and  Powell, 
at  the  harbor's  entrance,  and  the  "  1  ennessee  "  was  deemed  a  host  in  itself. 
Farragut  entered  the  harbor  with  the  gunboat  "  Brooklyn  "  leading  and  the 
entire  fleet  firing  upon  Fort  Morgan,  whence  a  lively  reply  was  begun.  The 
"  Tecumseh  "  immediately  struck  a  torpedo  and  was  sunk.  The  fleet  became 
confused  and  for  some  moments  was  in  great  danger.  But  Farragut  forged 
ahead  with  the  flag-ship  "  Hartford  "  and  was  attacked  by  the  "  Tennessee." 
The  other  Federal  vessels  quickly  destroyed  the  "  Selma  "  and  chased  away 
the  "Morgan"  and  the  "Gaines."  The  "  Monongahela  "  and  the  "  Lacka- 
wanna  "  were  struck  by  the  "  Tennessee,"  but  the  latter  was  disabled  by  a 
broadside  at  close  range  from  the  "Hartford."  The  other  boats  closed 
around  her.  Her  smokestack  and  steering  chains  were  gone,  her  crew  panic- 
stricken  and  she  soon  became  unmanageable.  She  therefore  surrendered. 
The  Confederate  forts  were  shelled  for  several  days.  Fort  Powell  was  blown 
up  and  abandoned.  Forts  Gaines  and  Morgan  surrendered. 

Mo  doc  Indians  originally  occupied  lands  on  Klamath  Lake,  Cal.  They 
began  attacks  against  the  whites  as  early  as  1847.  Hostilities  continued 
until  1864,  when  they  ceded  their  lands  and  agreed  to  go  on  a  reservation 
which  was  not  set  apart  until  1871.  In  the  meantime  they  were  placed  on 
the  Klamath  reservation,  and  later  on  the  Yainax  reservation.  A  band 
under  Captain  Jack  left  the  reservation  and  settled  on  Lost  River,  whence 
they  refused  to  depart  (1872).  Hostilities  followed,  Captain  Jack  retreated 
to  the  Lava  Beds  and  was  not  finally  conquered  until  June,  1873. 

Mohawks  or  Agmegue,  one  of  the  Five  Nations  of  the  Iroquois.  The 
English  early  secured  their  friendship,  and  during  the  French  and  Indian 
Wars  they  proved  valuable  allies  of  the'colonists.  In  the  Revolutionary  War 
the  tribe  under  Brant  carried  on  hostilities  against  the  Americans.  In  1784 
the  Mohawks  retired  to  Upper  Canada. 

Mohicans,  an  Algonquin  tribe  of  Indians,  early  settled  around  the  Hud- 
son. In  1628  they  were  driven  to  the  Connecticut  River  by  the  Mohawks, 
but  a  part  subsequently  returned  to  their  old  home.  Others  who  had  pre- 
viously gone  eastward  became  known  as  the  Pequots.  The  Mohicans  were 
continually  friendly  to  the  English  colonists  during  the  struggle  with  the 
French,  and  also  served  the  Americans  in  the  Revolution.  The  tribe  finally 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  423 

became  divided.     Some  were  assigned  a  reservation  at  Red  Springs,  and 
many  became  citizens. 

Molasses  Act,  an  act  passed  by  the  British  Parliament  in  1733  to  protect 
the  molasses  and  sugar  of  the  British  West  Indies.  By  this  act  a  heavy 
duty  was  laid  on  all  sugar  and  molasses  imported  into  the  American  colonies 
from  the  French  islands. 

Molino  del  Rey  (King's  Mill),  Mexico,  a  range  of  massive  stone  build- 
ings situated  a  short  distance  from  the  city  of  Mexico.  Here  General  Worth, 
September  8,  1847,  defeated  the  Mexican  leaders,  Leon,  Perez  and  Alvarez. 
Scott  sent  Worth  to  attack  this  fortress  by  night,  but  this  being  found 
impracticable,  Worth  drew  up  his  lines  during  the  night  and  commenced 
battle  at  dawn,  Wright  leading  the  storming  party,  Garland  cutting  off  sup- 
port from  Chapultepec,  Mclntosh  facing  the  Mexican  right  and  Cadwal- 
ader  the  centre.  The  Mexicans  fought  bravely,  but  were  overcome  with 
much  loss.  Number  engaged:  Americans,  3500;  Mexicans,  10,000. 

"  Moniteur,"  first  newspaper  issued  in  Louisiana.  Printing  was  intro- 
duced into  the  State  in  1804,  and  the  Moniteur  was  established  the  same 
year  by  a  Frenchman  named  Fontaine. 

"  Monitor,"  the  National  iron-clad  constructed  in  1862  by  John  Ericsson, 
after  a  new  type,  under  contract  with  the  Union  Government.  She  engaged 
in  battle  and  partially  disabled  the  enormous  Confederate  ram  "  Merrirnac," 
March  9,  1862,  after  a  fight  of  four  hours,  during  which  repeated  charges 
were  made  by  both  vessels.  She  was  commanded  by  Captain  Worden.  (See 
Hampton  Roads.)  The  "  Monitor  "  foundered  and  was  sunk  in  a  gale  off 
Cape  Hatteras  in  December,  1862.  ' 

Monmouth,  Battle  of,  June  28,  1778.  On  June  18  the  British  evacuated 
Philadelphia  and  started  for  New  York.  Washington  determined  to  strike  a 
sudden  and  crippling  blow  upon  the  British  army.  He  set  out  along  a 
parallel  road,  and  by  June  27  was  in  a  position  at  Allentown,  N.  J.,  to  com- 
mand the  British  flank.  The  British  then  turned  east.  Washington's  pur- 
pose was  now  to  crush  the  British  left  wing,  which  was  moving  in  the  rear. 
General  Charles  Lee  was  sent  to  accomplish  this  manoeuvre.  He  was 
treacherous,  and  instead  of  acting  in  the  offensive,  as  ordered,  he  threw  away 
his  advantage,  and  with  6000  men  began  a  retreat  without  striking  a  blow. 
His  men  were  nearly  exhausted  by  the  heat,  and  were  falling  into  disorder 
when  Washington  suddenly  appeared.  Word  had  been  sent  him  of  Lee's 
strange  action.  Severely  rebuking  Lee,  Washington  at  once  set  about  restor- 
ing order  among  the  demoralized  troops.  Owing  to  his  energy  a  disgraceful 
flight  was  changed  into  a  drawn  battle.  The  American  loss  was  362,  that 
of  the  British  416.  Lee  was  court-martialed,  and  Clinton  made  good  his 
escape  to  New  York. 

Monocacy,  Md.  In  this  engagement  of  the  Civil  War,  which  took  place 
July  9,  1864,  during  the  Confederate  advance  upon  Washington,  the  Union 
General  Wallace,  commanding  8000  men,  was  defeated  by  Early,  who  led 
nearly  19,000  Confederates.  Wallace's  dispositions  for  battle  were  as  follows: 
Tyler  held  the  Baltimore  pike  on  the  right,  Ricketts  the  Washington  pike 


424  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

on  the  left,  and  Wallace  the  centre.  The  Confederates  first  attacked  Brown, 
who  was  holding  the  Monocacy  bridge.  Then,  forcing  a  passage  of  the 
river,  they  charged  upon  Ricketts  and  Tyler.  These  leaders  defended  them- 
selves bravely,  though  nearly  surrounded.  The  battle  continued  all  day,  and 
Wallace  retreated  in  the  evening. 

Monroe,  Elizabeth  Kortright  (1768-1830),  married  President  James 
Monroe  in  1786.  She  is  described  as  "an  elegant  and  accomplished  woman 
with  a  dignity  of  manner  that  peculiarly  fitted  her  for  her  station." 

Monroe,  James  (April  28,  1758-July  4,  1831),  fifth  President  of  the  United 
States,  was  born  in  Westmoreland  County,  Va.  He  entered  William  and 
Mary  College,  but  left  it  in  1776  to  enter  the  army.  He  was  present  at 
Trenton,  Brandywine,  Monmouth,  etc.,  and  in  1782  was  already  a  member 
of  the  Virginia  Assembly.  He  was  soon  a  member  of  the  State  Council,  and 
a  delegate  to  the  Continental  Congress.  In  the  Ratifying  Convention  of 
1788,  he  ardently  upheld  the  Anti-Federalist  side.  As  U.  S.  Senator  1790- 
1794,  envoy  to  France  1794-1796,  and  Governor  of  Virginia  1799-1802,  he 
was  naturally  a  Republican  and  an  exponent  of  Jefferson's  views*  President 
Jefferson  sent  him  in  1802  as  additional  envoy  to  France,  where  he  helped 
Livingston  to  negotiate  the  Louisiana  Purchase  of  1803.  Thence  he  was 
sent  as  Minister  to  London,  where  he  remained  until  1807.  He  had  just 
commenced  another  term  as  Governor  in  1811,  when  he  was  appointed  Sec- 
retary of  State.  This  office  he  held  until  1817,  combining  with  it  in  1814- 
1815  the  War  portfolio.  As  Republican  candidate  for  President  in  1816, 
Monroe  received  183  electoral  votes,  and  in  1820  he  had  almost  no  opposi- 
tion; the  eight  years  of  his  administrations  are  in  fact  embalmed  in  Ameri- 
can history  as  the  so-called  "  era  of  good  feeling."  His  Cabinet  included 
J.  Q.  Adams  in  the  State  Department,  Crawford  Treasury,  Calhoun  War, 
and  Wirt  Attorney-General.  The  period  is  marked  by  the  acquisition  of 
Florida,  Seminole  War,  Missouri  Compromise,  seaboard  defence  policy,  the 
visit  of  Lafayette,  and  the  Monroe  Doctrine  (which  see).  There  is  a  short 
life  by  President  D.  C.  Gilman. 

Monroe  Doctrine.  After  the  overthrow  of  the  empire  of  the  first  Napo- 
leon, France,  Russia,  Prussia  and  Austria  formed  an  alliance  for  preserving 
the  balance  of  power  and  suppressing  revolutions  within  each  other's 
dominions.  The  Spanish  colonies  in  America  having  revolted,  it  was 
rumored  that  this  alliance  contemplated  their  reduction,  although  the  United 
States  recognized  their  independence.  George  Canning,  the  English  Secre- 
tary of  State,  proposed  that  the  United  States  join  England  in  the  prevention 
of  such  suppression.  After  consulting  with  Jefferson,  Madison,  John  Quincy 
Adams  and  Calhoun,  President  Monroe  embodied  in  his  annual  message  to 
Congress  in  1823  a  clause  which  has  since  become  celebrated  as  the  "  Monroe 
Doctrine."  Referring  to  the  proposed  intervention  of  the  allied  powers  the 
message  stated  that  we  "  should  consider  any  attempt  on  their  part  to  extend 
their  system  to  any  portion  of  this  hemisphere  as  dangerous  to  our  peace 
and  safety;"  and  again,  "that  the  American  continents,  by  the  free  and 
independent  condition  which  they  have  assumed  and  maintain,  are  Hence- 
forth not  to  be  considered  as  subjects  for  future  colonization  by  any  European 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  425 

powers."  The  doctrine  thus  set  forth  has  been  maintained  by  the  United 
States  on  many  subsequent  occasions,  notably  in  matters  relating  to  the 
Isthmus  of  Panama  and  in  the  case  of  the  French  intervention  in  Mexico 
under  Maximilian. 

Montana  was  admitted  as  a  State  November  8,  1889.  It  was  organized 
as  a  territory  in  1864.  It  formed  a  part  of  the  Louisiana  cession.  In  1890 
and  1891  a  deadlock  in  the  Legislature  was  caused  by  a  disputed  election  in 
Silver  Bow  County.  Since  its  admission  as  a  State  Montana  has  been 
Republican.  The  population  in  1890  was  132,159. 

Montauks,  an  Indian  tribe  which,  at  the  time  of  the  settlement  of  Long 
Island  by  whites,  occupied  the  east  end  of  the  island.  In  1659  they  were 
nearly  exterminated  by  the  Block  Island  Indians.  In  1660,  1662,  1670  and 
1687  they  conveyed  their  lands  to  certain  bodies  of  settlers  at  Easthampton, 
reserving  the  right  to  live  on  them  or  parts  of  them.  They  are  now  nearly 
extinct  again. 

Montcalm,  Louis  Joseph,  Marquis  de  (1712-1759),  the  ablest  French 
general  in  America,  was  born  near  Nimes,  and  entered  the  army  at  the  age 
of  fifteen  years.  He  had  experience  in  the  War  of  the  Austrian  Succession, 
and  in  1756  was  sent  by  the  Government  to  take  command  in  the  New 
World.  The  jealousy  of  the  Canadian  Governor,  Vaudreuil,  hampered 
Montcalm,  but  the  first  years  of  his  command  mark  the  high-water  point 
of  French  success.  In  1756  he  took  Oswego,  and  the  next  year  besieged 
and  received  the  surrender  of  Fort  William  Henry  at  the  head  of  Lake 
George;  this  surrender  was  followed  by  a  massacre  of  the  captives  on  the 
part  of  Montcalm's  Indian  allies.  On  July  8,  1758,  he  repulsed  Aber- 
cromby's  overwhelming  force  at  Ticonderoga.  The  next  year  Wolfe  made 
his  formidable  attack  on  Quebec.  For  weeks  the  French  commander's  skill- 
ful precautions  foiled  the  British.  On  the  thirteenth  of  September  Wolfe's 
army  scaled  the  Heights  of  Abraham,  and  in  the  defeat  Montcalm  was  mor- 
tally wounded,  and  died  the  following  day.  The  great  account  of  the  period 
is  Parkman's  "Montcalm  and  Wolfe." 

Monterey,  Mexico,  scene  of  a  six  days'  battle  and  siege  during  the  Mexi- 
can War,  September  20—25, 1846.  General  Taylor  commanded  the  American 
army  and  General  Ampudia  held  the  town  with  10,000  Mexicans.  Taylor 
began  operations  by  cutting  off  communications  and  attempting  to  storm  the 
western  heights,  later  disposing  his  troops  so  as  to  attack  all  points  at  once. 
During  two  days  his  efforts  were  unsuccessful.  Finally  Captain  Backus,  of 
the  First  Infantry,  by  firing  into  Fort  Teneria  from  a  captured  tannery,  won 
that  stronghold.  La  Federacion  heights,  Forts  Obispado  and  Diablo  and  the 
Saltillo  road  were  captured  in  succession.  In  unsuccessful  attacks  on  Fort 
Diablo,  394  officers  and  men  were  lost.  By  September  23  Taylor  practically 
held  the  town.  On  September  25  Ampudia  was  allowed  to  evacuate,  carry- 
ing one  field  battery  and  his  small  arms.  This  ended  the  campaign  on  the 
Rio  Grande.  Number  engaged:  Americans,  6600;  Mexicans,  10,000. 

Monterey,  Pa.  Here,  July  5,  1863,  just  after  the  battle  of  Gettysburg, 
while  Lee  was  in  full  retreat  from  that  battlefield,  one  brigade  of  his  army 


426  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

was  overtaken  by  Kilpatrick,  commanding  two  National  brigades.  The 
Confederates  were  under  Jones,  and  were  on  board  a  railroad  train.  The 
fight  took  place  about  midday,  and  the  Confederates  were  defeated.  Kil- 
patrick burned  their  train,,  captured  their  guards  and  resumed  his  march. 

Montgomery,  Richard  (1736-1775),  came  to  America  as  a  British  soldier 
in  1757.  He  was  engaged  at  Louisbourg  in  1758  and  at  Montreal  in  1760. 
He  retired  from  the  British  army  in  1772.  He  was  a  delegate  to  the  Pro- 
vincial Congress  in  New  York  City  in  1775.  He  was  appointed  brigadier- 
general  in  the  Continental  army.  The  disability  of  General  Schuyler  placed 
him  in  command  of  the  expedition  to  Canada  in  1775,  and  he  captured  Fort 
Chambly,  St.  John's  and  Montreal.  He  led  the  assault  on  Quebec,  and  was 
killed  at  the  first  discharge  of  the  British  artillery. 

Montgomery,  Ala.,  founded  in  1817,  became  the  capital  of  the  State  in 
1847.  From  February,  1861,  to  May,  1862,  it  was  the  capital  of  the  Con- 
federate Government,  and  was  captured  by  the  Union  troops  in  1865. 

"  Monthly  Anthology,"  a  magazine  established  at  Boston  in  1803  by  an 
association  of  literary  men.  It  was  continued  until  1811.  It  contained 
articles  by  such  writers  as  Tudor,  Buckminster,  Thatcher,  Kirkland,  J.  S.  J. 
Gardiner,  J.  Q.  Adams  and  G.  Ticknor. 

Monticello,  the  birthplace  and  home  of  Thomas  Jefferson,  near  Charlottes- 
ville,  Va.  The  mansion  was  built  by  Jefferson's  father  in  1735,  but  was 
remodeled  and  enlarged  in  later  years.  It  is  now  owned  by  a  New  York 
merchant. 

Montmorenci  (July  31,  1759).  In  the  French  and  Indian  War  the  lead- 
ing final  act  was  Wolfe's  expedition.  After  waiting  a  month  before 
Quebec  Wolfe  determined  to  make  an  assault.  The  point  chosen  was  the 
Heights  of  Montmorenci.  He  landed  his  troops  on  the  muddy  shore  at  low 
tide.  They  carried  the  shore  battery,  but  were  overwhelmed  by  the  fire 
from  above.  Under  the  protection  of  a  shower  they  managed  to  retreat  with 
a  loss  of  500  men. 

Montpelier,  the  home  of  James  Madison,  in  Orange  County,  Va.  It  was 
here  that  Madison  died  in  1833.  The  Montpelier  mansion  was  erected  by 
him  shortly  after  his  return  from  Congress,  though  his  father  had  owned  the 
estate. 

Montpelier,  Vt.,  was  made  capital  of  the  State  in  1805. 

Montreal.  After  the  loss  of  Quebec  in  1759,  the  centre  of  the  French 
force  was  Montreal.  Upon  this  the  English  forces  advanced  from  Quebec 
under  Murray,  from  Lake  Champlain  under  Haviland  and  from  Lake  Ontario 
under  Amherst.  The  various  outposts  were  driven  in,  and  by  September  6 
the  English  with  17,000  invested  the  town.  The  French  were  reduced  to 
2200  by  desertion,  and  Vaudreuil,  feeling  resistance  to  be  useless,  surrendered, 
September  8,  1759.  The  whole  colony  passed  to  the  English,  and  the  French 
army  and  officers  were  sent  back  to  France.  On  the  twelfth  of  November, 
*775>  General  Montgomery  captured  the  city  of  Montreal.  It  was  a  part  of 
a  scheme  of  the  Revolutionary  Americans  to  conquer  Canada,  which  threat- 
ened their  strategic  centre,  New  York. 


DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATUS  HISTORY.  427 

Moore,  Alfred  (1755-1810),  fought  at  Charleston  and  Fort  Moultrie  during 
the  Revolution.  He  was  Attorney-General  of  North  Carolina  from  1792  to 
1798.  He  was  a  Justice  of  the  U.  S.  Supreme  Court  from  1799  to  1805. 

Moorefield,  Va.,  a  sharp  skirmish  August  7,  1864,  between  small  bodies 
of  Confederate  and  Union  troops  under  B.  Johnson  and  Averill  respect- 
ively. The  Confederates  were  defeated  and  Averill  captured  500  prisoners. 

Moore's  Creek,  Battle  of,  February  27,  1776.  At  Moore's  Creek,  N.  C., 
Colonel  Caswell,  with  1000  militia,  defeated  1600  loyalists,  took  900  pris- 
oners, 2000  stand  of  arms  and  ^15,000  in  gold.  This  victory  was  as  inspir- 
ing in  the  South  as  Lexington  had  been  in  New  England. 

Moquis,  an  Indian  tribe  in  Arizona  on  the  Little  Colorado  and  San  Juan 
Rivers.  They  killed  or  expelled  the  early  missionaries  who  visited  them, 
but  of  late  years  have  been  peaceable.  They  have  suffered  greatly  from  the 
attacks  of  Apaches  and  Navajos. 

Moravian  Brethren.  These  form  an  evangelical  church  which  flourished 
in  Bohemia  before  the  Reformation,  was  stamped  out  about  1627  an<^  revived 
during  the  first  half  of  the  eighteenth  century.  They  first  settled  in 
Georgia  in  1735,  but  soon  moved  to  Pennsylvania.  They  instituted  a  com- 
munism of  labor;  the  lands  were  owned  by  the  church,  and  its  members 
worked  them,  receiving  in  return  the  necessities  of  life.  This  plan  existed 
till  1762,  and  greatly  aided  the  church  in  sending  out  its  itinerant  ministers 
and  missionaries.  They  also  for  a  long  time  excluded  from  their  communi- 
ties all  outsiders,  but  this  system  gradually  died  out  and  has  now  altogether 
disappeared.  The  American  church  still  maintains  its  connection  with  the 
parent  churches  in  Europe  and  is  growing  rapidly,  owing  largely  to  its  active 
missionary  spirit.  Number  of  members  in  1890,  12,000. 

Morey  Letter,  a  letter  published  in  a  New  York  newspaper  in  1880, 
near  the  end  of  the  Garfield  campaign,  purporting  to  have  been  written  by 
Garfield  to  "  H.  L.  Morey,  Employers'  Union,  Lynn,  Mass."  It  expressed 
sympathy  with  capital  rather  than  labor.  It  was  proved  to  be  a  forgery. 

Morfontaine,  Treaty  of,  a  name  sometimes  given  to  the  convention 
negotiated  September  30,  1800,  between  the  United  States  and  the  French 
Republic,  which  had  then  recently  come  under  the  rule  of  the  first  consul, 
Bonaparte.  It  was  negotiated  by  Ellsworth,  Murray  and  Davie  for  the 
United  States,  and  Joseph  Bonaparte  for  France.  It  provided  for  restoration 
of  captured  ships  and  property,  and  more  liberal  rules  respecting  neutrals, 
but  postponed  the  French  spoliation  claims. 

Morgan,  Daniel  (born  about  1736,  died  1802),  was  born  of  Welsh  par- 
entage in  New  Jersey.  He  fought  from  the  battle  of  the  Monongahela 
through  the  French  and  Indian  War,  and  Pontiac's  War,  and  settled  as  a 
farmer  in  Virginia.  In  the  Revolution  he  led  a  company  of  Virginian  rifle- 
men to  Washington's  army  before  Boston.  Joining  Arnold's  romantic  expe- 
dition to  Canada,  he  showed  great  valor  in  the  assault  on  Quebec,  where  he 
was  captured.  Released,  he  won  distinction  under  Washington  in  1777,  and 


428  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

was  sent  with  his  rifle  corps  to  reinforce  Gates.  In  the  two  battles  of  Still- 
water  Morgan  played  a  leading  part.  He  resigned  in  1779,  but  rejoined  the 
army  in  1780  as  brigadier-general.  At  the  opening  of  1781  he  gained  at 
Cowpens  one  of  the  most  brilliant  victories  of  the  war.  Thereupon  he  con- 
ducted a  famous  retreat  over  the  Catawba,  and  effected  a  junction  with  Greene. 
General  Morgan  was  a  Congressman  from  Virginia  in  1797. 

Morgan,  Edwin  D.  (1811—1883),  was  a  member  of  the  New  York  Senate 
from  1850  to  1863.  He  was  chairman  of  the  Republican  National  Committee 
from  1856  to  1864.  He  was  Governor  of  New  York  from  1858  to  1862,  and 
commanded  the  Department  of  New  York  during  the  Civil  War.  He  was  a 
U.  S.  Senator  from  1863  to  1869. 

Morgan,  John  (1725-1789),  established  the  University  of  Pennsylvania 
Medical  School  in  1765,  and  was  physician-in-chief  of  the  American  army 
from  1775  to  1777. 

Morgan,  John  H.  (1826-1864),  commanded  a  Confederate  cavalry  force 
from  1862  to  1863.  He  annoyed  the  National  forces  by  successful  and 
destructive  raids  in  Ohio,  Indiana,  Kentucky  and  Tennessee,  during  one  of 
which  he  was  shot. 

Morgan,  John  T.,  born  in  1824,  was  promoted  brigadier-general  in  the 
Confederate  service.  He  has  represented  Alabama  in  the  U.  S.  Senate  as  a 
Democrat  since  1877.  His  term  expires  in  1901. 

Morgan,  Lewis  H.  (1818-1881),  the  "  Father  of  American  Anthropology," 
made  extensive  investigations  concerning  the  kinships  of  the  races.  He 
published  "  Systems  of  Consanguinity  and  Affinity  of  the  Human  Family  " 
and  "  Ancient  Society." 

Morgan,  William,  of  Batavia,  N.  Y.,  born  about  1775,  proposed  in  1826 
to  expose  the  secrets  of  the  Order  of  Freemasons,  of  which  he  had  been  a 
member.  His  sudden  disappearance  soon  afterward,  and  apparent  abduction 
by  the  Masons,  caused  great  excitement.  An  Anti-Masonic  party  was 
formed  in  most  free  States,  and  William  Wirt  was  nominated  for  president 
in  1831.  Morgan,  it  is  now  known,  was  taken  from  Batavia  to  Niagara  and 
killed,  his  body  being  sent  over  the  falls. 

Mormons,  a  sect  mainly  located  in  Utah  and  the  Territories  and  States 
in  its  neighborhood,  to  the  number  of  150,000,  but  having  also  about  60,000 
converts  in  other  parts  of  the  United  States  and  foreign  countries.  The  sect 
was  founded  by  Joseph  Smith,  of  Sharon,  Vt.,  and  Palmyra,  N.  Y.,  the  first 
organized  conference  being  held  June  i,  1830,  at  Fayette,  N.  Y.  The  dis- 
tinguishing features  of  their  belief  are  polygamy,  materialism  and  baptism 
for  the  remission  of  sins.  The  Mormons  first  settled  in  Missouri,  but  were 
expelled  thence,  probably  because  of  their  anti-slavery  sentiments.  In  1839 
they  settled  at  Nauvoo,  111.  In  1844  an  Illinois  mob  killed  the  leader  Smith. 
Emigrating  again,  by  1848  they  were  settled  at  Salt  Lake  City.  Brigham 
Young,  the  president,  was  appointed  Governor  of  Utah  Territory  in  1850  by 
President  Fillmore,  but  he  turned  out  to  be  wholly  in  sympathy  with  the 
Mormons,  and  resisted  the  Federal  troops  in  1857.  Since  that  time  the 
Government  has  experienced  many  difficulties  in  regulating  the  relations  of 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  429 

the  Mormons  and  Christians  in  Salt  Lake  City.     In  1882  the  Edmunds  Act 
disfranchised  polygamists. 

"  Morning  Post,"  first  penny  paper  established  in  this  country,  founded 
in  New  York  City  January  i,  1833,  by  Horatio  David  Shepard,  with  Horace 
Greeley  and  Francis  V.  Story  as  partners,  printers  and  publishers.  It  was 
suspended  after  one  month. 

Morocco.  A  treaty  of  peace  and  friendship  was  concluded  between  the 
United  States  and  Morocco  in  1787  for  fifty  years.  This  was  renewed  in 
1836.  In  1865  the  United  States  joined  with  the  European  powers  in  a 
convention  with  Morocco  concerning  the  administration  and  maintenance  of 
the  lighthouse  at  Cape  Spartel;  and  similarly  in  1880  in  a  convention  for  the 
establishment  of  the  right  of  protection  in  Morocco. 

Morrill,  Anson  P.  (1803-1887),  was  elected  Governor  of  Maine  by  the 
Legislature  in  1855.  He  represented  Maine  in  the  U.  S.  Congress  as  a 
Republican  from  1861  to  1863. 

Morrill,  Justin  S.,  born  in  1810,  represented  Vermont  in  the  U.  S.  Con- 
gress as  a  Republican  from  1855  to  1867.  He  was  many  times  Chairman  of 
the  Ways  and  Means  Committee.  He  is  author  of  the  famous  Morrill 
Tariff  of  1861  and  is  a  strong  advocate  of  protection.  He  has  been  a  mem- 
ber of  the  U.  S.  Senate  from  1867  to  the  present  time  (1897).  Died  1898. 

Morrill,  Lot  M.  (1813-1883),  was  president  of  the  Maine  Senate  in  1856. 
He  was  Governor  of  Maine  from  1858  to  1861.  He  represented  Maine  in 
the  U.  S.  Senate  as  a  Republican  from  1861  to  1876.  He  was  a  faithful 
worker  and  familiar  with  financial,  naval  and  Indian  affairs.  He  was  Secre- 
tary of  the  Treasury  in  Grant's  Cabinet  from  1876  to  1877. 

Morrill  Tariff,  so  called  after  its  framer,  Justin  S.  Morrill,  of  Vermont. 
This  tariff  became  law  just  before  the  war,  March  2,  1861.  It  restored  the 
protective  rates  of  1846  and  substituted  specific  for  ad-valorem  duties.  The 
Tariff  Act  of  1864,  also  under  the  management  of  Morrill,  was  distinctly  a 
war  tariff  used  to  advance  the  protectionist  notions  of  its  framers.  It  taxed 
every  possible  article  indiscriminately  and  at  the  highest  rates. 

Morris,  Charles  (1784-1856),  Commodore,  served  in  the  war  with  Tripoli 
from  1801  to  1805.  He  was  lieutenant  of  the  "  Constitution  "  in  the  engage- 
ment with  the  "  Guerriere."  He  was  Chief  of  the  Ordnance  Bureau  from 
1851  to  1856. 

Morris,  George  P.  (1802-1864),  journalist,  was  famous  as  a  song-writer, 
composing  "  Woodman,  Spare  That  Tree,"  "  My  Mother's  Bible  "  and  "  Long 
Time  Ago."  He  published  "  Prose  and  Poetry  of  Europe  and  America." 

Morris,  Gouverneur  (1752-1816),  an  American  Statesman,  was  half-brother 
of  Lewis  Morris,  a  signer  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence.  He  was 
graduated  at  King's  (Columbia)  College  in  1768,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar 
of  New  York.  He  was  a  delegate  to  the  New  York  Provincial  Congress  and 
to  the  Continental  Congress,  and  was  an  influential  adviser  in  financial  matters. 
He  was  assistant  to  Robert  Morris  when  the  latter  was  Superintendent  of 
Finance;  he  attended  the  Federal  Convention  of  1787  and  revised  the  final 


43o  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

draft  of  the  Constitution.  After  passing  some  time  in  France,  he  went  as  a 
diplomatic  agent  to  England  in  1791,  and  was  Minister  to  France  1791-1794. 
For  some  years  he  traveled  in  Europe.  Returning  he  was  U.  S.  Senator 
1800-1803.  He  was  a  champion  of  canals,  and  chairman  of  the  canal  com- 
missioners. Morris  was  a  noted  writer  of  satires  and  addresses  and  a  prom- 
inent Federalist.  Lives  by  Sparks  and  by  Roosevelt. 

Morris,  Lewis  (1726-1798),  was  a  delegate  from  New  York  to  the  Contin- 
ental Congress  from  1775  to  1777.  He  was  a  commissioner  to  the  Western 
Indians  in  1775  to  induce  them  to  join  the  colonists  against  the  British.  He 
signed  the  Declaration  of  Independence.  He  was  major-general  of  the  New 
York  State  Militia. 

Morris,  Robert  (1734-1806),  the  financier  of  the  Revolution,  was  born  in 
Liverpool.  Having  settled  in  Philadelphia  he  built  up  a  flourishing  busi- 
ness there.  He  opposed  the  Stamp  Act,  and  signed  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence. In  Congress  he  gave  valuable  services  to  the  Committee  of 
Ways  and  Means,  and  in  February,  1781,  he  was  elected  Superintendent  of 
Finance.  Among  his  acts  was  the  organization  of  the  Bank  of  North 
America  at  the  end  of  1781.  In  1784  he  retired,  but  served  in  the  Pennsyl- 
vania Legislature,  as  delegate  to  the  Constitutional  Convention  of  1787,  and 
U.  S.  Senator  1789-1795.  He  had  previously  declined  the  office  of  Secre- 
tary of  the  Treasury.  In  his  later  years  he  was  unsuccessful  in  business, 
and  was  at  one  time  imprisoned  for  debt.  There  is  a  biography  by  Gould 
and  one  by  W.  G.  Sumne'r. 

Morrison,  William  R.,  born  in  1825,  served  during  the  Mexican  War. 
He  commanded  a  regiment  in  the  Civil  War.  He  represented  Illinois  in  the 
U.  S.  Congress  as  a  Democrat  from  1863  to  1865  and  from  1873  to  1887,  and 
was  chairman  of  the  Ways  and  Means  Committee  from  1873  to  1875.  He 
has  been  a  member  of  the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission  from  its  origin 
in  1887  to  the  present  time  (1897). 

Morse,  Jedediah  (1761-1826),  minister  at  Charlestown,  Mass.,  from  1789 
to  1820,  was  noted  as  a  compiler  of  early  American  geographical  works. 

Morse,  John  T.,  born  in  1840,  has  published  "  Law  of  Arbitration  and 
Award,"  "Famous  Trials  "and  "Life  of  Alexander  Hamilton."  He  has 
edited  the  "American  Statesmen  "  series,  contributing  the  volumes  on  "John 
Quincy  Adams,"  "Thomas  Jefferson,"  "John  Adams"  and  "Abraham 
Lincoln." 

Morse,  Samuel  F.  B.  (1791-1872),  was  engaged  in  painting  in  his  early 
life  and  gained  considerable  prominence  as  an  artist.  He  conceived  the  idea 
of  an  electro-magnetic  telegraph  in  a  conversation  with  Charles  T.  Jackson 
in  1832.  He  immediately  applied  himself  to  the  task,  and  in  1837  exhib- 
ited his  invention.  After  repeated  appeals  Congress  appropriated  $30,000  in 
1843  f°r  a  telegraph  line  between  Washington  and  Baltimore,  which  was 
successfully  tested  in  1844.  The  number  and  character  of  the  honors  he 
received  was  seldom  equalled.  His  system  is  almost  universally  employed. 

Morton  or  Mourt,  George  (1585-1628?),  brought  emigrants  and  supplies 
from  England  to  the  Pilgrims  in  1623.  He  edited  in  England  in  1632 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  431 

"  Mourt's  Relation  of  the  Beginning  and  Proceeding  of  the  English  Planta- 
tion at  Plymouth,"  an  important  original  source. 

Morton,  John  (1724-1777),  signer  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence, 
had  previously  been  a  delegate  to  the  Stamp  Act  Congress  of  1765,  and 
speaker  of  the  Pennsylvania  Assembly  from  1772  to  1775. 

Morton,  J.  Sterling,  of  Nebraska,  was  born  in  1832.  He  conceived  the 
idea  of  Arbor  Day  for  tree  planting.  He  became  Secretary  of  Agriculture  in 
Cleveland's  Cabinet  in  1893. 

Morton,  Levi  P.,  born  in  1824,  founded  the  banking  house  of  Morton, 
Rose  &  Co.  in  1869,  which  was  the  fiscal  agent  of  the  U.  S.  Government 
from  1873  to  1884.  He  represented  New  York  in  the  U.  S.  Congress  as  a 
Republican  from  1878  to  1881.  He  was  Minister  to  France  from  1881  to 
1885  and  was  Vice-President  of  the  United  States  from  1889  to  1893. 

Morton,  Marcus  (1784-1864),  represented  Massachusetts  in  the  U.  S. 
Congress  as  a  Democrat  from  1817  to  1821.  He  was  Governor  of  Massachu- 
setts from  1840  to  1841  and  from  1843  t°  J844. 

Morton,  Nathaniel  (1613-1685),  came  to  America  from  England  in  1623. 
He  was  secretary  of  the  Massachusetts  colony  from  1647  to  1685.  He  wrote 
"  New  England's  Memorial,"  a  carefully  prepared  history  of  early  colonial 
days. 

Morton,  Oliver  Perry  (1823-1877),  was  a  leading  lawyer  in  Indiana,  a 
judge,  and  a  founder  of  the  Republican  party.  As  the  party  candidate  for 
Governor  he  was  defeated,  but  in  1860  was  elected  Lieutenant-Governor. 
As  Lane,  the  Governor,  was  chosen  to  the  U.  S.  Senate,  Morton  became 
Governor.  His  term  included  the  Civil  War  period,  and  his  vigor  in 
equipping  and  forwarding  troops  and  suppressing  disaffection  made  him  fore- 
most among  the  "  War  Governors."  Since  the  Indiana  Legislature  in  1863- 
1865  refused  its  co-operation,  he  declined  to  summon  it  during  those  years. 
He  was  re-elected  Governor  in  1864.  From  1867  to  1877  he  was  U.  S. 
Senator,  and  one  of  the  most  energetic  and  extreme  of  the  Republican  lead- 
ers. He  was  chairman  of  the  Committee  on  Privileges  and  Elections,  and  a 
member  of  the  Electoral  Commission.  He  was  a  prominent  candidate  before 
the  National  Convention  in  1876. 

Morton,  Thomas  (15757-1646),  emigrated  to  Plymouth  from  England  in 
1622.  He  made  a  settlement  at  Mount  Wollaston  or  "  Merry  Mount,"  (now 
Braintree)  where  he  made  himself  obnoxious  to  the  Puritans  by  his  revels. 
He  was  twice  seized  and  transported  to  England,  where  he  published  "  The 
New  England  Canaan"  in  1632.  For  this  satire  he  was  imprisoned  on  his 
return  in  1643. 

Mosby,  John  S.,  born  in  1833,  enlisted  in  the  Confederate  cavalry  in 
1861,  and  served  under  General  Johnston  in  the  Shenandoah  campaign.  In 
1862  he  became  a  scout  and  made  raids  upon  McClellan's  army.  In  1863 
he  led  a  band  of  guerillas  in  Northern  Virginia,  being  successful  at  Chantilly, 
Dranesville  and  Warrenton  Junction,  He  was  consul  at  Hong  Kong  from 
1876  to  1882. 


432  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

"  Mother  Ann."     (See  Lee,  Ann.) 

Motley,  John  Lothrop  (1814-1877),  historian,  studied  at  Harvard  and 
Gb'ttingen,  and  was  secretary  of  the  U.  S.  legation  at  St.  Petersburg  in  1841. 
In  1856,  he  published  "  The  Rise  of  the  Dutch  Republic,"  which  was  imme- 
diately recognized  as  a  brilliant  and  scholarly  production.  During  the  Civil 
War  he  zealously  upheld  the  national  cause  in  Europe.  From  1861  to  1868, 
he  produced  "The  History  of  the  United  Netherlands."  He  was  Minister 
to  Austria  from  1861  to  1867,  and  to  England  from  1869  to  1870.  In  1874 
he  published  the  "  Life  of  John  of  Barneveld."  He  wrote  an  address  entitled 
"  Historic  Progress  and  American  Democracy."  Life  by  Dr.  O.  W.  Holmes. 

Mott,  Lucretia  (1793-1880),  entered  the  ministry  of  the  Friends  in  Phila- 
delphia in  1818.  She  adhered  to  the  Hicksite  branch.  She  was  one  of  the 
original  founders  of  the  American  Anti-Slavery  Society.  In  1840  she  was 
sent  as  a  delegate  to  the  World's  Anti-Slavery  Convention  at  London.  Her 
exclusion  from  it  increased  the  woman-suffrage  agitation,  in  which  she 
became  a  leader. 

Mott,  Valentine  (1785-1865),  of  New  York,  was  one  of  the  most  success- 
ful surgical  operators  of  his  time.  He  held  professorships  in  medical  colleges 
almost  continuously  from  1809  to  1860. 

Moultrie,  Fort,  Battle  of,  June  28,  1776.  When  the  British  attempted  to 
capture  Charleston,  S.  C.,  they  found  the  city  defended  by  a  palmetto  fort  on 
Sullivan's  Island,  under  command  of  Colonel  Moultrie.  After  a  ten  hours' 
engagement  the  fleet  withdrew.  The  American  loss  had  been  only  thirty- 
seven,  that  of  the  British,  205,  and  only  one  of  their  ten  sail  remained 
seaworthy.  After  refitting,  Clinton  and  Parker  sailed  to  New  York.  For 
more  than  two  years  there  was  no  further  invasion  of  the  South. 

Moultrie,  William  (1731-1805),  represented  South  Carolina  in  the  Con- 
tinental Congress  in  1775.  He  successfully  defended  Sullivan's  Island  in 
Charleston  Harbor  against  a  British  fleet  in  1776.  The  fort  there  was  named 
in  his  honor.  He  defeated  the  British  at  Beaufort  and  successfully  defended 
Charleston  in  1779.  He  was  Governor  of  South  Carolina  in  1785  and  1794. 
He  wrote  "  Memoirs  of  the  Revolution." 

Moundbuilders,  a  name  given  to  a  prehistoric  race  the  principal  remains 
of  which  are  extensive  earthworks  found  in  the  Mississippi  Valley  extend- 
ing from  the  lakes  southward  to  the  gulf.  Many  of  these  are  clearly 
defensive  works  or  places  of  sepulture.  Fort  Hill,  Ohio,  has  a  line  of  cir- 
cumvallation  about  four  miles  in  extent.  These  defensive  works  also  include 
structures  used  for  religious  purposes.  Many  mounds  are  of  regular  outline 
assuming  the  form  of  various  geometrical  figures.  In  Newark,  Ohio,  works 
of  this  character  cover  an  area  of  more  than  two  square  miles.  A  mound 
near  St.  Louis  is  700  feet  long  by  500  broad  at  the  base  and  ninety  feet  high. 
Some  mounds  of  this  character  contain  skeletons.  Mounds,  such  as  those 
near  Wheeling,  W.  Va,,  and  Miamisburg,  Ohio,  are  evidently  the  graves  of 
distinguished  personages.  In  Wisconsin  and  Iowa  are  earthworks  which 
assume  the  outline  of  men  and  animals.  One  in  Adams  County,  Ohio,  has 
the  form  of  a  serpent  It  is  over  1000  feet  in  length  and  its  mouth  is 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  433 

partially  closed  around  an  egg  of  perfectly  regular  dimensions.  The  figure 
reaches  a  height  of  about  five  feet.  Various  theories  prevail  as  to  the  ques- 
tion what  race  built  the  mounds.  It  is  now  frequently  thought  to  have  been 
a  race  related  to  the  Indians. 

Mount  Crawford,  Va.  At  this  place  4500  Confederates  under  Jones  were 
defeated  disastrously  by  a  somewhat  stronger  force  of  Federals  commanded 
by  Hunter.  The  fight  took  place  June  5,  1864.  Jones  was  killed. 

Mount  Holyoke  Seminary  and  College,  South  Hadley,  Mass.,  was  first 
chartered  (1836)  as  a  seminary,  but  rechartered  (1888)  as  a  college  for  the 
higher  education  of  women.  The  founder  was  Miss  Mary  Lyon. 

Mount  Vernon,  the  home  and  burial-place  of  George  Washington,  on  the 
western  bank  of  the  Potomac  in  Fairfax  County,  Va.  Mount  Vernon  man- 
sion was  built  by  Lawrence  Washington  in  1743,  and  was  named  in  honor  of 
Admiral  Vernon.  In  1858  it  was  purchased  from  John  A.  Washington  by 
the  Ladies'  Mount  Vernon  Association  for  $200,000,  and  is  now  a  place  of 
public  resort. 

Mountain  Meadow  Massacre.  In  the  autumn  of  1857,  a  body  of  thirty- 
six  Arkansas  and  Missouri  emigrants  en  route  to  California,  were  brutally 
murdered  at  Mountain  Meadow,  Utah,  by  a  band  of  Indians,  who  were 
incited  thereto  by  Lee,  a  Mormon  fanatic.  It  was  the  period  of  the  first 
troubles  between  the  United  States  Government  and  the  Mormons.  Brigham 
Young  had  made  threats  of  turning  the  Indians  loose  upon  west-bound  emi- 
grants, but  the  Mormons,  as  a  body,  were  innocent  of  the  massacre.  The 
emigrant  party  was  encamped  at  Mountain  Meadow  when  the  attack  began, 
September  7.  They  threw  up  earthworks  and  defended  themselves  for  four 
days.  Lee,  under  pretence  of  friendship,  succeeded  in  drawing  them  out  and 
murdering  the  whole  party. 

Mugwump,  a  word  of  the  Massachusetts  Indians,  meaning  a  great  person- 
age (mugquomp).  After  long  use  in  localities,  and  occasional  use  in  politics, 
it  came  into  prominence  in  1884,  being  then  applied  to  those  independent 
members  of  the  Republican  party,  who  openly  refused  to  vote  for  the  party's 
candidate,  Elaine.  Thus  the  name  came  to  be  applied  to  all  Independent 
Republicans. 

Muhlenberg,  Frederick  A.  C.  (1750-1801),  represented  Pennsylvania  in 
the  Continental  Congress  in  1779  and  1780.  He  was  president  of  the  State 
convention  that  ratified  the  Constitution.  He  was  a  U.  S.  Congressman 
from  1789  to  1795  and  was  twice  Speaker,  1789-1791,  1793-1795. 

Muhlenberg,  John  P.  G.  (1746-1807),  was  a  pastor  at  Woodstock,  Va., 
from  1772  to  1775.  He  enlisted  in  the  National  army  as  a  colonel  in  1775. 
He  won  distinction  at  Charleston,  Brandywine,  Germantown,  Monmouth, 
Stony  Point  and  Yorktown.  He  represented  Pennsylvania  in  the  U.  S.  Con- 
gress from  1789  to  1791,  1793  to  1795  and  from  1799  to  1801. 

Mulligan  Letters,  letters  which  James  Mulligan,  bookkeeper  for  War- 
ren Fisher,  of  Boston,  testified  before  a  Congressional  committee  in  1876, 
had  been  written  by  James  G.  Blaine  to  Mr.  Fisher.  The  importance  of 


434  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

these  letters  during  the  campaign  of  1884  was  due  to  the  discussion  as  to 
whether  they  were  or  were  not  discreditable  to  Blaine.    Mulligan  died  1894. 

Mumfordsville,  Ky.,  scene  of  an  encounter  between  Chalmers,  leading 
the  advance  guard  of  Bragg's  army  of  25,000  Confederates,  and  21,000  Fed- 
erals under  Wilder  and  Dunham.  The  Confederates  began  the  fight  and 
were  repulsed  in  their  first  attack.  But  Bragg  gradually  drew  his  forces 
about  Wilder  until  there  was  no  chance  of  escape  for  that  leader,  who  accord- 
ingly surrendered,  September  17,  1862. 

Munn  vs.  Illinois,  one  of  the  "  elevator  cases  "  decided  by  the  Supreme 
Court  of  the  U.  S.  In  1872,  Munn  and  Scott,  lessees  of  a  grain  elevator 
and  warehouse  in  Chicago,  were  found  guilty  in  the  Criminal  Court  of  Cook 
County,  111.,  of  violating  Article  thirteen  of  the  State  Constitution  relat- 
ing to  the  storage  of  grain.  They  had  neglected  to  take  out  a  license  and 
give  bond,  and  were  charging  rates  higher  than  prescribed  in  the  above- 
mentioned  act.  They  were  fined,  and  the  decision  was  confirmed  by  the 
Supreme  Court  of  Illinois,  whence  the  case  was  transferred  to  the  Supreme 
Court  of  the  United  States.  That  body  confirmed  the  judgment  on  the 
ground  that  the  Act  of  the  Illinois  Legislature  was  not  repugnant  to  the 
national  Constitution,  and  that  a  State  could  lawfully  determine  how  a  man 
might  use  his  own  property,  when  the  good  of  other  citizens  was  involved. 

Murcheson  Letter,  a  letter  received  in  October,  1888,  by  Lord  Sack- 
ville-West,  British  Minister  at  Washington,  from  one  Charles  Murcheson, 
representing  himself  to  be  a  naturalized  citizen  of  English  birth,  and  asking 
the  Minister  how  he  should  vote  in  the  impending  Presidential  election. 
Lord  Sackville  openly  advised,  as  favorable  to  British  interests,  Cleveland. 
This  caused  great  indignation.  Sackville's  recall  was  requested  and  his 
passports  sent  him. 

Murfree,  Mary  N.,  born  in  Tennessee  about  1850,  has  published  articles 
on  Tennessee  life  under  the  pen-name  of  Charles  Egbert  Craddock.  She  is 
author  of  "In  the  Tennessee  Mountains,"  "Where  the  Battle  Was  Fought," 
and  "  The  Despot  of  Broomsedge  Cove." 

Murfreesboro,  Tenn.,  was  occupied  by  an  encampment  of  1400  national 
troops  under  Crittenden  and  Duffield  in  1862.  These  troops  were  defeated 
and  expelled  July  13  by  the  Confederate  cavalryman  Forrest,  who  came 
upon  them  unexpectedly  and  routed  them  after  a  sharp  fight.  Forrest  cap- 
tured a  quantity  of  valuable  stores.  The  second  and  great  battle  of  Mur- 
freesboro took  place  December  31,  1862,  and  January  i,  1863,  Bragg,  with 
38,000  Confederates  engaged,  being  opposed  to  43,000  Federals  led  by 
Rosecrans.  Bragg  was  about  to  go  into  winter  quarters  and  was  not  expect- 
ing an  engagement,  when  suddenly  Rosecrans  moved  against  him,  forcing 
him  to  concentrate  his  troops.  This  he  did,  marching  his  army  between 
Rosecrans  and  the  town  and  drawing  it  up  with  Breckenridge  on  the  right, 
Polk  in  the  centre  and  Hardee  on  the  left.  Opposing  these  were  the  Federal 
leaders,  Crittenden,  Thomas  and  McCook.  The  Confederates  were  on  the 
west  side  of  Stone  River.  Rosecrans  had  planned  to  strike  first,  but  Bragg 
anticipated  him,  Both  had  massed  their  forces  on  the  left,  and  on  December 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  435 

31,  as  Rosecrans'  left  was  hurriedly  crossing  Stone  River,  Bragg's  left  fell 
upon  it  so  furiously  as  completely  to  sweep  away  Johnson's  division  and 
rushed  forward  upon  Sheridan,  having  demolished  Davis  in  the  charge. 
Sheridan  held  out  firmly,  raking  the  Confederates  with  his  batteries  and 
forcing  them  back.  He  was  finally  driven  from  his  position,  but  he  saved 
the  day.  Rosecrans  now  massed  his  batteries  on  a  knoll  and  withstood  the 
Confederate  charges  until  night.  Storms  on  January  2  and  3  prevented 
battle,  and  on  the  fourth  Bragg  had  retired  after  slight  skirmishing.  Again 
in  1863,  in  a  seven  days'  irregular  skirmish  and  battle,  June  23-30,  during 
Rosecrans'  campaign  in  Tennessee,  that  general  defeated  and  drove  the  Con- 
federate, Bragg,  from  the  intrenchments  he  had  thrown  up  during  several 
months  at  Tullahoma,  near  Murfreesboro,  after  which  place  the  battle  is 
sometimes  called.  Rosecrans  had  60,000  men,  Bragg  40,000.  Bragg's 
army  was  posted  in  a  long  line  from  Murfreesboro,  past  Tullahoma  and 
along  the  Duck  River.  June  24  Rosecrans  sent  McCook  and  Wilder  to  cap- 
ture Booker's  Gap  and  Liberty  Gap,  two  important  mountain  passes.  This 
move  was  successful.  Granger  had  in  the  meantime  dislodged  the  Confed- 
erates from  Guy's  Gap,  capturing  three  guns  and  a  large  body  of  prisoners. 
By  the  twenty-seventh  Rosecrans  was  prepared  for  a  flank  movement  against 
the  Confederates.  This  was  so  well  planned  and  executed  that  Bragg 
vacated  his  intrenchments  and  fled  across  Elk  River  on  the  night  of  the 
twenty-ninth. 

Murphy,  Henry  C.  (1810-1882),  represented  New  York  in  the  U.  S.  Con- 
gress as  a  Democrat  from  1843  to  T^45  and  from  1847  to  1849.  He  was 
Minister  to  the  Netherlands  from  1857  to  1 86 1.  He  was  a  student  and  writer 
on  the  Dutch  history  of  New  York. 

Muscat.  The  United  States  concluded  a  treaty  of  amity  and  commerce 
with  Muscat  in  1833. 

Museum,  National.     (See  National  Museum.) 

Museum,  Philadelphia,  the  earliest  public  establishment  of  this  sort  in 
the  United  States.  It  was  founded  by  Charles  Wilson  Peale  in  1785,  and  had 
as  a  nucleus  a  stuffed  paddle-fish  and  the  bones  of  a  mammoth. 

Myer,  Albert  J.  (1827-1880),  author  of  a  "  Manual  of  Signals  for  the  U.  S. 
Army  and  Navy,"  was  chief  of  the  signal  service  from  1863  to  1864  and  from 
1866  to  1870.  He  inaugurated  the  present  system  of  meteorological  obser- 
vations. 

N. 

Nantucket,  Mass.,  was  settled  in  1659.  It  was  annexed  to  New  York  in 
1664  and  in  1693  ceded  to  Massachusetts.  The  town  was  incorporated  as 
Sherburne  in  1673,  but  in  1795  was  given  its  present  name.  The  year  1712 
marked  the  beginning  of  Nantucket's  history  as  a  whaling  port. 

Napoleon  (I.)  Bonaparte  (August  15,  I76g-May  5,  1821),  general  of  the 
French  Army  of  Italy  1796-1798,  commander  in  Egypt  1798-1799,  First 


^36  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Consul  1799-1804,  Emperor  of  the  French  1804-1814,  and  (after  the  car> 
tivity  in  Elba)  again  during  the  "  Hundred  Days  "  in  1815,  and  an  exile  in 
the  island  of  St.  Helena  1815-1821.  He  enters  into  American  history 
through  the  fact  that  he  was  head  of  the  government  at  the  time  of  the 
Louisiana  Purchase  of  1803,  and  that  his  "  Continental  "  commercial  policy 
and  attempts  to  cripple  Great  Britain  are  largely  bound  up  with  the  American 
commercial  and  naval  troubles  of  Jefferson's  and  Madison's  administrations, 
which  ended  in  the  War  of  1812. 

Napoleon  III.  (1808—1873),  of  France,  was  the  son  of  Louis  Bonaparte, 
King  of  Holland.  He  was  elected  President  of  the  French  Republic  in 
1848,  and  in  1852  established  an  imperial  government.  From  1862  to  1867  he 
attempted  to  establish  Archduke  Maximilian  on  the  Mexican  throne.  The 
demand  of  U.  S.  Secretary  of  State  Seward  for  the  withdrawal  of  French 
troops  from  Mexico  in  1866  was  conceded  by  Napoleon.  During  the  Civil 
War  he  inclined  toward  recognition  of  the  independence  of  the  Confederate 
States,  but  did  not  take  that  step. 

Nares,  Sir  George  S.,  born  in  England  in  1831,  commanded  an  Arctic 
expedition  in  the  "  Alert "  and  "  Discovery  "  from  1875  to  1876.  He  attained 
latitude  83°  10'  26"  N.,  and  made  valuable  scientific  observations. 

Narragansett  Country,  the  lands  occupied  by  the  Narragansett  Indians 
at  the  coming  of  the  English,  but  especially  applied  to  that  territory  along 
the  west  shore  of  Narragansett  Bay  from  Wickford  to  Point  Judith.  It  was 
long  a  scene  of  rivalry  between  two  land  companies,  John  Hull,  of  Pine 
Tree  Shilling  fame,  purchasing  lands  about  Pettaquamscut  Rock  in  1660, 
and  Atherton's  company  making  similar  purchases  the  same  year  near  Wick- 
ford.  This  territory  was  also  a  bone  of  contention  between  Rhode  Island 
and  Connecticut  during  fifty  years.  It  was  detached  from  Rhode  Island  and 
became  the  King's  Province  in  1665,  but  was  afterward  restored  and  was 
called  King's  County  till  the  Revolution,  when  its  name  became  Washing- 
ton County. 

Narragansetts,  a  tribe  of  Rhode  Island  Indians,  formerly  inhabiting  the 
western  shores  of  the  bay  bearing  their  name.  Though  they  at  first  engaged 
in  no  open  war  against  the  settlers,  yet  they  were  held  in  distrust.  In  1636 
Roger  Williams  gained  their  friendship,  and  in  1644  they  ceded  their  lands 
to  the  king.  Troubles  arose  in  1645,  and  an  expedition  was  sent  against 
them.  The  Indians,  however,  hastened  to  make  a  treaty.  At  the  outbreak 
of  Philip's  War  they  were  suspected  and  were  attacked  by  the  whites. 
Hostilities  followed  which  was  terminated  by  a  bloody  encounter  in  a 
swamp  at  South  Kingstown.  The  Indians  were  almost  annihilated;  the 
remnant,  however,  settled  at  Charlestown,  R.  I. 

Narvaez,  Panfilo  de  (1470-1528),  was  active  in  conquering  the  West 
Indies  for  Spain.  In  1520  he  was  sent  by  Velasquez,  Governor-General  of 
Cuba,  to  conquer  Mexico,  but  was  defeated  by  Cortes  at  Cempoala.  He  was 
made  Governor  of  Florida  by  Spain  in  1528,  and  led  an  expedition  of  400 
men  into  the.  interior  of  Florida.  They  suffered  severe  hardships  and  were 
shipwrecked  at  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  437 

Nashville,  Tenn.,  was  settled  in  1780  and  became  the  capital  of  the  State 
in  1843.  In  December,  1864,  it  was  the  scene  of  the  "  Battle  of  Nashville," 
which  practically  ended  Hood's  campaign  in  Tennessee.  His  army  numbered 
about  40,000  men,  while  Thomas  opposed  him  with  56,000  Federals.  After 
the  battle  of  Franklin,  Thomas,  though  victorious,  fell  back  December  I, 
1864,  to  Nashville  and  occupied  a  strong  position  protected  by  Forts  Negley, 
Morton,  Confiscation,  Houston  and  Gillem.  Hood  arrived  December  2,  and 
formed  his  line  with  his  salient  resting  on  Montgomery  Hill,  600  yards  from 
Thomas'  centre.  Storms  prevented  fighting  until  the  fifteenth.  Then  Steed- 
man  attacked  the  Confederates  on  the  right,  and  Smith  and  Wilson  advanced 
against  their  left.  Two  redoubts  were  carried  and  many  prisoners  captured, 
after  which  an  attack  was  made  on  Montgomery  Hill  with  considerable 
success.  On  the  sixteenth  a  combined  attack  was  inaugurated  against  the 
Confederate  line,  its  chief  force  being  concentrated  upon  the  centre.  Both 
sides  lost  heavily.  Another  assault  by  Smith  and  Schofield  won  the  day. 
The  Confederates  broke  and  fled  in  all  directions. 

Nashville  Convention,  a  convention  of  delegates  from  the  Southern  States 
at  Nashville,  Tenn.,  June,  1850,  suggested  by  the  Mississippi  State  Conven- 
tion of  the  previous  year.  The  convention  was  called  to  consider  the  slavery 
question  and  the  encroachments  of  Northern  abolitionists.  It  did  not  meet 
with  universal  approval.  The  Wilmot  proviso  and  the  Missouri  Compromise 
were  disapproved  of,  but  resolutions  of  open  resistance  advanced  by  Texas, 
South  Carolina  and  Mississippi  were  voted  down.  The  convention  met 
again  in  November,  and  again  moderate  resolutions  were  adopted. 

Nassau.  The  United  States  concluded  a  convention  for  the  abolition  of 
the  droit  d'aubaine  and  taxes  on  emigration  with  Nassau  in  1846. 

Nassau,  Fort,  erected  on  the  site  of  the  present  town  of  Gloucester,  N.  J., 
by  Captain  Cornelius  Jacobsen  Mey,  representing  the  Dutch  West  India 
Company  in  1623.  ^  was  abandoned  and  rebuilt  a  number  of  times,  and 
finally  abandoned  in  1651. 

Nast,  Thomas,  born  in  1840,  came  to  America  from  England  in  1846. 
He  is  one  of  the  foremost  pictorial  satirists  of  the  day.  He  is  a  Repub- 
lican and  has  been  prominent  in  political  movements,  such  as  the  overthrow 
of  the  Tweed  ring. 

Natchez,  Miss.,  was  settled  by  the  French  in  1716.  In  1729  the  Natchez 
Indians  burnt  the  settlement  and  massacred  the  inhabitants.  The  French 
soon  recaptured  the  town  and  held  it  until  1763,  when  it  passed  to  Great 
Britain.  From  1779  to  1798  it  was  occupied  by  the  Spaniards.  In  1798  it 
was  occupied  by  the  United  States  and  became  the  capital  of  the  Territory 
of  Mississippi  and  so  remained  until  1820.  In  1862  Natchez  was  captured 
by  a  portion  of  Farragut's  fleet. 

Natchitoches,  La.,  a  brief  engagement,  followed  by  desultory  skirmishing, 
March  31, 1864,  between  detachments  of  Franklin's  division  of  Banks'  Army 
under  Mower,  and  several  regiments  of  Confederates  led  by  Dick  Taylor. 
This  was  during  Banks'  campaign  in  the  Southwest.  The  Confederates  were 


433  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

defeated,  but  there  was  no  great  loss  on  either  side.  The  Confederates 
retreated,  Franklin  pursuing  them. 

Natick,  Mass.,  was  incorporated  in  1781.  In  1651  a  band  of  John  Eliot's 
Indian  converts  came  here  from  Newton,  and  in  1660  the  first  Indian  church 
in  New  England  was  erected.  The  settlement  numbered  several  hundred 
Indians,  and  had  a  simple  government  of  its  own. 

National  Banks.  The  free  banking  system  of  the  State  of  New  York 
(1838)  gave  all  parties  freedom  to  establish  banks,  and  required  securities  to 
be  deposited  with  the  State  for  bank  issues.  In  December,  1861,  Secretary 
Chase  recommended  to  Congress  a  similar  system  of  national  banks.  He 
repeated  this  recommendation  in  1862.  The  Act  of  February  25,  1863, 
authorized  the  free  formation  of  banks,  entitled  to  issue  notes  to  the  amount 
of  ninety  per  cent  of  the  par  value  of  the  United  States  bonds  which  each 
bank  deposited  with  the  Treasury  Department.  The  system  was  to  be  super- 
vised by  an  official  called  the  comptroller  of  the  currency.  $300,000,000 
of  bank  notes  in  all  might  be  issued.  A  revised  act  was  passed  June  3, 
1864.  The  Act  of  1865  taxing  State  bank  notes  forced  most  of  these  to 
become  national  banks.  The  Act  of  1870  increased  the  total  amount  of  issue 
to  $354,000,000.  The  system  greatly  benefited  the  Government  in  the 
placing  of  its  bonds,  and  gave  the  country  a  superior  system  of  banking,  the 
Government  guaranteeing  the  notes.  There  are  now  nearly  4000  national 
banks,  with  capital  amounting  to  nearly  $700,000,000,  and  deposits  aggregat- 
ing nearly  $1,800,000,000. 

National  Board  of  Health,  instituted  by  Act  of  Congress,  March  3,  1879, 
to  consist  of  eleven  members,  seven  civilian  physicians,  one  army  surgeon, 
one  navy  surgeon,  one  medical  officer  of  the  marine  hospital  service  and  one 
officer  of  the  Department  of  Justice. 

National  Cemeteries,  for  soldiers  and  sailors,  originated  in  1850.  The 
army  appropriation  bill  for  that  year  appropriated  $10,000  for  purchasing  a 
lot  near  the  city  of  Mexico  for  the  interment  of  United  States  soldiers  who 
fell  near  that  place  during  the  Mexican  War.  The  remains  of  Federal  sol- 
diers who  fell  in  the  Civil  War  have  been  interred  in  seventy-eight  national 
cemeteries. 

'*  National  Intelligencer,"  a  tri-weekly  newspaper  established  in  Washing- 
ton by  Samuel  H.  Smith,  in  1800,  as  the  organ  of  Jefferson's  administration. 
This  journal  was  in  reality  an  offshoot  of  a  publication  begun  at  Philadel- 
phia in  1793  by  Joseph  Gales,  the  elder.  Gales  was  an  English  immigrant, 
whose  republican  principles  had  forced  him  to  leave  England.  In  1810 
Joseph  Gales,  Jr.,  became  one  of  the  editors  of  the  National  Intelligencer 
and  was  joined  in  1812  by  William  Seaton,  also  an  English  immigrant. 
This  paper  wielded  considerable  influence  in  political  circles.  Its  publica- 
tion was  suspended  in  1866. 

National  Republican  Party,  the  name  assumed  by  those  who  broke  away 
from  the  old  Democratic-Republican  party  after  the  defeat  of  Adams  by 
Jackson  in  1828.  Jackson's  drift  against  the  bank,  protective  tariff  and 
other  features  of  Adams'  policy  brought  about  their  open  organization.  In 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  439 

1831  they  nominated  Clay  and  indorsed  a  protective  tariff,  a  system  of  inter- 
nal improvements,  and  a  cessation  of  removals  from  office  for  political  reasons. 
Clay  was  defeated.  In  1835  the  party,  reinforced  by  other  elements,  took 
the  name  of  Whig. 

National  Road.  March  29,  1806,  Congress  authorized  the  President  to 
appoint  three  commissioners  to  lay  out  a  road  from  Cumberland  on  the 
Potomac,  to  the  Ohio  River,  and  $30,000  were  appropriated  for  the  expenses. 
The  road  was  built  as  far  as  Illinois  in  1838,  the  last  act  in  its  favor  being 
of  May  25  of  that  year.  The  total  amount  appropriated  was  $6,821,246. 
Bills  appropriating  money  for  this  were  often  opposed  in  Congress  on  grounds 
of  the  unconstitutionality  of  appropriations  for  internal  improvements. 

National  University.  The  establishment  of  a  National  University  in 
the  central  part  of  the  United  States  was  first  conceived  by  George  Wash- 
ington about  1790,  when  tfye  shares  he  received  from  the  Potomac  Company 
had  proved  so  valuable.  He  wished  to  appropriate  this  stock  toward  the 
founding  of  such  an  institution.  This  stock,  and  that  accruing  from  the 
James  River  Company,  left  by  his  will  for  such  purposes,  were,  however, 
divided  between  two  charity  schools,  one  on  the  James  (see  Washington  and 
L,ee  University),  and  one  on  the  Potomac.  Washington  strongly  disap- 
proved of  foreign  education  for  the  American  youth. 

Nationality  is  determined  in  the  United  States  by  the  Federal  law  and 
not  by  the  State.  Members  of  the  nation  are,  of  course,  also  members  of 
the  State  in  which  they  reside.  The  Constitution  established  no  rules 
regarding  the  acquisition  or  loss  of  American  nationality,  which  is  therefore 
governed  by  the  subsidiary  or  common  law  of  the  land.  All  persons  born 
within  the  United  States  are  considered  to  have  acquired  nationality.  The 
Naturalization  Act  of  1790  endowed  children  born  of  American  parents 
beyond  the  sea  with  American  nationality.  The  act  of  1855  restricted  this 
to  the  children  of  citizen  fathers.  The  Civil  Rights  Act  of  1866  declared 
"all  persons  born  in  the  United  States  and  not  subject  to  any  foreign  power  " 
to  be  citizens  of  the  United  States.  The  Fourteenth  Amendment  (1868) 
defines  them  as  "  all  persons  born  or  naturalized  in  the  United  States,  and 
subject  to  the  jurisdiction  thereof." 

Naturalization.  Section  eight  of  article  one  of  the  Constitution  empowered 
Congress  "  to  establish  an  uniform  rule  of  naturalization."  This  power  was 
first  exerted  in  the  Act  of  March  26,  1790,  providing  that,  under  certain 
conditions,  any  free  white  alien  might  be  admitted  to  citizenship  by  any 
court  of  record  of  the  State  in  which  he  resided.  These  conditions  were: 
Previous  residence  of  two  years  in  the  United  States  and  of  one  year  in  the 
State;  good  character;  and  an  oath  to  support  the  Constitution.  These  con- 
ditions have  undergone  changes.  An  act  of  1795  required  five,  an  act  of 
1798  fourteen  years'  residence.  The  act  now  in  force,  of  April  14,  1802, 
provides  for  proof  of  five  years'  residence  in  the  United  States  and  of  one  in 
the  State;  good  character;  an  oath  of  allegiance,  and  a  renunciation  of  titles 
and  of  prior  allegiance.  No  alien  may  be  naturalized  if  his  country  be  at 
war  with  the  United  States. 


440  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Navajos,  a  tribe  of  Apache  Indians,  occupying  the  northern  part  of  New 
Mexico  and  Arizona.  The  Mexicans  continually  attempted  to  reduce  them, 
but  failed.  After  long-continued  hostilities  against  the  whites,  Colonel  Car- 
son compelled  them  in  1863  to  leave  their  country  and  remove  to  Bosque 
Redondo  as  prisoners  of  the  Government.  In  1868  they  were  removed  to 
Fort  Wingate,  and  in  1869  were  again  placed  in  their  old  country. 

Naval  Academy.  This  institution  was  not  founded  by  formal  legislation, 
but  was  begun  by  the  Navy  Department  when  George  Bancroft  was  Secretary 
of  the  Navy.  The  first  act  of  Congress  regarding  it  was  that  of  Aiigust  10, 
1846,  providing  $28,200  for  repairs,  improvements  and  instruction  under  the 
direction  of  the  Navy  Department  at  Fort  Severn,  Annapolis,  Md.  In 
March,  1847,  a  like  sum  was  appropriated  for  the  same  purpose.  During 
the  Civil  War  the  Academy  was  for  a  time  located  at  Newport,  R.  I. 

Naval  Militia.  On  March  2,  1891,  at  the  suggestion  of  Secretary  Tracy, 
regarding  the  importance  of  a  trained  naval  militia,  Congress  appropriated 
$25,000  to  purchase  arms  for  the  militia,  to  be  expended  under  the  direction 
of  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy. 

Naval  Observatory.  This  bureau  was  established  in  1842  under  the 
name  of  the  "  Depot  for  Naval  Charts  and  Instruments."  It  is  under  the 
supervision  of  the  Bureau  of  Navigation. 

Naval  Officer,  in  colonial  times,  an  officer,  not  of  the  navy,  but  of  the 
treasury,  charged  with  the  execution  of  the  navigation  acts.  Similarly, 
from  the  beginning  of  the  present  Government  in  1789,  an  official  of  the 
Treasury  Department  has,  under  this  name,  watched  over  the  execution  of 
the  American  navigation  laws  at  the  larger  ports,  while  at  the  smaller  the 
duties  have  been  performed  by  the  collector  of  the  port. 

Naval  War  College,  a  course  of  lectures  on  and  instruction  in  the  manipu- 
lation of  torpedoes.  This  course  was  established  by  the  Government  at 
Coaster's  Harbor  Island  in  Newport  in  1889.  The  course  continues  during 
three  months  each  year.  The  members  of  the  class  are  chiefly  officers  and 
men  in  the  torpedo  service,  though  the  topics  of  the  lectures  are  designed  to 
correspond  with  all  branches  of  naval  improvement  and  advancement. 

Navigation  Act,  a  famous  marine  law  first  promulgated  by  the  British 
Government  in  1651  (or  even,  in  a  sense,  in  1645)  f°r  the  protection  of  Brit- 
ish commerce  and  the  carrying  trade.  Its  renewal  with  a  few  changes  was 
made  in  1660,  soon  after  the  accession  of  Charles  II.  The  act  related  to  five 
subjects:  Coasting  trade;  fisheries;  commerce  with  the  colonies;  commerce 
with  European  countries;  commerce  with  Asia,  Africa  and  America,  and  was 
chiefly  a  move  in  England's  struggle  with  the  Dutch  for  the  possession  of 
the  carrying  trade  of  the  world.  The  parts  important  to  American  history 
were  those  providing  that  all  colonial  trade  should  be  carried  on  in  ships 
built  and  owned  in  England  and  the  colonies,  (a  provision  which  powerfully 
stimulated  colonial  ship-building)  and  that,  in  the  case  of  many  specified 
goods,  trade  should  be  with  England  only.  The  act  was  largely  rendered 
inoperative  by  colonial  smuggling.  The  efforts  at  last  made  to  enforce  it 
were  among  the  chief  causes  of  the  Revolution. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  441 

Navigation  Laws  of  the  United  States.  In  the  Convention  of  1787  a 
compromise  was  effected  between  the  New  England  members,  who  desired 
that  the  Federal  Government  might  have  the  power  to  regulate  commerce, 
and  the  Southern  members,  who  desired  the  slave-trade  to  be  kept  open  for 
a  time.  Thus  the  Constitution  gave  Congress  power  to  pass  navigation  laws. 
By  Act  of  1789  a  tonnage  tax  of  six  cents  per  ton  was  levied  on  all  Ameri- 
can vessels,  and  one  of  fifty  cents  a  ton  on  all  vessels  built  and  owned  in 
foreign  countries  and  entering  American  ports.  In  1792  the  act  requiring 
American  registration  was  passed.  In  1793  the  coasting  trade  was  closed  to 
foreign  vessels.  In  1816,  1817  and  1820  the  American  navigation  laws  were 
made  still  more  closely  like  those  of  Great  Britain.  Tonnage  taxes  were 
renewed  at  the  time  of  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War,  and  were  raised  to 
thirty  cents  a  ton. 

Navy.  In  1775  the  States  began  the  creation  of  State  naval  establish- 
ments. At  the  end  of  the  year  Congress  began  the  organization  of  a  Con- 
tinental navy.  Thirteen  frigates  were  ordered  to  be  constructed.  With 
these,  some  exploits  were  performed.  But  most  of  the  naval  achievements 
of  the  Revolutionary  War  were  accomplished  by  the  privateers,  and  by  1781 
all  thirteen  of  the  Federal'  vessels  had  been  either  captured  or  destroyed. 
The  one  ship  of  the  line  completed  was  presented  to  the  King  of  France. 
A  new  navy  was  created  by  Congress  in  1797  and  1798,  when  the  "Consti- 
tution," "  United  States  "  and  "  Constellation  "  were  built,  and  the  purchase 
of  other  vessels,  to  the  number  of  twenty-four,  was  authorized.  Adams  and 
the  Federalists  favored  increase  of  the  navy;  Jefferson  and  the  Republicans 
disliked  it.  Jefferson's  gunboat  system  was  tried  instead,  and  the  American 
navy  was  allowed  to  dwindle,  until  at  the  outbreak  of  the  War  of  1812  the 
United  States  had  about  twenty  vessels,  as  against  England's  830.  The 
victories  won  secured  larger  appropriations  that  year,  and  a  larger  navy 
resulted,  which,  after  the  conclusion  of  this  war,  was  used  against  Algiers. 
By  a  resolution  of  1819,  ships-of-the-line  were  to  be  named  after  the  States, 
frigates  after  the  rivers  of  the  United  States,  and  sloops-of-war  after  the  chief 
cities  and  towns.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  there  were  but  forty-two 
'vessels  in  commission,  and  these  had  been  scattered  over  the  globe  by  Secre- 
tary Toucey.  A  new  navy  had  to  be  constructed,  in  order  to  maintain  the 
blockade  of  Southern  ports,  and  to  assist  the  operations  of  land  forces  on.  the 
Atlantic  coast,  on  the  Gulf  and  in  inland  waters.  Steam  and  armor-plate 
and  the  invention  of  the  turreted  "  Monitor  "  revolutionized  naval  architec- 
ture during  the  war.  By  January  i,  1864,  the  National  Government  had  588 
vessels  (seventy-five  of  them  ironclads),  with  4443  guns,  and  35,000  men. 
After  the  war  the  navy  was  reduced.  Great  sums  continued  to  be  expended 
upon  it,  but  with  so  little  effect  that,  in  1882,  in  a  nominal  navy  of  140 
vessels,  there  were  but  thirty-eight  that  were  capable  of  sea-going  service. 
At  that  time  a  new  policy  regarding  the  navy  was  inaugurated,  and  now, 
after  great  expenditures,  the  navy  consists,  including  vessels  in  process  of 
construction,  of  six  battleships,  twenty-one  cruisers,  and  a  dozen  or  so  other 
vessels.  The  principal  achievements  of  the  navy  are  to  be  found  under  the 
names  of  the  vessels. 


442  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Navy,  Department  of  the,  one  of  the  eight  executive  departments  at  Wash- 
ington, was  created  by  an  Act  of  Congress  April  30,  1798,  and  has  been 
largely  developed  in  later  days.  In  1862  the  hydrographic  office  was  estab- 
lished. An  assistant  secretary  was  added  in  1890. 

Neal,  John  (1793-1876),  first  came  into  prominence  by  his  articles  upon 
American  politics  and  customs.  He  was  one  of  the  most  brilliant  journalists 
of  his  time,  dealing  with  literature,  history  and  biography,  and  wrote  novels 
of  some  prominence  in  their  day. 

Nebraska  originally  constituted  a  portion  of  the  Louisiana  cession  of  1803. 
The  first  white  men  to  visit  the  Nebraska  country  were  Lewis  and  Clark  in 
1804-05.  The  territory  was  organized  in  1854,  May  30,  and  included, 
besides  Nebraska,  Montana,  Wyoming,  the  Dakotas  and  part  of  Colorado.  The 
bill  for  the  organization  of  the  territory  was  introduced  by  Stephen  A. 
Douglas,  and  provided  that  any  States  which  should  be  formed  from  the  ter- 
ritory should  exercise  their  own  choice  in  regard  to  the  existence  of  slavery. 
This  set  aside  the  famous  Missouri  Compromise  of  1820,  and  aroused  the 
utmost  indignation  at  the  North.  In  1863  the  territory  was  reduced  to  its 
present  limits,  and  in  1867  it  became  a  State.  The  State  has  been  Republi- 
can, except  in  the  year  1890,  when  a  Democratic  Governor  was  elected. 
The  population  in  1867  was  60,000;  in  1890  it  was  1,058,910. 

Necessity,  Fort  (July  3,  1754).  From  Great  Meadows  Washington  had 
advanced  toward  Fort  Duquesne,  but  hearing  that  a  large  detachment  of 
French  were  on  foot  he  fell  back  to  his  former  position.  Here  he  hastily 
erected  a  rude  entrenchment  which  he  called  Fort  Necessity.  On  July  ist 
his  garrison  amounted  to  about  300  men.  The  French  numbered  nearly 
500,  including  Indians.  On  July  3d  they  approached  the  fort  in  a  pouring 
rain.  The  French  had  a  superior  position,  and  the  fight  raged  intermittently 
for  nine  hours.  At  length  a  parley  sounded,  and  after  little  delay  the  garri- 
son capitulated  with  honors  of  war,  surrendering  prisoners  taken  at  Great 
Meadows  and  being  assured  of  unmolested  retreat. 

Negro  Plot.  March  18,  1741,  a  fire  occurred  in  the  chapel  and  barracks 
at  Fort  George  on  the  Battery  in  New  York.  It  was  generally  believed  to  be 
accidental,  but  charges  were  set  afloat  that  it  arose  from  a  plot  by  the  negroes 
to  burn  the  town.  Eight  other  fires  of  a  mysterious  nature  within  a  month 
strengthened  this  belief.  Mary  Burton,  a  servant  of  one  John  Hughson, 
furnished  testimony  implicating  a  number  of  sailors  and  negroes.  Twenty 
whites  and  over  160  slaves  were  seized  and  imprisoned.  Finally  Mary  Bur- 
ton's accusations  inculpated  persons  of  such  character  that  danger  from  that 
direction  checked  the  fury.  It  was  charged  that  the  Spanish  were  inciting 
plots  among  the  negroes  through  Roman  Catholic  priests.  Four  whites  were 
hanged,  eighteen  negroes  hanged  and  thirteen  burned  at  the  stake. 

Negro  Troops  were  employed  to  a  slight  extent  in  the  Revolutionary 
War.  Though  a  few  generals  made  use  of  them  in  the  first  two  years  of  the 
Civil  War,  and  Congress  authorized  their  employment  at  the  Sea  Islands, 
the  first  general  provision  for  their  enlistment  was  made  in  July,  1863. 
After  that  they  were  employed  in  considerable  numbers,  and  at  times  with 
great  success. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  443 

Negroes.  In  1790  there  were  757,000  colored  people  in  the  United  States; 
in  1800  there  were  1,002,000;  in  1810,  1,378,000;  in  1820,  1,772,000;  in 
1830,  2,329,000;  in  1840,  2,874,000;  in  1850,  3,639,000;  in  1860,  4,442,000; 
in  1870,  4,880,000;  in  1880,  6,581,000;  in  1890,  7,470,000.  (See  also 
Slavery.) 

Neill,  Edward  D.  (1823-1893),  of  Minnesota,  was  a  chaplain  during  the 
Civil  War.  He  has  written  "  English  Colonization  in  America,"  "  Concise 
History  of  Minnesota,"  and  extensive  works  upon  the  histories  of  Virginia 
and  Maryland,  the  chief  being  "  The  Virginia  Company  of  London  "  and 
"  Terra  Marine." 

Nelson,  Samuel  (1792-1873),  of  New  York,  was  a  Circuit  Judge  from 
1823  to  1831.  He  was  a  Justice  of  the  New  York  Supreme  Court  from  1831 
to  1837  and  its  Chief  Justice  from  1837  to  1845.  He  was  a  Justice  of  the 
U.  S.  Supreme  Court  from  1845  to  1872.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Joint 
High  Commission,  which  in  1871  negotiated  the  Treaty  of  Washington. 

Nelson,  Thomas  (1738-1789),  was  a  member  of  the  Virginia  Conventions 
of  1774,  1775  and  1776.  He  represented  Virginia  in  the  Continental  Con- 
gress from  1776  to  1777  and  in  1779.  He  signed  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence. He  was  Governor  of  Virginia  in  1781.  He  expended  his  vast 
estate  for  the  colonial  cause. 

Nelson,  William  (1825-1862),  of  Kentucky,  organized  several  regiments 
in  1 86 1.  He  commanded  a  division  at  Shiloh  and  Richmond.  He  com- 
manded Louisville  when  threatened  by  General  Bragg  in  1862.  He  was 
shot  in  an  altercation  with  General  J.  C.  Davis. 

Nelson's  Farm.     (See  Glendale.) 

Netherlands.  The  republic  of  the  United  Netherlands  was  one  of  the 
first  to  welcome  the  United  States  into  the  sisterhood  of  nations.  Her  wil- 
lingness to  establish  commercial  relations  led  to  a  rupture  with  Great 
Britain.  In  1782  a  treaty  of  amity  and  commerce  was  concluded,  which 
became  abrogated  by  the  republic  of  the  United  Netherlands  losing  its 
independence.  At  the  Congress  of  Vienna  the  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands 
was  established,  from  which  Belgium  revolted  in  1830.  A  commercial  treaty 
was  signed  in  1839,  and  consular  conventions  in  1855  and  1878.  A  conven- 
tion relative  to  extradition  was  concluded  in  1880.  (See  Belgium.) 

Neutrality,  Armed.     (See  Armed  Neutrality.) 

Neutrality,  Proclamation  of.  Upon  the  declaration  of  war  between 
France  and  Great  Britain  in  1793  it  was  decided  unanimously  by  President 
Washington  and  his  Cabinet  that  a  proclamation  of  neutrality  should  issue 
and  that  a  French  minister  should  be  received.  Jay  was  appointed  to  draft 
the  proclamation.  It  declared  the  intention  of  the  United  States  to  pursue 
a  line  of  conduct  friendly  to  both  nations,  and  enjoined  upon  the  citizens  to 
avoid  a  contravention  of  this  disposition  under  pain  of  prosecution.  Curi- 
ously enough  the  word  "  neutrality "  was  omitted  in  the  proclamation, 
though  enforced  with  fairness  by  the  President.  It  was  probably  purposeh 
omitted. 


444 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 


Neuville,  Jean  G.,  Baron  Hyde  de  (1776-1847),  was  exiled  to  the  United 
States  from  France  from  1806  to  1814.  He  was  French  Minister  to  the 
United  States  from  1816  to  1822,  and  negotiated  the  French  treaty  of  1822. 

Nevada  was  formed  from  the  Mexican  cession  of  1848.  Prior  to  that 
date  no  settlement  had  been  made  in  the  State.  In  that  year  settlements 
were  made  by  Mormons  in  the  Carson  and  Washoe  Valleys.  In  1859  silver 
was  discovered.  In  1861  Nevada  was  organized  as  a  territory,  and  October 
31,  1864,  it  was  admitted  as  a  State.  In  1866  its  territory  was  increased  by 
portions  of  Arizona  and  Utah.  Until  1870  the  Republicans  controlled  the 
State.  In  that  year  the  Democrats  elected  the  Governor,  who  was  re-elected 
in  1874.  In  1880  the  Presidential  electors  were  Democratic,  in  1892  they 
were  of  the  People's  party.  The  population  of  the  State  in  1864  was  40,000; 
in  1890  it  was  45,761. 

New  Albion.  The  name  given  to  what  is  now  Upper  California  and 
Oregon  by  Sir  Francis  Drake  in  1579.  In  that  year  Drake  took  possession 
of  this  territory  in  the  Queen's  name,  but  it  was  not  claimed  by  the  British 
till  three  centuries  later. — June  21,  1634,  Sir  Edmund  Plowden  obtained  a 
grant  of  territory,  called  in  the  letters  patent  "  New  Albion."  The  boundaries 
of  this  New  Albion  were  so  denned  as  to  include  all  of  New  Jersey,  Mary- 
land, Delaware  and  Pennsylvania  embraced  in  a  square,  the  eastern  side, 
forty  leagues  in  length,  extending  from  Sandy  Hook  to  Cape  May,  together 
with  Long  Island  and  all  other  "  isles  and  islands  within  ten  leagues  of  the 
shore."  The  province  was  made  a  county  palatine  with  Plowden  as  earl. 
Little  effort  at  settlement  was  made,  and  nothing  come  of  the  grant. 

New  Amsterdam.     (See  New  York  City.) 
New  Archangel.     (See  Sitka.) 

New  Bedford,  Mass.,  was  set  off  from  Dartmouth,  of  which  it  was  orig- 
inally a  part,  in  1787.  It  received  a  city  charter  in  1847.  Its  history  as  a 
great  whaling  port  began  as  early  as  1755. 

New  Berne,  or  Newbern,  at  one  time  capital  of  the  province  of  North 
Carolina,  was  founded  about  1693  by  Christopher  de  Grafenried,  a  Swiss  baron. 
During  the  Civil  War,  Newbern  was  an  important  seaport  in  the  possession  of 
the  Confederates.  It  was  captured  and  partially  burned  by  the  Union  leader, 
Burnside,  March  14,  1862.  The  gunboats  shelled  the  woods  as  Burnside 
advanced,  thereby  clearing  the  way.  An  insignificant  fortification  was 
destroyed  near  the  town.  Burnside  captured  forty-six  guns,  three  light 
batteries  and  a  large  amount  of  stores.  Later,  in  1864,  Newbern  was 
occupied  by  the  Federal  General,  Foster,  with  a  small  force.  Pickett  com- 
manded the  Confederates  in  that  section  then.  February  i  and  2,  he 
attacked  Foster's  outposts  and  captured  them,  inflicting  slight  losses.  Then 
he  assaulted  the  main  encampment,  sending  at  the  same  time  a  regiment  to 
attack  the  Federal  gunboat,  "Underwriter,"  then  lying  at  the  Newbern 
dock.  Little  was  accomplished  by  these  attacks,  and  Pickett  retired. 

New  England.  The  name  was  first  given  to  the  region  by  Captain  John 
Smith,  in  his  map  of  1616.  Though  formed  into  separate  colonies  and 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  445 

States,  the  region  has  always  hacl  a  certain  degree  of  unity,  as  a  region  of 
Puritan  colonies,  of  similar  religious  and  political  predilections  and  similar 
industries  and  economic  life.  In  1643  most  of  its  colonies  were  united  in 
the  New  England  Confederation.  See  United  Colonies  of  New  England. 

New  England,  Council  for,  a  "  Council  established  at  Plymouth,  in  the 
county  of  Devon,  for  the  planting,  ordering,  ruling  and  governing  of  New 
England  in  America."  It  was  incorporated  November  3,  1620,  and  was  lit- 
tle else  than  the  reorganization  of  the  Plymouth,  or  North  Virginia  Com- 
pany of  1606.  Ferdinando  Gorges  was  the  moving  spirit  of  the  new 
corporation.  Bradford  obtained  from  this  company  a  patent  permitting  the 
settlement  of  the  Pilgrim  Fathers.  In  1621  Gorges  obtained  an  additional 
grant  of  territory  called  Laconia,  which  comprised  parts  of  the  present  States 
of  Maine  and  New  Hampshire.  The  lands  of  the  new  company,  which  now 
extended  from  Long  Island  to  the  Bay  of  Fundy,  were  distributed  among 
twenty  noblemen. 

"  New  England  Courant,"  the  fourth  newspaper  published  in  the  colo- 
nies. It  was  established  in  1721  at  Boston,  by  James  Franklin,  who  had 
been  deprived  of  the  printing  of  the  Boston  News  Letter.  Franklin's  friends 
were  much  opposed  to  the  publication  of  a  new  journal,  for  they  thought  one 
quite  sufficient  for  the  entire  continent.  But  Franklin  inaugurated  a  new 
departure  in  journalism  by  attacking  the  Government  officials  and  lampoon- 
ing the  clergy.  On  this  account  the  suppression  of  his  paper  was  threat- 
ened, whereupon  Benjamin  Franklin  assumed  the  editorship,  and  continued 
the  publication  with  the  same  freedom.  It  was  finally  suppressed  in  1727. 

New  England  Emigrant  Company,  a  corporation  formed  at  Boston  in 
1855  to  control  emigration  cO  the  newly  formed  Territory  of  Kansas  in  the 
interest  of  the  anti-slavery  party.  Slavery  in  Kansas  had  been  made  possible 
by  the  adoption  of  the  Kansas-Nebraska  bill,  and  slavery  advocates  in  Mis- 
souri were  actively  at  work  for  its  establishment.  The  Emigrant  Company 
aided  immeasurably  in  making  Kansas  a  free  State. 

New  England  Shilling,  the  name  given  to  the  first  coins  issued  in  1652 
by  the  mint  established  in  that  year  at  Boston.  They  were  of  the  value 
of  "  i2d,  6d  and  3d  peeces,"  stamped  N  E  on  the  face  and  XII,  VI  or  III  on 
the  reverse  to  denote  the  value.  The  value  of  the  first  named  equaled 
eighteen  and  one-fourth  cents. 

New  France  was  founded  by  Champlain's  settlement  of  Quebec  in  1608. 
Cultivating  friendly  relations  with  the  Indians,  fur-traders  soon  explored  the 
St.  Lawrence  basin,  the  Great  Lakes  and  the  Mississippi,  while  Jesuit  missions 
still  further  extended  French  influence.  But  the  province  was  over-governed 
by  Louis  XIV.,  and  though  some  of  the  governors  were  able  men,  the 
creation  of  a  strong  empire  was  prevented  by  paternalism,  crushing  out  all 
individual  initiative,  by  excessive  centralization,  by  official  corruption  and 
by  religious  bigotry.  In  1690  the  English  colonies  had  eight  times  as  large 
a  population,  in  1754  twenty  times  as  great.  But  New  France  proved  her- 
self strong  in  a  military  sense.  See  the  wars, — King  William's  War,  Queen 
Anne's  War,  King  George's  War,  French  and  Indian  War,  and  the  chief 


446  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

officials,  Frontenac  and  Montcalm.  The  final  struggle  was  for  the  posses- 
sion of  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi  Valleys,  and  was  a  part  of  the  Seven  Years' 
War.  Its  result  was,  to  prevent  the  French  scheme  of  connecting  Canada 
and  Louisiana  in  one  great  empire,  and  entirely  to  destroy  New  France. 
The  Treaty  of  Paris  (1763)  gave  it  all  to  England.  Histories  by  Parkman. 

New  Granada.     (See  Colombia.) 

New  Hampshire  was  one  of  the  original  thirteen  States.  In  1622  Sir 
Ferdinando  Gorges  and  John  Mason  obtained  a  grant  of  the  land  lying 
between  the  Merrimac  and  the  Kennebec  rivers.  Rye,  Dover  and  Ports- 
mouth were  settled  by  Churchmen  and  royalists.  In  1629  Mason  obtained  a 
separate  grant  for  the  territory  between  the  Merrimac  and  the  Piscataqua. 
Upon  the  death  of  Mason  the  colony  was  left  to  itself  until  1641,  when  it 
was  annexed  to  Massachusetts.  In  1679  New  Hampshire  was  made  a  royal 
province;  in  1685  it  was  again  annexed  to  Massachusetts,  and  in  1749  it 
again  became  a  royal  province.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolution,  in  1775, 
New  Hampshire  was  advised  by  the  general  government  to  form  a  tempo- 
rary government.  Constitutions  were  adopted  in  1776,  1784  and  1792,  whicl 
last  has  been  twice  amended  in  1852  and  1877.  The  National  Constitutior 
was  ratified  with  difficulty,  June  21,  1788,  by  a  vote  of  57  to  46.  At  firsi 
New  Hampshire  was  Federalist.  In  1805  the  Democrats  secured  control  of 
the  State,  which  they  held  until  1855,  except  in  the  years  1809—1810,  1813- 
1816.  The  Democrats  attacked  the  charter  of  Dartmouth  College  in  1816, 
and  the  case  was  argued  successfully  in  favor  of  the  royal  charter  before  the 
U.  S.  Supreme  Court  by  Daniel  Webster.  Complaints  were  made  in  1829 
by  Hill  and  Woodbury,  the  Jackson  leaders  in  the  State,  that  Mason,  the 
president  of  the  Portsmouth  branch  of  the  U  S.  Bank,  was  guilty  of  par- 
tiality in  his  loans.  This  led  to  the  bank  troubles  of  Jackson's  administra- 
tion. From  1856  to  1894  the  State  was  usually  Republican.  The  popula- 
tion in  1790  was  141,885;  in  1890  it  was  376,530.  History  by  Belknap. 

"  New  Hampshire  Gazette,"  a  newspaper  established  in  1756  at  Ports- 
mouth, N.  H.,  by  D.  Fowle.  This  was  the  first  newspaper  in  the  State.  In 
1772  it  was  called  the  New  Hampshire  Gazette  and  Historical  Chronicle; 
in  1776  the  Freeman >s  Journal  or  New  Hampshire  Gazette;  in  1788  the  New 
Hampshire  Gazette  and  General  Advertiser;  in  1796  the  New  Hampshire 
Gazette  again.  It  is  now  published  as  the  weekly  edition  of  the  Daily 
Chronicle,  established  in  1852. 

New  Hampshire  Grants.     (See  Vermont.) 

New  Hampshire  Historical  Society,  founded  in  1823,  has  issued  nine 
volumes  of  "  Collections  "  and  a  volume  of  its  proceedings. 

New  Haven  Colony.  In  1638  a  body  of  immigrants  under  Theophilus 
Eaton  and  John  Davenport  settled  at  Quinnipiack,  on  the  Sound,  where 
they  lived  for  a  year  without  government  other  than  religious  unity.  Then 
they  formed  a  government  and  established  the  New  Haven  colony.  This 
colony  entered  the  New  England  Confederacy,  formed  in  1643  f°r  protection 
against  the  Canada  settlers,  the  Dutch  and  Indians.  In  1662  the  younger  Win- 
throp  obtained  from  Charles  II.  a  charter  for  the  Connecticut  colony,  which 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITBD  STATES  HISTORY.  447 

charter  included  the  New  Haven  colony.  The  latter  resisted  obstinately  for 
many  months,  and  was  supported  by  Massachusetts  and  Plymouth.  On  the 
arrival  of  the  royal  commission,  she  was  forced  to  give  way  and  become 
absorbed  in  Connecticut  (1664). 

New  Ireland.  In  1779,  a  British  force  and  fleet  under  McNeill  and  Mow- 
att  held  possession  of  what  is  now  known  as  the  Castine  peninsula,  in 
Maine.  An  expedition  was  sent  from  Boston  to  dislodge  them.  This 
failed.  The  British,  as  a  result  of  their  success,  endeavored  the  next  year 
to  erect  Maine  into  a  province  under  the  name  of  New  Ireland. 

New  Jersey  was  one  of  the  original  thirteen  States.  The  Dutch  made  a 
small  settlement  in  the  south,  and  in  1655,  under  Governor  Stuyvesant, 
erected  Fort  Nassau  on  the  Delaware  River,  and  forced  the  Swedes,  who  had 
made  a  settlement  in  1638,  to  acknowledge  their  rule.  When  the  Duke  of 
York  secured  the  country,  in  1664,  he  granted  the  territory  between  the 
Delaware  and  the  Hudson  to  Lord  Berkeley  and  Sir  George  Carteret,  and 
gave  it  its  present  name  in  honor  of  Carteret,  who  had  held  the  island  of 
Jersey  for  Charles  II.  during  the  Great  Rebellion.  In  1665  some  English 
emigrants  settled  Elizabethtown.  New  Englanders  founded  Middletown 
and  Newark  in  1666.  Berkeley  finally  sold  his  share  to  certain  Quakers, 
who  sold  it  to  a  party  headed  by  William  Penn  (1676).  A  boundary  line 
was  agreed  upon,  running  from  Little  Egg  Harbor  northwest  to  the  Delaware 
at  41°  40'  north  latitude.  400  Quakers  settled  in  West  New  Jersey  in  1677. 
William  Penn  and  his  associates  purchased  East  New  Jersey  in  1682.  In 
1686  writs  of  quo  warranto  were  issued  against  the  governments  of  both 
Jerseys,  but  the  proprietary  rights  were  undisturbed.  The  two  colonies 
were  united  in  a  royal  colony  in  1702.  New  Jersey  was  a  principal  theatre 
of  fights  in  1777  and  1778.  First  Constitution,  1776  (present,  1844). 
New  Jersey  ratified  the  National  Constitution  December  1 8,  1787.  A  pro- 
perty qualification  of  ^50  for  voting  existed  until  1820.  The  political  par- 
ties have  always  been  nearly  equal,  and  have  experienced  few  changes  in 
strength.  During  the  war  the  State  was  strongly  Democratic.  Since  the 
war  the  State  has  cast  its  votes  for  Democratic  Presidential  candidates  with 
the  exception  of  1872.  The  State  Legislature  has  usually  been  in  the 
hands  of  the  Republicans.  The  population  of  the  State  in  1790  was  184,- 
139;  in  1890  it  was  1,444,933.  History  by  Scott. 

New  Jersey  Historical  Society,  founded  in  1845,  has  issued  eight  vol- 
umes of  "  Collections  "  and  twenty  volumes  of  its  proceedings. 

New  Jersey  Plan,  a  scheme  of  a  Federal  Constitution  suggested  in  the 
Convention  of  1787  by  William  Paterson,  of  New  Jersey,  June  15.  It 
proposed:  The  enlargement  and  correction  of  the  Articles  of  Confederation; 
that  Congress  should  remain  a  single  body,  and  should  regulate  taxation  and 
commerce,  and  should  choose  the  executive;  that  requisitions  from  States 
should  be  continued;  that  a  judiciary  should  be  established;  that  naturaliza- 
tion should  be  uniform;  that  the  executive  should  coerce  refractory  States  or 
individuals,  and  other  provisions  of  less  importance.  This  plan  was  unfavor- 
ably reported,  the  Randolph  plan  being  preferred,  as  creating  a  stronger 
government  and  doing  more  to  remedy  the  defects  of  the  Confederation. 


^8  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

New  Jerseymen  Foreigners.  The  saying  that  New  Jersey  is  a  foreign 
State  comes  down  from  the  time  when  Joseph  Bonaparte,  ex-king  of  Spain 
and  Naples,  after  the  downfall  of  Napoleon,  sought  an  asylum  in  the  United 
States.  As  an  alien  he  was  obliged  to  obtain  a  special  act  of  legislature  to 
enable  him  to  hold  real  estate.  Pennsylvania  refused,  but  New  Jersey  con- 
sented, and  he  established  himself  in  princely  magnificence  at  Bordentown. 
Hence  men  of  other  States  used  humorously  to  declare  that  the  Jerseymen, 
with  their  foreign  prince,  were  foreigners,  and  their  State  not  a  part  of  the 
Union. 

"New  Lights,"  religious  revivalists  in  Massachusetts  and  Connecticut 
in  1734  and  for  some  years  later,  during  the  period  known  as  the  "Great 
Awakening."  The  movement  was  started  by  Jonathan  Edwards  ind  became 
a  wild  passion  under  the  ministrations  of  George  "Whitefield.  The  "  New 
Lights"  were  so  called  in  contradistinction  to  the  "  Old  Lights,"  or  more 
conservative  churchmen. 

New  London,  Conn.  In  1781  New  London  was  a  resort  of  privateers 
and  a  favorite  depot  for  the  West  India  trade.  September  7,  the  traitor, 
Benedict  Arnold,  was  sent  by  Clinton  against  this  town.  He  succeeded  in 
plundering  and  destroying  a  large  amount  of  property.  Fort  Griswold,  on 
the  opposite  side  of  the  Thames,  was  carried,  and  its  commander,  Colonel 
Ledyard,  and  sixty  soldiers  mercilessly  killed.  Arnold  retired  when  the 
militia  began  to  assemble.  (See  also  Blue  Lights.) 

New  Madrid,  Mo.,  a  strong  Confederate  position,  fortified  by  General 
Leonidas  Polk  and  garrisoned  by  troops  from  Beauregard's  command.  It  was 
captured  by  the  Federals  under  General  Pope,  March  14,  1862.  Pope  had 
been  dispatched  by  Halleck  for  this  purpose  and,  moving  down  the  Missis- 
sippi River,  had  encamped  two  miles  from  New  Madrid.  Siege  guns  having 
been  brought  from  Cairo,  General  Plummer  was  sent  by  night  to  sink  trenches 
and  place  sharp-shooters.  This  having  been  accomplished,  firing  began  early 
March  13.  Three  of  the  six  Confederate  gunboats  were  speedily  disabled, 
and  the  next  night,  in  the  midst  of  a  storm,  New  Madrid  was  evacuated. 
Many  valuable  supplies  were  captured. 

New  Mexico  was  organized  as  a  Territory  September  9,  1850,  from  terri- 
tory acquired  from  Mexico.  The  Spaniard  Nunez  visited  the  country  in 
I537>  atld  Coronado  in  1540.  In  1581  Bonillo  explored  the  region  and 
named  it  New  Mexico.  Santa  Fe  was  founded  about  1609.  The  Spaniards 
had  great  difficulty  with  the  Pueblo  Indians.  General  Kearny  captured 
Santa  Fe  in  1846,  and  two  years  later,  by  the  treaty  of  Guadalupe  Hidalgo, 
the  United  States  came  into  possession  of  New  Mexico.  The  Territory  of 
New  Mexico  was  organized  by  Act  of  Congress  September  9,  1850.  In  1853 
a  portion  of  the  "Gadsden  Purchase"  was  annexed.  In  1866  the  Territory 
was  finally  reduced  to  its  present  boundaries.  The  fear  that  a  State  church 
would  be  established  by  the  Mexicans  in  the  State  has  prevented  its  admis- 
sion into  the  Union.  The  population  of  the  Territory  in  1890  was  153,593. 
History  by  Bancroft. 

New  Netherland.     (See  New  York.) 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  449 

New  Netherlands  Company.  This  company  was  formed  in  1615  after 
the  ascent  of  Hudson  River  by  the  Englishman  who  gave  that  river  his 
name.  Hudson  was  at  that  time  in  the  employ  of  Holland.  The  company 
was  founded  by  Amsterdam  merchants,  who  obtained  a  monopoly  of  the 
trade  for  three  years,  and  established  a  settlement  at  Manhattan  and  trading 
posts  on  the  Delaware  River.  The  company  was  succeeded  by  the  Dutch 
West  India  Company. 

New  Orange,  the  name  given  to  the  city  of  New  York  in  1673,  when  the 
colony  of  New  Netherland  was  retaken  from  England  by  the  States  General 
of  Holland.  It  was  so  called  in  honor  of  the  Prince  of  Orange. 

New  Orleans,  La.,  was  founded  in  1718  by  Jean  Baptiste  Lemoyne  de 
Bienville,  and  a  few  years  later  (1722)  was  made  the  capital  of  the  vast  terri- 
tory known  as  Louisiana.  In  1765  the  town  received  the  exiles  from 
Acadia,  and  in  1768  rose  in  arms  against  the  cession  of  Louisiana  to  Spain. 
The  following  year  the  people  were  compelled  to  submit  by  a  large  Spanish 
force.  In  1788  and  1794  the  town  was  almost  totally  destroyed  by  fire.  In 
1803  the  city,  with  the  rest  of  Louisiana,  was  turned  over  to  France,  and  by 
France  to  the  United  States.  In  1807,  Burr's  conspiracy  was  here  foiled, 
and  on  January  8,  1815,  occurred  the  battle  of  New  Orleans.  In  December, 
1814,  7000  British  troops,  under  General  Pakenham,  were  transported  from 
Jamaica  to  Lake  Borgne  for  an  attack  on  New  Orleans.  General  Jackson 
made  every  possible  preparation  to  resist  them.  On  December  23,  Decem- 
ber 28  and  January  i,  he  had  gained  minor  successes  over  them.  But 
Pakenham  was  reinforced  to  10,000  men.  The  decisive  battle  occurred  on 
January  8,  1815.  General  Jackson  with  5000  men  drew  up  his  first  line  in 
three  detachments,  two  on  the  left  bank  and  one  of  800  men  under  General 
Morgan  on  the  right  bank.  The  line  was  defended  by  numerous  batteries 
and  redoubts,  and  by  an  armed  vessel,  the  "  Louisiana."  General  Paken- 
ham, with  10,000  veteran  troops,  planned  an  attack  in  three  divisions.  On 
the  night  before  the  battle  Colonel  Thornton  was  ordered  to  cross  the  river 
and  attack  General  Morgan.  At  dawn,  the  British  second  division,  under 
General  Gibbs,  attacked  Jackson's  left,  and  soon  after,  the  third  division, 
under  General  Keane,  attacked  the  right.  This  last  movement  was  at  first 
successful  and  captured  part  of  Jackson's  works,  but  the  battery  and  musketry 
fire  was  so  deadly  that  they  fell  back  in  disorder.  Meantime  from  this  divis- 
ion General  Keane  had  detached  half  to  assist  the  second  division  under 
General  Gibbs.  This  had  attacked  Jackson's  strongest  position.  As  they 
advanced  to  the  charge  they  were  killed  by  the  hundreds,  yet  did  not  falter. 
When  within  200  yards  of  the  American  line,  the  Kentucky  and  Tennessee 
riflemen,  deadly  shots,  four  ranks  deep,  fired  line  by  line.  The  slaughter 
was  terrible,  but  the  British,  now  reinforced  by  General  Keane's  troops, 
pressed  on  up  to  the  very  parapets.  But  Generals  Pakenham  and  Gibbs 
were  both  mortally  wounded.  General  Keane  and  Major  Wilkinson,  the 
next  in  command,  were  so  severely  wounded  that  they  were  carried  from 
the  field  and  the  British  fell  back  in  disorder.  Colonel  Thornton's  division 
had  meantime  captured  General  Morgan's  position  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
river,  but  was  recalled  in  view  of  the  defeat  on  the  other  side.  The  British 
lost  in  this  battle  700  killed,  1400  wounded,  and  500  prisoners.  The  American 
29 


45o  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

loss  was  eight  killed  and  thirteen  wounded.  Occurring  after  the  con- 
clusion of  peace  at  Ghent,  the  battle  had  no  lasting  results,  but  was  famous 
as  the  one  great  success  won  by  American  land  forces  in  the  War  of  1812. 
In  the  Civil  War  New  Orleans  was  captured  and  occupied,  May  i,  1862,  by 
Captain  Farragut  and  General  Butler,  after  four  days,  April  24  to  27,  inclu- 
sive, spent  in  bombarding  Forts  Jackson  and  St.  Philip,  the  Confederate 
strongholds  below  the  city,  and  in  defeating  the  Confederate  fleet.  The 
Union  armament  consisted  of  four  sloops  of  war,  seventeen  gunboats,  twenty- 
one  bomb-schooners,  these  latter  in  charge  of  Commander  Porter,  and  two 
sailing  vessels.  Lovell,  for  the  Confederates,  commanded  thirteen  armed 
steamers,  the  steam  battery  "  Louisiana,"  of  sixteen  guns,  and  the  ram 
"  Manassas,"  besides  a  flotilla  of  five  ships  and  rafts.  There  was  in  addition 
a  land  force  of  some  3000  men.  Crossing  the  bar  April  8,  Farragut  spent 
several  days  in  preparing  for  a  bombardment  of  Forts  Jackson  and  St. 
Philip.  April  27  the  bombardment  began,  1400  shells  being  thrown  in  one 
day.  The  Union  fleet  was  then  arranged  in  two  columns  and  prepared  to 
pass  the  forts,  Farragut's  column  firing  upon  Fort  Jackson,  Bailey's  upon 
Fort  St.  Philip.  A  chain  had  been  placed  across  the  river,  but  this  was 
broken;  the  "Hartford,"  Farragut's  ship,  got  safely  through  under  cover 
of  Porter's  mortar-boats,  and  the  others  followed.  The  forts  were  silenced, 
and  the  Confederate  flotilla  attacked  and  almost  entirely  destroyed.  Lovell 
fled  and  Farragut  demanded  the  surrender  of  New  Orleans  from  the  mayor. 
This  was  finally  granted  and  Butler  took  charge.  In  1890,  great  excitement 
against  murderous  Italians  led  to  lynchings  by  a  mob. 

New  Plymouth.     (See  Plymouth  Colony.) 

New  Somersetshire,  a  grant  of  territory  extended  to  William  Gorges  in 
1636,  and  comprising  those  settlements  along  the  coast  of  Maine,  which  had 
not  been  included  in  the  Ferdinando  Gorges  patent  of  1631.  William 
Gorges  was  appointed  Deputy-Governor. 

New  Sweden,  the  name  given  to  the  colony  which  the  Swedes  in  1638 
established  on  the  Delaware  River  and  Bay.  (See  Delaware.) 

New  York  was  one  of  the  original  thirteen  colonies.  Henry  Hudson,  in 
the  employ  of  the  Dutch  East  India  Company,  discovered  the  Hudson  River 
(1609)  while  seeking  for  a  passage  to  India.  The  Dutch  carried  on  fur  trade 
with  the  Indians  with  no  serious  attempt  at  colonization  until  (1621)  the  for- 
mation of  the  Dutch  West  India  Company,  when  the  patroon  system  was 
introduced  (which  gave  rise  to  the  anti-rent  difficulties  of  1839-46).  Set- 
tlements were  made  at  Fort  Nassau  (Albany)  1614,  and  New  Amsterdam  (New 
York)  1623.  The  f°ur  Dutch  Governors  were  Minuit,  Van  Twiller,  Kieft 
and  Stuyvesant.  In  1664  Nicolls  captured  the  colony  for  the  English  and 
introduced  the  mixed  system  of  local  government.  At  this  time  the  popu- 
lation was  very  heterogeneous,  eighteen  languages  being  spokon.  Andros 
was  made  Governor  of  New  England  and  New  York  in  1688.  His  deputy, 
Nicholson,  was  overthrown  in  New  York  by  Leisler.  In  1690  the  first 
colonial  congress  met  at  Albany  to  consider  Indian  troubles.  About  1700 
Captain  Kidd,  the  pirate,  was  captured.  The  "  negro  plot  "  of  1741  caused 
terrible  excitement.  During  the  Revolution  the  State  contained  many 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  451 

Tories.  In  1777  the  first  State  Constitution  was  adopted  (others,  1821  and 
1846).  The  National  Constitution  was  with  difficulty  adopted  July  26, 
1788.  The  political  history  of  New  York  until  1807  was  a  struggle  of  the 
great  families  for  control.  In  1798  Burr  introduced  the  "  machine  "  into  the 
politics  of  New  York  City.  The  Livingstons  and  Clintons  introduced  the 
spoils  system  in  1801.  From  1823  to  I^5O  New  York  was  for  the  most  part 
under  the  control  of  the  Albany  Regency.  When  Van  Buren  entered  Jack- 
son's Cabinet  he  carried  the  practical  methods  used  by  the  Regency  into 
national  politics.  The  Erie  Canal  was  opened  in  1825,  an^  the  following 
year  the  first  railroad,  the  Hudson  and  Mohawk,  was  chartered.  In  1826 
William  Morgan,  who  had  divulged  some  of  the  secrets  of  the  Masonic 
Order,  disappeared,  and  the  Masons  were  charged  with  his  murder.  The 
Anti-Masonic  party  was  formed  and  nominated  William  Wirt,  of  Virginia, 
for  President  in  1831.  The  "  loco  focos  "  opposed  the  grant  of  special  bank- 
ing privileges.  The  "hunkers  "  desired  the  extension  of  the  canal  system, 
the  "  barn-burners  "  its  restriction.  In  1850  the  Regency  disappeared.  In 
1855  the  "know-nothing"  party  elected  State  officers  below  the  Governor. 
After  this  the  State  was  Republican  until  1862,  when  the  Democrats  elected 
the  Governor.  During  the  Civil  War  the  State  furnished  467,047  troops  to 
the  Union  army.  In  1873  the  Democratic  party  was  thoroughly  organized 
by  Samuel  J.  Tilden.  In  1871-72  William  M.  Tweed  was  convicted  of 
peculation  in  New  York  City.  The  failure  of  Jay  Cooke  &  Co.  caused  a 
financial  panic  in  1873.  John  Kelly  led  a  revolt  of  Tammany  against  the 
regular  Democratic  candidate,  Robinson,  in  1879,  and  caused  the  election  of 
a  Republican  Governor.  Garfield  refused  to  grant  the  control  of  the  patron- 
age in  New  York  to  the  Senators,  Conkling  and  Platt,  whereupon  they 
resigned  their  seats  and  appealed  to  the  Legislature  for  re-election,  but  were 
defeated  in  July,  1881.  A  division  of  Republicans  into  "stalwarts"  and 
"  half  breeds  "  followed.  In  recent  years  the  Republicans  have  carried  the 
elections  of  the  years  1872,  1879,  1881,  1883,  1888  and  1893.  In  1882 
Cleveland  was  elected  Governor  by  a  majority  of  192,854.  A  constitutional 
convention  sits  in  1894.  The  population  of  New  York,  which  i,n  1790  was 
340,120,  in  1890  was  5,997,853.  The  fifth  State  in  1790,  it  became  the  most 
populous  in  1820,  and  has  remained  such  ever  since.  History  by  Roberts: 

New  York  City,  formerly  called  New  Amsterdam,  was  settled  by  the 
Dutch  in  1623.  -^n  August,  1664,  the  city  surrendered  to  the  British  under 
the  Duke  of  York,  and  the  name  was  changed  to  New  York,  an  English 
form  of  government  being  established.  In  July,  1673,  the  Dutch  recaptured 
the  city  and  named  it  New  Orange.  It  was  restored  to  the  British  crown, 
however,  on  November  10  of  the  following  year.  The  English  government 
granted  liberal  charters  to  the  city  in  1686  and  1732.  In  1688  occurred 
Leisler's  revolt.  In  1741  a  supposed  plot  of  negro  slaves  to  burn  the  city 
and  murder  the  whites  was  discovered,  and  a  number  of  negroes  were  hanged 
or  burned  at  the  stake.  In  1765  a  congress  of  colonial  delegates,  called  the 
Stamp  Act  Congress,  met  in  this  city  and  drew  up  a  declaration  of  rights 
against  Great  Britain's  arbitrary  taxation.  In  1774  a  ship  laden  with  tea 
was  sent  back  to  England,  and  chests  on  another  vessel  were  thrown  over- 
board. After  the  battle  of  Long  Island  the  city  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 


452  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

British  who  occupied  it  until  the  close  of  the  Revolution.  From  1784  to 
1797  New  York  was  the  State  capital  and  from  1785  to  1790  the  seat  of  the 
United  States  Government.  Washington  was  inaugurated  here  April  30, 
1789.  The  completion  of  the  Erie  Canal  in  1825  made  New  York  the  outlet 
of  the  surplus  produce  of  the  West.  In  July,  1863,  a  serious  draft  riot 
occurred.  In  1872  the  "Tweed  Ring,"  which  had  been  plundering  the  city 
through  the  possession  of  the  municipal  offices,  was  broken  up.  The  era 
of  elevated  railroads  began  in  1878.  Columbia  College  was  incorporated 
here  in  1754  as  King's  College.  The  population  of  the  city  was  in  1790, 
33,131;  1810,  96,373;  Ig2o,  123,706;  1840,  312,710;  1860,  805,658;  1870, 
942,292;  1880,  1,206,299;  1890,  1,515,301. 

"  New  York  Gazette,"  established  as  first  news  journal  of  New  York  by 
William  Bradford  in  New  York  City,  1725.  It  was  discontinued  about  1742, 
but  was  begun  again  the  same  year  by  James  Parker  as  the  Gazette  and 
Weekly  Post  Boy.  Parker  formed  a  partnership  with  Holt.  The  latter 
published  the  paper  alone  for  some  years,  but  then  relinquished  it  to  Parker, 
when  he  started  his  Journal.  Parker  died  in  1770,  and  the  Gazette  survived 
him  only  two  years,  most  of  its  subscribers  having  followed  Holt  and  the 
Journal.  It  was  finally  suspended  in  1772.  This  newspaper  was  the  organ 
of  the  New  York  government  and  steadily  supported  the  latter  through  a 
period  of  bitter  controversy. 

"  New  York  Herald,"  established  May  6,  1835,  by  James  Gordon  Bennett. 
The  price  was  one  penny,  and  the  first  numbers  were  printed  on  a  four  page 
paper  30  x  24.  The  Herald  was  a  lively  competitor  with  the  Sun  for  the 
support  of  the  masses.  From  its  beginning  a  specialty  was  made  of  ship- 
ping news.  The  editor  proposed  that  the  Herald  should  be  an  independent 
journal.  The  price  was  afterward  raised  to  three  cents. 

New  York  Historical  Society  was  founded  in  1804  and  incorporated  in 
1809.  It  has  published  twenty-five  volumes  of  "  Collections,"  and  four  vol- 
umes of  its  proceedings. 

"  New  York  Packet  and  American  Advertiser."  This  newspaper  was 
founded  in  &ew  York  City,  in  1776,  by  Samuel  London  and  was  at  first 
issued  as  a  weekly.  It  was  afterward  removed  to  Fishkill,  but  brought  back 
to  New  York  after  the  Revolution  and  published  there  during  several  years 
as  a  daily.  It  was  then  suspended. 

"  New  York  Sun,"  first  successful  penny  paper  established  in  the  United 
States.  It  was  founded  in  September,  1833,  by  Benjamin  H.  Day,  a  printer, 
who  promised  in  his  prospectus  to  publish  all  the  news  of  the  day  for  one 
penny.  The  success  of  the  paper  was  due  rather  to  the  demand  of  the  people 
for  such  a  journal  than  to  its  able  management.  The  first  number  was  a 
folio  of  twelve  columns,  ten  inches  to  the  column.  The  price  was  raised  to 
'•TWO  cents  per  copy  after  the  Civil  War. 

;<  New  York  Times,"  established  in  1850  by  Henry  J.  Raymond,  who  had 
been  associated  with  Horace  Greeley  in  the  editorship  of  the  Tribune.  The 
Times  had  a  strong  financial  backing  and  gained  an  immediate  success.  It 
became  a  member  of  the  Associated  Press  in  the  year  of  its  initial  appear- 
ance, and  remained  one  of  the  most  important  of  American  papers. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  453 

"  New  York  Tribune,"  established  April  10,  1841,  by  Horace  Greeley,  as 
a  penny  paper.  Its  success  was  assured  from  the  start,  although  the  Sun 
endeavored  to  hinder  its  circulation.  Greeley's  assistants  were  Henry  J. 
Raymond,  and  Charles  A.  Dana,  present  editor  of  the  New  York  Sun. 
George  William  Curtis,  Bayard  Taylor,  Albert  Brisbane  and  other  distin- 
guished writers  contributed  to  its  columns. 

"  New  York  Weekly  Journal,"  the  second  newspaper  issued  in  the  colony 
of  New  York.  It  is  considered  a  prototype  of  the  modern  American  politi- 
cal journal.  John  Peter  Zenger  established  this  paper  in  New  York  City  in 
1733,  the  first  issue  appearing  November  3.  It  was  founded  avowedly  for 
the  purpose  of  opposing  the  administration  of  Governor  Cosby.  The 
columns  were  filled  with  sharp  criticisms  and  poetical  fusillades,  contributed 
by  opponents  of  the  Government.  Its  publication  was  suspended  in  1752, 
but  revived  by  John  Holt  in  1766,  with  new  types  and  printing  apparatus. 

Newark,  N.  J.,  was  founded  in  1666  by  a  company  of  Puritans  from  Con- 
necticut. It  was  at  first  governed  mainly  according  to  Mosaic  law.  During 
the  Revolution  the  town  was  Several  times  ravaged. 

Newberry,  John  S.  (1822-1892),  geologist,  has  made  extensive  exploration 
in  the  Western  United  States,  which  revealed  the  vast  resources  of  the  West. 
He  conducted  the  Mississippi  Valley  Sanitary  Department  from  1861  to 
1866. 

Newburg,  N.  Y.,  founded  in  1708  by  a  band  of  Germans  under  a  grant 
from  Queen  Anne.  The  town  was  afterward  settled  chiefly  by  the  Scotch 
and  English,  who  gave  it  the  name  of  Newburg  in  1743.  A  new  patent 
was  obtained  in  1752,  and  the  town  was  systematically  laid  out.  In  1782, 
after  the  defeat  of  Cornwallis,  Washington  encamped  his  army  at  Newburg. 
Here  the  army  was  disbanded  April  19,  1783. 

Newburg  Addresses,  two  anonymous  appeals  issued  in  1783  to  the 
officers  of  Washington's  army,  then  encamped  at  Newburg,  to  hold  a 
meeting  for  the  consideration  of  the  question  of  the  money  then  due  them 
by  Congress.  The  addresses  were  written  by  Captain  Armstrong,  of  Penn- 
sylvania, and  were  supposed  to  have  been  instigated  by  the  Gates  faction. 
Washington  immediately  denounced  the  meeting  as  subversive  of  discipline, 
and  called  a  regular  meeting  of  the  officers  for  March  16.  *Gates  was  placed 
in  the  chair,  and  Washington's  friends  carried  motions  declaring  "  their 
unshaken  confidence  in  Congress,"  and  denouncing  the  "infamous  pro- 
posals "  of  the  anonymous  addresses. 

Newburyport,  Mass.,  was  settled  in  1635.  It  was  distinguished  for  its 
patriotism  during  the  Revolution  and  in  the  War  of  1812,  and  was  down 
to  that  time  an  important  shipping  port. 

Newcomb,  Simon,  born  in  1835,  came  to  the  United  States  from  Canada 
in  1853.  Since  1884  he  has  been  professor  of  mathematics  in  the  Johns 
Hopkins  University.  For  his  astronomical  work  he  has  received  the  highest 
honors  at  home  and  abroad. 

Newgate  Prison.     (See  Simsbury.) 


454  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Newmarket,  in  the  southwestern  part  of  Virginia.  Near  this  place,  May 
15,  1864,  Sigel,  with  10,000  Federal  troops,  was  defeated  by  Breckinridge, 
commanding  about  an  equal  force  of  Confederates.  The  Federals  were  aiming 
at  the  Confederate  resources  near  Staunton  and  Lynchburg,  and  Breckin- 
ridge moved  to  meet  them.  There  was  some  skirmishing  and  then  Breck- 
inridge ordered  a  charge  which  decided  the  day.  In  this  fight  225  cadets 
from  the  Virginia  Military  Institute  took  part. 

Newport,  Christopher,  born  in  England  about  1565,  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  Jamestown,  Va.,  in  1606.  In  1608  he  brought  settlers  and  sup- 
plies to  the  colonists  from  England  and  returned  with  a  cargo  of  yellow 
mica,  thinking  it  was  gold.  He  again  came  over  in  1610  with  Lord  Dela- 
ware. He  returned  to  England  in  1612.  He  wrote  "Discoveries  in 
America." 

Newport,  R.  I.,  was  settled  in  1638  by  a  party  of  colonists  from  Massa- 
chusetts under  William  Coddington.  Newport  was  in  the  last  century  an 
important  seat  of  commerce.  It  early  resisted  the  overbearing  policy  of  the 
British  Government,  and  her  citizens  burned  the  English  sloop  "  Liberty," 
stationed  in  the  harbor  to  exact  an  unpopular  tax.  During  the  Revolution 
8,000  British  and  Hessian  troops  held  the  town  and  committed  ravages  on 
all  sides.  On  their  retirement  many  prominent  Loyalist  citizens  emigrated 
with  them.  Newport  contains  the  "  Old  Stone  Mill,"  supposed  by  some  to 
have  been  built  by  the  Northmen.  It  was  permanently  incorporated  as  a 
city  in  1853. 

"Newport  Mercury,"  the  second  newspaper  published  in  Rhode  Island. 
It  was  founded  and  edited  by  James  Franklin,  and  the  first  numbers 
appeared  at  Newport  in  September,  1758.  This  journal  attained  consider- 
able success,  becoming  at  once  self-supporting.  It  has  never  been  suspended 
since  the  first  publication,  and  continues  at  the  present  time  under  the 
original  title. 

Newspapers.  The  first  genuine  newspaper  established  in  the  United 
States  was  the  Boston  News  Letter,  founded  at  Boston  in  1704  by  Postmaster 
John  Campbell,  and  continued  until  1776.  Previous  to  this  there  had  been 
issued  at  Boston  three  publications  of  one  number  each.  Of  these  the  first, 
called  a  Newspaper  Extraordinary,  consisted  wholly  of  extracts  from  a  letter 
of  Dr.  Increase  Mather,  who  was  then  in  London  endeavoring  to  obtain  a 
new  charter  for  Massachusetts.  This  letter  was  published  by  Samuel  Green 
in  1689.  On  September  25,  1690,  appeared  the  first  and  only  number  of 
Publick  Occurrences  Foreign  and  Domestic,  issued  by  Benjamin  Harris.  The 
authorities  promptly  seized  and  suppressed  the  paper  as  "  a  pamphlet  pub- 
lished contrary  to  law  and  containing  reflections  of  a  very  high  nature."  In 
1697  B.  Green  and  J.  Allen  republished  a  news  letter,  bearing  no  title,  which 
had  been  issued  in  London  the  same  year.  It  was  printed  on  a  single  page, 
and  contained  small  news  items  from  the  continent.  After  the  Boston  News 
tetter,  there  appeared  in  1719  the  Boston  Gazette,  Andrew  Bradford  issuing 
the  American  Weekly  Mercury  at  Philadelphia  the  same  year.  James 
Franklin  established  the  New  England  Courant  at  Boston  two  years  later. 
This  was  suppressed  for  its  attacks  upon  the  Government  and  clergy,  but  was 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  455 

revived  by  Benjamin  Franklin.  William  Bradford  began  the  Gazette  at 
New  York  in  1725,  and  John  Peter  Zenger  the  New  York  Weekly  Journal 
in  1733,  in  the  cause  of  the  people  against  the  Colonial  Government.  Zen- 
ger's  paper  may  be  regarded  as  a  prototype  of  the  modern  news  journal. 
Newspapers  were  founded  in  the  other  colonies  in  the  following  order:  In 
Maryland,  at  Annapolis,  in  1727;  in  South  Carolina,  at  Charleston,  in  1731; 
in  Rhode  Island,  at  Newport,  in  1731;  in  Virginia,  at  Williamsburg,  in  1736; 
in  North  Carolina,  at  New  Berne,  in  1755;  in  Connecticut,  at  New  Haven, 
in  1755;  in  New  Hampshire,  at  Portsmouth,  in  1756;  in  Georgia,  at  Savan- 
nah, in  1763;  in  Vermont,  at  Westminster,  in  1781.  Between  1704  and  1775 
seventy-eight  different  newspapers  had  been  printed  with  varied  success  in 
the  colonies.  Of  these,  thirty-nine  were  in  actual  process  of  publication  at 
the  outbreak  of  the  Revolution.  The  papers  most  influential  in  advancing 
the  revolutionary  cause  were  the  Boston  Gazette  and  the  Massachusetts  Spy. 
On  the  British  occupation  of  Boston,  New  York  and  Philadelphia,  most  of 
the  Whig  journals  were  suspended.  It  has  been  estimated  that  the  thirty- 
nine  newspapers  of  1775  circulated  about  1,200,000  copies  annually.  After 
the  Federal  Constitution  was  adopted  the  newspapers  fell  largely  into  the 
hands  of  English  immigrants,  men  of  versatility  and  talent.  Violent  parti- 
san controversies  arose.  The  most  influential  papers  of  this  period  were  the 
Columbian  Centinel,  published  at  Boston  during  forty  years,  commencing  in 
1784,  by  Benjamin  Russell;  the  New  York  Minerva,  established  at  New 
York  in  1793  by  Noah  Webster;  the  New  York  Evening  Post,  established  as 
the  central  organ  of  the  Federalists  in  1801;  the  Philadelphia  Aurora, 
founded  by  Benjamin  Franklin  Bache  in  1790,  and  afterward  edited  with 
vindictive  partisanship  by  William  Duane,  an  Englishman;  the  Philadelphia 
National  Gazette,  established  in  1791  by  Philip  Freneau;  and  the  National 
Intelligencer,  established  at  Washington  by  Samuel  H.  Smith  in  1800.  The 
first  daily  newspaper  was  the  American  Daily  Advertiser,  appearing  in  Phila- 
delphia in  1784.  In  1810  there  were  twenty-seven  daily  newspapers  in 
existence.  They  were  published  in  New  York,  Boston,  Philadelphia,  Balti- 
more, New  Orleans,  Charleston,  Alexandria,  Va.,  and  Georgetown,  D .  C. 
By  1880  they  had  increased  to  968.  The  first  penny  paper  was  the  New 
York  Sun,  established  in  1833  by  Benjamin  Day.  The  first  Sunday  paper 
was  the  Sunday  Courier,  appearing  in  New  York  in  1825,  w^tn  ^ut  little 
success.  The  chief  period  of  the  political  influence  of  editors  in  the 
United  States  was  that  beginning  in  1830  and  ending  after  the  war.  Before 
that  date  the  editor  was  often  of  little  account,  but  from  1830  to  1870  the 
paper  was  often  known  chiefly  as  the  organ  of  the  individual  editor's 
opinions. 

Newton,  John,  born  in  1823,  commanded  a  brigade  at  South  Mountain 
and  Antietam.  He  commanded  a  division  at  Fredericksburg  and  Chancel- 
lorsville  and  a  corps  at  Gettysburg.  He  superintended  the  remove!  of 
obstructions  in  Hell  Gate,  N.  Y.,  in  1885.  Died  1895. 

Nez  Perces,  an  Indian  tribe  in  Idaho.  They  have  remained  friendly  Co 
the  whites,  covering  Colonel  Steptoe's  retreat  in  the  Oregon  War.  In  1 0-74 
they  disposed  of  a  part  of  their  land,  and  a  part  went  on  a  reservation. 


456  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Niagara,  Fort.  During  the  French  War,  in  the  summer  of  1759,  the  Eng- 
lish under  Prideaux  laid  siege  to  Fort  Niagara,  which  was  defended  by  a  garri- 
son of  600.  Prideaux  was  reinforced  by  Johnson  with  2300,  partly  Indians. 
After  a  few  weeks  an  attempt  was  made  to  succor  the  French.  This  party 
was  beaten  off  and  no  alternative  was  left  but  to  surrender.  This  the  garrison 
did  with  honors  of  war  on  July  24.  By  the  capture  of  Niagara,  the  English 
cut  off  the  French  from  all  their  posts  in  the  interior. — In  the  War  of  1812, 
on  November  21,  1812,  a  severe  bombardment  was  opened  against  this  fort 
from  the  British  fortifications  on  the  Canadian  side.  The  artillery  duel  lasted 
all  day,  resulting  in  slight  damage  to  the  fort  and  the  loss  of  four  killed 
and  five  wounded.  Later,  in  retaliation  for  the  burning  of  Newark  by  the 
Americans,  Colonel  Murray,  with  about  1000  British  and  Indians,  crossed  over 
from  Canada,  December  19, 1813,  and  made  a  night  attack  upon  the  fort.  The 
main  gate,  through  gross  negligence,  was  found  wide  open,  the  commander 
was  away  and  the  men  asleep  !  The  fort  was  captured  without  much  diffi- 
culty, but  some  slight  resistance  aroused  the  passions  of  the  British  and  a 
number  of  Americans  were  massacred.  From  this  point  as  a  centre  the 
whole  Niagara  frontier  was  ravaged  and  made  desolate.  With  the  fort  were 
captured  344  men  and  immense  stores  of  arms,  ammunition  and  military 
supplies. 

Niagara  Falls,  so  called  from  an  Iroquois  Indian  word  meaning  the  "  thunder 
of  water."  It  was  first  visited  and  described  in  1678  by  a  French  missionary, 
Father  Hennepin.  In  1751  Kalm,  a  Swedish  naturalist,  published  a  descrip- 
tion of  the  Falls  in  the  Gentlemarts  Magazine.  Professor  James  Hall  made 
a  trigonometrical  survey  and  a  map  of  the  Falls  for  the  United  States  Coast 
Survey  in  1842. 

Nicaragua.  (See  also  Walker,  William.)  A  commercial  treaty  was  con- 
cluded between  the  United  States  and  Nicaragua  in  1867  by  which  Nicaragua 
grants  free  transit  to  the  United  States  in  consideration  of  the  guarantee  of 
the  neutrality  of  routes  of  communication  between  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific. 
An  extradition  convention  was  concluded  in  1870  and  a  reciprocity  treaty  in 
1892. 

Nicaragua  Canal.  The  Maritime  Canal  Company  of  Nicaragua,  capital 
$100,000,000,  was  incorporated  under  a  charter  granted  by  Congress  in  1889, 
permission  having  been  previously  obtained  from  the  Nicaragua  Government 
for  the  exclusive  right  of  constructing  and  operating  an  inter-oceanic  ship 
canal.  Excavations  were  begun  October  8,  1891,  at  San  Juan  del  Norte,  or 
Greytown.  The  total  length  of  the  proposed  waterway  is  169^3  miles.  The 
reservoirs  of  Lakes  Nicaragua  and  Managua  furnish  an  adequate  high  water 
level  supply.  In  1892  the  canal  had  been  opened  one  mile  from  Greytown. 
The  sum  then  expended  in  plant  and  work  amounted  to  $600,000.  A  bill 
reported  unanimously  by  the  Senate  Foreign  Committee,  recommending  a 
government  guarantee  of  $100,000,000,  has  been  withrawn. 

Nichola,  Lewis  (1717-1807),  came  to  America  from  Ireland  in  1766.  He 
was  of  great  service  to  the  colonies  during  the  Revolution  by  his  military 
knowledge  and  suggestions.  He  was  brevetted  brigadier-general  in  1783. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  457* 

Nicholas,  Wilson  C.  (1757-1820),  became  an  officer  in  the  colonial  army 
and  commanded  Washington's  life-guard  until  1783.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  Virginia  Convention  that  ratified  the  Federal  Constitution.  He  repre- 
sented Virginia  in  the  U.  S.  Senate  as  a  Democrat  from  1800  to  1804  and  in 
the  House  from  1807  to  1809.  He  was  Governor  of  Virginia  from  1814  to 
1817. 

Nicholson,  Alfred  O.  P.  (1808-1876),  represented  Tennessee  in  the  U.  S. 
Senate  as  a  Democrat  from  1841  to  1843  and  from  1859  to  1861.  He  wrote 
the  famous  "  Nicholson  Letter  "  to  aspirants  for  the  Presidential  nomination 
in  1848. 

Nicholson,  Sir  Francis,  colonial  Governor,  died  in  1728.  He  was  Lieuten- 
ant-Governor  of  New  York  in  1688,  Governor  of  Virginia  from  1690  to 
1692  and  from  1699  to  1705,  and  of  Maryland  from  1694  to  1699.  He  com- 
manded at  Port  Royal  in  1710.  He  was  Governor  of  Nova  Scotia  from  1712 
to  1717  and  of  South  Carolina  from  1721  to  1725. 

Nicholson,  James  W.  A.  (1821-1887),  commanded  the  "  Isaac  Smith"  at 
Port  Royal  in  1861.  From  1863  to  1864  he  commanded  the  "Shamrock" 
and  in  1864  the  monitor  "  Manhattan"  at  Fort  Gaines  and  Fort  Morgan. 

Nicolay,  John  G.,  born  in  1832,  came  to  America  from  Bavaria  in  1838. 
He  was  secretary  to  President  Lincoln  from  1860  to  1865.  He  was  U.  S. 
Consul  at  Paris  from  1865  to  1869.  He  wrote  "  The  Outbreak  of  the  Rebel- 
lion," and,  with  Colonel  John  Hay,  a  voluminous  work  called  "  Abraham 
Lincoln:  a  History." 

Nicolet,  Jean,  a  French  trader  and  explorer,  who  traveled  as  far  west  as 
Wisconsin  about  1634.  His  reports  of  the  Mississippi  led  the  Jesuits  to 
believe  it  a  passage  to  India. 

Nicollet,  Jean  N.  (1786-1843),  came  to  America  from  France  in  1832. 
He  carefully  explored  the  Mississippi  Valley,  making  scientific  observations 
and  collecting  valuable  ethnological  information.  He  prepared  a  map  of 
the  West  for  the  Government. 

Nicolls,  Sir  Richard  (1624-1672),  came  to  America  with  a  fleet  from  Eng- 
land in  1664.  New  Netherlands  surrendered  to  him  without  resistance,  and 
he  remained  Governor  till  his  resignation  in  1667.  He  changed  the  name 
to  New  York,  published  the  first  code  of  English  law  in  America,  estab- 
lished English  municipal  government  in  the  city,  and  managed  the  affairs  of 
the  colony  most  creditably. 

Niles,  Hezekiah  (1777-1839),  was  the  founder  of  Nile?  Register,  a  weekly 
journal,  which  he  edited  from  1811  to  1836,  and  published  "  The  Principles 
and  Acts  of  the  American  Revolution." 

Niles,  John  M.  (1787-1856),  represented  Connecticut  in  the  U.  S.  Senate 
as  a  Democrat  from  1835  to  1839,  and  from  1843  to  1849.  He  was  Post- 
master-General in  Van  Buren's  Cabinet  from  1840  to  1841. 

"  Niles's  Register,"  a  weekly  journal  established  at  Baltimore  by  Heze- 
kiah Niles  in  1811,  and  discontinued  by  his  son  in  1849.  It  was  a  weekly 


458 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 


repository  of  the  documentary  and  political  history  of  the  country,  reported 
with  impartiality  and  fidelity.  These  reports  were  made  with  a  fullness  not 
attempted  by  the  local  newspapers.  Niles's  Register  had  a  large  circulation 
for  many  years.  It  is  frequently  quoted  by  historical  writers. 

Ninety-Six,  Fort,  Evacuation  of,  June  29,  1781.  One  by  one  the  British 
had  evacuated  the  strongholds  in  the  interior  of  South  Carolina.  Fort 
Ninety-Six  alone  remained  in  their  possession.  This  was  strongly  garrisoned 
and  held  out  against  Greene  for  twenty-eight  days.  Rawdon  then  appeared 
with  2000  men  and  Greene  prudently  retired.  The  British  General,  however, 
could  not  hold  the  fort  and  keep  his  army  so  far  from  the  sea-board.  Accord- 
ingly he  evacuated  it  and  retired  upon  Charleston. 

Nipmucks,  a  tribe  of  New  England  Indians,  situated  in  southern-central 
Massachusetts.  The  majority  of  the  Nipmucks  did  not  at  first  join  with 
Philip  in  his  war  against  the  colonists,  but  were  active  against  the  English 
during  the  struggle  in  Connecticut  (1675).  In  January,  1676,  the  remnant 
of  Philip's  tribe,  with  the  Narragansetts,  the  Quaboag  and  River  Indians, 
effected  a  junction  with  the  Nipmucks.  On  the  overthrow  of  Philip  the 
Nipmucks  fled  north  and  west. 

Nixon,  John  (1733-1808),  of  Massachusetts,  was  prominent  in  the  pre-revo- 
lutionary  movements.  He  commanded  at  Fort  Island  in  1776,  and  led 
a  battalion  at  Princeton.  He  was  president  of  the  Bank  of  North  America 
from  1792  to  1808. 

No  Man's  Land.  In  1845  Texas,  on  being  admitted  into  the  Union, 
ceded  to  the  United  States  that  strip  of  her  land  which  lay  north  of  36°  30' 
North  latitude.  This  piece,  167  miles  by  35,  was  without  government  until 
1890,  when  it  became  a  part  of  Oklahoma. 

Noah,  Mordecai  M.  (1785-1851),  was  Consul-General  at  Tunis  from  1813 
to  1816.  He  edited  the  Democratic  National  Advocate  from  i'8i6  to  1826. 
He  attempted  to  organize  an  establishment  of  the  Jews  at  Grand  Island  in 
Niagara  River. 

Noble,  John  W.,  born  in  1831,  served  during  the  Civil  War.  He  was 
Secretary  of  the  Interior  in  Harrison's  Cabinet  from  1889  to  1893. 

Nominations.  In  the  earlier  stages  of  American  political  development, 
nominations  to  elective  offices  were  made  by  private,  informal  agreements 
among  active  politicians,  or  by  the  more  organized  caucus;  or  else  the  candi- 
date announced  his  candidacy  publicly,  and  ran  for  the  office  without  other 
nomination.  Next  came  the  legislative  caucus.  From  1796  to  1816  candi- 
dates for  the  Presidency,  for  one  party  or  the  other,  were  selected  by  caucuses 
of  the  members  of  Congress  belonging  to  that  party.  The  practice  fell  into 
dislike  by  1824  (see  Caucus).  Nominations  of  State  officers  to  be  elected  by 
the  people  were  similarly  made  by  party  caucuses  in  the  Legislature.  But 
this  gave,  in  the  case  of  a  given  party,  no  representation  of  those  districts 
whose  legislative  delegates  were  not  of  that  party.  Hence  arose  a  modification 
of  the  caucus,  the  caucus  being  supplemented  by  the  addition  of  delegates 
specially  sent  up  from  those  unrepresented  districts.  From  this  developed 
the  nominating  convention  pure  and  simple  (see  art.  Convention,  Nominating) 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  459 

and  this  institution,  developed  in  the  States,  was  soon  transferred  to  the 
Federal  arena. — In  the  case  of  most  U.  S.  officers  of  importance,  not  elected 
by  the  people,  the  President  nominates,  subject  to  confirmation  by  the  Senate, 
as  provided  by  the  Constitution  of  1787.  See  arts.  Removals,  and  Tenure 
of  Office  Act. 

Non-Importation  Agreement,  a  compact  entered  into  by  the  merchants 
of  New  York  and  Boston  in  1765,  unanimously  binding  themselves  to  order 
no  new  merchandise  from  England  and  to  countermand  old  orders.  This 
was  in  retaliation  for  the  Stamp  Act.  The  agreement  was  rendered  in  1767 
in  consequence  of  the  Townshend  Acts  and  was  strictly  observed  until  1770, 
when  tea  only  was  prohibited. 

Non-intercourse  Act,  an  Act  of  Congress  passed  March  1, 1809,  to  be  sub- 
stituted for  the  Non-importation  Act  and  the  embargo.  It  was  to  continue 
until  the  next  session  of  Congress,  but  was  revived  by  the  Acts  of  June  28, 
1809,  May  i,  1810,  and  March  .2,  1811.  It  forbade  the  entrance  to  American 
ports  of  public  or  private  British  or  French  vessels,  all  commercial  inter- 
course with  France  or  Great  Britain,  and  the  importation,  after  May  20,  1809, 
of  goods  grown  or  manufactured  in  France  or  Great  Britain  or  their  colonies. 

Nootka  Sound.  In  1789  the  Spaniards  seized  a  number  of  British  vessels 
in  Nootka  Sound,  in  what  was  then  called  California,  on  the  ground  that  they 
were  intruding  on  Spanish  possessions.  War  nearly  resulted.  But  by  the 
provisions  of  the  so-called  Nootka  Convention,  October  28,  1790,  England 
and  Spain  agreed  to  trade  along  the  coast  side  by  side,  respecting  each  other's 
settlements. 

Nordhoff,  Charles,  born  in  1830,  came  to  America  from  Prussia  in  1843. 
He  has  been  Washington  correspondent  of  the  New  York  Herald  since  1871. 
He  wrote  "  Secession  in  Rebellion,"  "  The  Freedmen  of  South  Carolina," 
"  The  Communistic  Societies  of  the  United  States  "  and  "  Politics  for  Young 
Americans." 

Norfolk,  Va.,  was  founded  in  1705  and  became  a  city  in  1845.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  Revolution,  December  9,  1775,  a  skirmish  took  place  at 
Norfolk  between  Virginia  sharpshooters  and  Governor  Dunmore,  who  had 
erected  a  fort  to  guard  the  southern  approach  to  Norfolk  against  any  chance 
rebels.  After  a  hot  fire  of  fifteen  minutes,  in  which  the  Governor's  force 
lost  sixty-seven  men,  the  loyalists  retired.  The  Governor  sought  the  fleet 
and  in  revenge  fired  the  town  with  red-hot  shot.  Norfolk  was  scourged  by 
the  yellow  fever  in  1855.  During  the  early  part  of  the  Civil  War  Norfolk 
was  the  principal  naval  depot  of  the  Confederacy.  The  Union  troops 
obtained  possession  of  the  city  May  19,  1862,  and  held  it  for  the  remainder 
of  the  war. 

Normand,  Jacques  E.  (1809-1867),  came  as  an  exile  to  the  United  States 
from  France  in  1848.  He  established  the  communistic  colony  of  La 
Reunion  in  Texas  in  1851,  which  was  afterward  expelled  by  the  Govern- 
ment. He  has  published  numerous  works  on  communism. 

Norsemen.  The  vikings  of  Norway  and  Iceland  are  represented  in  the 
Icelandic  sagas  as  ^v'ug  voyaged  to  America  about  the  year  1000.  The 


460  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATUS  HISTORY. 

most  famous  of  these  accounts  is  that  respecting  Leif  Ericsson  (see  art.). 
The  sagas  speak  of  settlements  made  on  this  coast,  which  maintained  their 
connection  with  Greenland  and  the  other  Norse  countries  for  several  cen- 
turies. Attempts  have  been  made  to  locate  iLcse  settlements  at  given  points 
on  the  American  coast,  as  in  Rhode  Island,  but  with  little  success,  it  is 
believed  by  the  most  scientific  authorities.  The  name  of  their  chief  settle- 
ment was  Vinland.  Columbus  is  supposed  by  many  to  have  obtained  knowl- 
edge of  their  voyages.  The  idea  of  connecting  the  Old  Mill  at  Newport 
with  the  Norsemen  is  now  abandoned. 

North,  Frederick,  Earl  of  Guilford  (1733-1792),  known  as  Lord  North 
until  1790,  became  a  Lord  of  the  Treasury  in  1763.  In  1765  he  advocated 
the  Stamp  Act  and  maintained  the  right  of  England  to  tax  the  colonies. 
He  was  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer  and  leader  of  the  House  of  Commons 
in  1767.  From  1770  to  1782  he  was  First  Lord  of  the  Treasury  and  Prime 
Minister  of  England.  He  followed  the  policy  of  George  III.  in  the  coercion 
of  the  colonies  and  proposed  the  enforcement  of  the  tea  duty  in  1773  and 
the  Boston  port  bill  in  1774.  As  head  of  the  government  he  managed  the 
war  against  America.  After  Yorktown,  the  failure  of  the  king's  efforts 
being  manifest,  he  resigned. 

"  North  American  Review,"  a  review  founded  in  1815  by  William 
Tudor,  at  Boston,  and  originally  published  every  two  months,  though  now  a 
monthly.  Among  its  contents  were  found,  beside  reviews,  a  variety  of  mis- 
cellaneous and  poetical  articles.  It  soon  passed  into  the  control  of  an  asso- 
ciation of  literary  men,  who  met  regularly  in  their  editorial  capacity.  Many 
changes  were  made  in  the  magazine  and  an  uniform  high  standard  was 
maintained  throughout.  Its  earlier  files  contain  the  best  collection  of 
American  literary,  political,  critical  and  scientific  thought  during  the  first 
sixty  or  seventy  years  from  its  foundation. 

North  Anna  River,  Va.,  a  two  days'  conflict  during  the  Civil  War.  Grant 
commanding  127,000  Federals  was  endeavoring  to  push  on  to  Richmond, 
while  Lee  opposed  him  with  110,000  Confederates.  The  fight  occurred  May 
23  and  25,  1864.  When  Grant  arrived  at  the  North  Anna  River  he  found 
Lee's  lines  drawn  up  in  a  strong  position  on  the  other  side  of  the  stream. 
Warren  was  dispatched  across  the  Jericho  Ford  by  Grant  to  attack  Lee's 
left,  it  being  his  weak  point.  It  was  soon  strengthened,  but  Warren  man- 
aged to  repulse  Hill's  assault  and  finally  drove  the  Confederates  back  and 
entrenched  himself  near  their  position,  after  capturing  1000  prisoners.  Han- 
cock meantime  had  driven  McLaws  from  an  ugly  fortification  at  the  Chester- 
field bridge.  Grant  thought  that  his  passage  of  the  river  was  assured  on 
the  24th,  but  Lee  had  chosen  an  impregnable  position  along  the  North  Anna 
and  Little  rivers  and  some  marshes.  When  Burnside  attempted  to  cross  on 
the  25th,  his  advance  division  under  Crittenden  was  driven  back  with  fearful 
slaughter.  Grant  therefore  decided  to  retire,  June  26th. 

North  Bend,  Ohio,  noted  for  a  time  as  the  place  of  residence  of  William 
Henry  Harrison. 

North  Carolina  was  one  of  the  original  thirteen  colonies.  The  first 
attempts  to  make  a  settlement  were  made  by  Raleigh.  His  failures  caused 


I 

I- « 

I  - 


GENERALS  OF  CIVIL  WAR. 

George  Gordon   Meade.  D.   C.   Buell.  James  B.    McPherson.  Joseph   Hooker 

A.    E.    Burnside.  George   B.   McClellan.  Nathaniel   P.   Banks.  W.   S.   Rosecranz. 

Philip   H.   Sheridan.  Ulysses  S.   Grant.  William  T.   Sherman. 

Benjamin   F.   Butler.  Irvin   McDowell.  John  A.    Logan.  Winfield   S.   Hancock. 

Da/id   Hunter.  Henry  W.   Halleck.  George  H.   Thomas.  John   Pope, 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  461 

a  prejudice  against  the  region.  Soon  after  the  settlement  of  Virginia,  1607, 
the  territory  was  explored  and  small  settlements  made  by  hunters  and  adven- 
turers from  Virginia.  Charles  I.  gave  the  territory  to  his  attorney-general, 
Sir  Robert  Heath,  in  1629.  In  J653,  Roger  Greene  with  Virginian  dissent- 
ers founded  the  first  permanent  settlement  in  North  Carolina,  at  Albemarle. 
A  party  of  New  Englanders  made  a  settlement  on  the  Cape  Fear  River, 
1660,  but  soon  left  the  country  in  disgust  and  were  followed  by  a  company 
from  Barbadoes  who,  in  1665,  established  the  colony  of  Clarendon,  on  the 
Cape  Fear  River.  In  1663,  Charles  II.  gave  both  Carolinas  to  eight  of  his 
favorites.  The  territory  extended  to  the  parallel  36°  30'  on  the  north,  to 
29°  on  the  south,  and  west  to  the  South  Sea.  The  king  gave  a  charter  to 
the  proprietors  in  1665,  and  in  1669  the  colonial  Legislature  attempted  to 
attract  immigrants  by  a  law  which  prevented  the  collection  of  all  debts 
incurred  'by  settlers  before  moving  to  the  Carolinas.  In  the  same  year 
Locke's  Fundamental  Constitutions  attempted  to  institute  the  feudal  system, 
but  without  success,  and  in  1693  the  attempt  was  abandoned.  In  1700  the 
two  colonies  were  separated,  and  in  1729  North  Carolina  became  a  royal 
colony.  In  May,  1775,  the  "Mecklenburg  -Declaration  of  Independence"  is 
said  to  have  been  issued  by  the  inhabitants  of  Mecklenburg  County  (see 
art).  The  first  State  Constitution  was  made  in  1776  (the  present  in  1868). 
The  population  of  the  State  was  large  but  ill-organized  at  the  time  of  the 
Revolution.  The  State  refused  to  ratify  the  national  Constitution  until 
1789,  and  was  thus  next  to  the  last  of  the  thirteen  States  to  accept  that 
document.  The  State  was  Democratic  until  1840,  when  it  was  controlled 
by  the  Whigs  until  1852,  since  which  date  it  has  been  Democratic.  In 
1 860-6 1,  the  sentiment  was  at  first  decidedly  opposed  to  secession  on  the 
ground  that  it  would  be  impolitic;  but  upon  Lincoln's  call  for  troops,  the 
Legislature  in  special  session  called  a  State  Convention,  which  on  May  20, 
1 86 1,  passed  a  secession  ordinance.  North  Carolina  was  dissatisfied  with 
the  Confederate  Government,  and  it  was  even  proposed  to  secede  from  the 
Confederacy.  North  Carolina  was  restored  to  her  place  in  the  Union  July 
n,  1868.  In  1869  the  Ku  Klux  Klan  appeared  in  Alamance  and  Caswell 
Counties,  and  Federal  aid  was  solicited  by  Governor  Holden.  In  1868  and 
1872,  Grant  carried  the  State  for  the  Republicans.  Since  that  time  the 
State  has  been  Democratic.  The  population  of  the  State  in  1790  was  393,- 
751;  in  1890  it  was  1,617,947.  History  by  Moore. 

North  Carolina,  University  of,  at  Chapel  Hill,  was  chartered  in  1787  and 
organized  eight  years  later. 

"  North  Carolina  Gazette,"  the  first  newspaper  issued  in  North  Carolina. 
It  was  established  at  New  Berne  in  1749  by  James  Davis.  Its  publication 
was  suspended  in  1761,  but  it  was  revived  in  1768.  Publication  was  finally 
suspended  at  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolutionary  War. 

North  Carolina  Historical  Society,  founded  in  1840,  but  not  chartered 
until  1875.  Its  headquarters  are  at  Chapel  Hill. 

North  Dakota  was  originally  n  part  of  the  Louisiana  cession.  Before 
the  settlement  of  the  boundary  between  the  United  States  and  Canada  it 
was  under  British  rule.  A  settlement  was  made  at  Pembina  in  1812  by 


462 


DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 


Lord  Selkirk,  who  supposed  that  the  region  belonged  to  the  English.  With 
South  Dakota  it  was  organized  as  the  Territory  of  Dakota  in  1861.  In  1889, 
November  2,  North  Dakota  became  a  State.  A  prohibitory  law  went  into 
effect  July,  1890.  Prior  to  the  appearance  of  the  Farmers'  Alliance  the 
State  was  Republican.  The  population  in  1890  was  182,719. 

North  German  Union.  The  United  States  concluded  a  naturalization 
convention  with  the  North  German  Union  in  1868.  (See  Germany.) 

North  Point  (near  Baltimore).  Here  the  British  force  while  pushing  forward 
to  attack  Baltimore  on  September  12,  1814,  came  upon  the  American  army 
and  immediately  joined  battle.  After  two  hours'  hard  fighting,  the  British 
right  put  to  flight  the  American  left,  which  in  its  retreat  threw  the  rest  of  the 
line  into  confusion  and  forced  a  general  retreat.  The  Americans  fell  back 
toward  Baltimore,  leaving  behind  their  wounded  and  two  field  pieces. 

Northeast  Boundary.  The  Treaty  of  1 783  defined  the  Northeast  boundary 
of  the  United  States,  toward  Canada,  as  extending  from  the  source  of  the  St. 
Croix  due  north  to  the  highlands  or  watershed  between  the  Atlantic  and  St. 
Lawrence  systems,  thence  along  those  highlands  to  the  northwesternmost 
head  of  the  Connecticut  River.  Disputes  over  this  definition  lasted  from 
that  time  to  1842.  In  1831  the  king  of  the  Netherlands,  as  arbitrator,  made 
an  award  which  neither  party  was  willing  to  accept.  Finally,  by  the 
Webster-Ashburton  Treaty  of  1842,  the  present  line  was  agreed  upon,  not 
greatly  differing  from  that  suggested  by  the  Dutch  king,  and  giving  about 
seven-twelfths  of  the  disputed  territory  to  the  United  States  and  about  five- 
twelfths  to  Great  Britain. 

Northup  Case.  Solomon  Northup,  the  son  of  a  freedman,  was  enticed 
from  his  home  in  Saratoga  where  he  had  a  family  and  earned  a  comfortable 
livelihood.  He  was  drugged  and  carried  to  Washington  where  he  was 
placed  in  a  slave  pen.  He  was  then  conveyed  South  and  sold  to  a  hard 
master  with  whom  he  remained  for  twelve  years.  He  was  at  length  rescued 
from  his  servitude  through  the  efforts  of  Northern  friends. 

Northwest  Boundary  Question.  The  territory  bounded  north  by  latitude 
54°  40',  east  by  the  Rocky  Mountains,  south  by  latitude  42°,  and  west  by  the 
Pacific  Ocean  has  been  claimed  at  various  times  and  to  various  extents  by 
Russia,  Spain,  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States.  The  Russian  claim, 
which  rested  mainly  upon  occupation  by  fur  traders,  was  settled  by  a  treaty 
January  n,  1825.  Under  this  treaty  the  United  States  were  to  make  no 
settlements  north  of  latitude  54°  40',  and  Russia  none  south  of  that  latitude. 
England  and  Russia  agreed  upon  the  same  terms.  The  Spanish  claims  were 
confined  south  of  latitude  42°  by  the  treaty  which  ceded  Florida  in  1819. 
Great  Britain  had  little  or  no  claim  by  discovery.  The  United  States'  claim 
rested  upon  the  voyage  of  Gray  up  the  Columbia  River  in  1792,  and  the 
explorations  of  Lewis  and  Clark  through  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  through 
the  Oregon  country  in  1805-06,  under  the  orders  of  Jefferson.  By  the  treaty 
of  October  20,  1818,  the  whole  territory  west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  was 
to  be  opened  to  both  countries  for  ten  years,  and,  in  1827,  the  joint  occupa- 
tion for  an  indefinite  period  was  agreed  upon.  Later  this  produced  dissatis- 
faction, and  after  considerable  negotiation,  Great  Britain  was  induced  in  1846 


DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  463 

to  accept  latitude  49°  as  the  boundary  from  the  Rocky  Mountains  to  the 
channel  between  Vancouver's  Island  and  the  mainland. 

Northwest  Territory,  and  the  Ordinance  of  1787  for  its  government.  The 
Northwest  Territory,  consisting  of  the  area  west  of  Pennsylvania,  north  of 
the  Ohio  River,  and  east  of  the  Mississippi,  came  under  the  control  of  the 
Continental  Congress  by  reason  of  the  cessions  made  by  Virginia  (1784), 
New  York  (1782),  Massachusetts  (1785)  and  Connecticut  (1786).  In  1784 
Jefferson  brought  forward  an  ordinance  for  the  government  of  this  territory. 
Its  leading  features  were  that  it  provided  for  its  erection  into  States,  and  their 
entrance  into  the  Union  on  equal  terms  with  the  rest.  A  clause  which  would 
have  prohibited  slavery  after  1800  was  voted  down.  In  1787  a  new  ordinance 
was  framed  upon  this  and  passed  on  September  13.  The  credit  of  its  final 
form,  including  the  forbidding  of  slavery,  has  been  attributed  to  Nathan  Dane, 
member  of  the  Continental  Congress  from  Massachusetts,  and,  more  largely 
of  late,  to  Dr.  Manasseh  Cutler,  of  the  same  State,  agent  of  the  Ohio  Com- 
pany. The  ordinance  provided  that  no  land  was  to  be  taken  up  until  it  had 
been  purchased  from  the  Indians  and  offered  for  sale  by  the  United  States; 
no  property  qualification  was  required  of  electors  or  elected;  a  temporary 
government,  consisting  of  an  appointed  governor  and  law-making  judges, 
might  be  established  until  the  adult  male  population  of  the  territory  increased 
to  5000;  then  a  permanent  and  representative  government  would  be  per- 
mitted, with  the  right  of  sending  a  representative  to  Congress,  who  should 
debate,  but  not  vote.  When  the  number  of  inhabitants  in  any  of  the  five 
divisions  of  the  territory  equalled  60,000,  it  should  be  admitted  as  a  new 
State;  the  new  States  should  remain  forever  a  part  of  the  United  States; 
should  bear  the  same  relation  to  the  Government  as  the  original  States; 
should  pay  their  apportionment  of  the  Federal  debts;  should  in  their  gov- 
ernments uphold  republican  forms,  and  slavery  should  exist  in  none  of  them. 
It  also  provided  for  equal  division  of  the  property  of  intestates,  and  for  the 
surrender  of  fugitive  slaves  from  the  States.  Under  this  government  Arthur 
St.  Clair  was  Governor  of  the  territory  from  1788  to  1802,  when  Ohio  became 
a  State.  The  western  portions  were  then  organized  as  the  Territory  of 
Indiana,  the  northern  as  the  Territory  of  Michigan,  in  1805. 

Northwestern  University,  Evanston,  111.,  was  founded  by  the  Methodists 
in  1851. 

Norton,  Charles  Eliot,  born  in  1827,  was  associate  editor  of  the  North 
American  Review  from  1864  to  1868.  He  has  written  "Considerations  on 
Some  Recent  Social  Theories"  and  "Historical  Studies  of  Church  Building 
in  the  Middle  Ages;"  has  translated  Dante,  and  edited  the  correspondence  of 
Carlyle  with  Emerson  and  that  of  Lowell.  He  is  professor  of  the  fine  arts 
in  Harvard  University. 

Norton,  John  (1606-1663),  came  to  the  Massachusetts  colony  from  Eng- 
land in  1635.  He  aided  in  framing  the  "Cambridge  Platform"  in  1648. 
He  went  to  England  in  1662  with  Governor  Bradstreet  to  confer  with 
Charles  II. 

Norumbega,  the  name  given  by  early  explorers  to  various  parts  of  the 
Eastern  coast.  In  1539  it  was  applie4  to  the  whole  coast  from  Cape  Breton 


464  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

to  Florida;  in  1556,  to  that  country  lying  between  Cape  Breton  and  the 
Jersey  coast,  and  after  that  time  till  the  seventeenth  century  to  New  England. 
In  1605  Champlain  applied  it  to  the  territory  now  comprised  in  the  State  of 
Maine,  the  Norumbega  River  being  identical  with  the  Penobscot.  David 
Ingrain,  who  was  put  ashore  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  by  Hawkins  in  1568, 
traveled  afoot  to  the  St.  John's  River,  passing  through  Massachusetts  and 
Maine.  He  described  Norumbega  as  a  splendid  Indian  city.  Humphrey 
Gilbert,  Walker  and  Rut  were  the  earliest  English  explorers  of  Norumbega. 

Norway.     (See  Sweden  and  Norway.) 

Nott,  Eliphalet  (1773-1866),  was  president  of  Union  College,  New  York, 
from  1804  to  1866  and  one  of  the  most  distinguished  of  American  educators. 
His  address  on  the  death  of  Alexander  Hamilton  became  famous. 

Nova  Caesarea,  the  Latin  name  for  New  Jersey.  The  island  of  Jersey 
derives  its  name  from  the  Latin  name  Csesarea,  given  to  it  in  Roman  times. 

Nova  Constellatio  Coinage,  two  silver  coins  invented  by  Robert  Morris  in 
1783  for  national  coinage,  but  not  accepted  by  the  Continental  Congress. 
They  were  called  the  Mark  and  the  Quint.  Their  values  were  respectively 
about  seventy  and  thirty-five  cents,  their  weights  eleven  pennyweights  six 
grains,  and  five  pennyweights  fifteen  grains.  There  were  only  a  few  pattern 
pieces  struck  off.  For  description  of  this  coinage  (see  Mark,  and  Quint.) 

Nova  Suecia,  the  Latin  name  for  New  Sweden. 

Novum  Belgium,  a  name  used  in  the  seventeenth  century  as  the  Latin 
equivalent  of  New  Netherland. 

Novum  Eboracum,  the  Latin  name  for  New  York,  York  in  England 
having  originally  been  called  Eboracum  by  the  Romans,  whence  Eoforwic, 
whence  York. 

Noyes,  John  H.  (1811-1886),  founded  a  colony  of  Perfectionists  at  Putney, 
Vt.,  in  1838.  He  removed  to  Oneida,  N.  Y.,  in  1848  and  established  there  a 
socialistic  community.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  American  Socialism." 

Nullification,  the  formal  suspension  by  a  State  government  of  the  opera- 
tion of  a  law  of  the  United  States  within  the  territory  under  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  State,  was  first  suggested  as  the  rightful  remedy  in  the  case  of  illegal 
stretches  of  Federal  legislative  authority,  in  the  Kentucky  Resolutions  of 
1799.  Practical  exemplifications  of  its  operation  were  afforded  by  Pennsyl- 
vania in  the  Olmstead  case  in  1809,  by  Georgia  in  the  matter  of  the  Chero- 
kees  (1825-30),  etc.  But  the  theory  was  most  completely  developed  by 
John  C.  Calhoun,  and  its  most  important  application  was  in  South  Carolina 
in  1832,  in  her  protest  against  the  tariff  of  that  year,  which  was  exceedingly 
distasteful  to  the  Southern  States.  Calhoun's  nullification  contemplated  a 
suspension  of  the  objectionable  law  by  an  aggrieved  State,  until  three- 
fourths  of  the  States  in  national  convention  should  overrule  the  nullifica- 
tion. The  question  turned  upon  the  dogma  of  State  sovereignty.  The 
State  Legislature  of  1832,  made  up  of  nullifiers,  put  the  State  in  a  position 
for  war  and  passed  various  acts  resuming  powers  expressly  prohibited  to  the 
States  by  the  Constitution*.  December.  ji,  President  Jackson  issued  the 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  465 

"  nullification  proclamation,"  declaring  nullification  to  be  incompatible  with 
the  existence  of  the  Union  and  contrary  to  the  Constitution.  February  i, 
1833,  a  bill  called  the  "bloody  bill,"  was  passed  by  Congress,  authorizing 
the  enforcement  of  the  tariff.  February  26,  Clay  submitted  a  compromise 
tariff  bill,  which  was  enacted.  In  consequence  of  this  the  South  Carolina 
Convention  repealed  the  nullification  ordinance  on  March  16,  1833. 

Nye,  James  W.  (1814-1876),  was  a  New  York  county  judge  from  1840 
to  1848.  He  was  appointed  Governor  of  Nevada  in  1861,  and  represented 
Nevada  in  the  U.  S.  Senate  as  a  Republican  from  1865  to  1873. 


o. 

Oak  Grove,  Va.,  a  point  much  coveted  by  McClellan  during  the  Penin- 
sular campaign,  just  previous  to  the  siege  of  Richmond.  Heintzelman's 
corps,  with  a  portion  of  Sumner's  and  Keyes',  was  dispatched  to  capture 
this  place.  From  here  it  was  McClellan's  intention  to  strike  the  Old  Tavern. 
On  June  25,  1862,  Heintzelman,  moving  along  the  Williamsburg  road, 
encountered  a  small  detachment  of  Lee's  army.  An  engagement  at  once 
took  place,  Sickles  and  Grover,  of  Hooker's  division,  bearing  the  brunt  of 
the  attack.  The  position  was  won  after  a  Federal  loss  of  over  500  men. 

Oak  Hill,  the  residence  of  James  Monroe,  during  the  latter  part  of  his 
life,  in  Loudoun  County,  Va.  The  Oak  Hill  mansion  was  planned  by  Monroe 
himself. 

Oath.  The  Constitution  provides  that  before  the  President  "  enter  on  the 
execution  of  his  office  he  shall  take  the  following  oath  or  affirmation:  "  "I 
do  solemnly  swear  (or  affirm)  that  I  will  faithfully  execute  the  office  of 
President  of  the  United  States,  and  will,  to  the  best  of  my  ability,  preserve, 
protect  and  defend  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States."  This  oath  is 
administered  by  the  Chief  Justice  o*f  the  Supreme  Court.  A  similar  oath  is 
required  of  all  officers  National  and  State,  and  belonging  to  the  executive, 
legislative  and  judicial  departments.  The  first  Act  of  Congress  provided  for 
oaths  of  office. 

Oberlin  College,  Oberlin,  Ohio,  was  opened  in  1833  as  the  "Collegiate 
Institute,"  but  changed  its  name  in  1850.  It  was  founded  by  Congrega- 
tionalists.  Its  theological  department  was  opened  in  1835. 

Oberlin- Wellington  Case  (1858).  A  negro  named  John  Rice  was  cap- 
tured near  Wellington,  O.,  by  Kentucky  kidnappers.  An  Oberlin  College 
student  gave  the  alarm,  and  the  kidnappers  were  pursued  by  a  large  crowd, 
who  rescued  the  negro.  For  this  infraction  of  the  law  thirty-seven  citizens 
of  Oberlin  and  Wellington  were  indicted.  During  the  progress  of  the  case 
the  greatest  excitement  prevailed  over  the  entire  country.  No  severe  penal- 
ties were  imposed  upon  the  offenders. 

O'Brien,  Fitz-James  (1828-1862),  came  to  America  from  Ireland  in  1850. 
He  served  on  the  staff  of  General  Lander  in  1862,  and  died  of  wounds 
received  in  battle.  He  was  a  brilliant  writer  of  prose  and  verse, 

3° 


466  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Observatories.  The  first  telescope  used  in.  the  United  States  for  astro- 
nomical purposes  was  set  up  at  Yale  College  in  1830.  The  first  observatory 
building  was  erected  at  Williams  College,  in  1836,  by  Professor  Hopkins. 
In  1838,  the  Hudson  Observatory  was  organized  in  connection  with  the 
Western  Reserve  University,  in  1839  that  of  Harvard.  The  West  Point 
Observatory  soon  followed.  A  Government  Observatory  was  erected  at 
Georgetown,  D.  C.,  in  1847,  but  has  since  been  removed  to  Mount  Look- 
out, near  Washington.  The  Ann  Arbor  Observatory,  Mich.,  founded  in  1854, 
has  accomplished  valuable  work,  as  has  also  the  United  States  Naval  Obser- 
vatory at  Washington.  Many  of  the  colleges  have  now  more  or  less  effici- 
ently equipped  observatories.  In  1874  James  Lick,  of  San  Francisco,  gave 
$750,000  for  a  telescope  and  other  apparatus  for  an  observatory.  Accordingly 
the  Lick  Observatory  was  erected  on  Mount  Hamilton,  Cal.,  being  completed 
in  1888.  The  Lick  telescope  is  one  of  the  most  powerful  in  the  world,  and 
with  it  numerous  interesting  and  valuable  discoveries  have  been  made. 

Ocala  Platform,  of  the  Farmers'  Alliance  congress,  December  8,  1890. 
It  demanded  the  abolition  of  national  banks;  the  establishment  of  sub-treas- 
uries which  should  lend  money  directly  to  the  people  at  low  rates  of  interest; 
free  coinage  of  silver;  low  tariff;  the  prohibition  of  alien  ownership  of  land, 
and  a  graduated  income  tax.  So  called  from  the  place  of  meeting, 
Ocala,  Fla. 

O'Callaghan,  Edmund  B.  (1797-1880),  came  to  New  York  from  Canada 
in  1837.  He  was  author  of  a  "  History  of  New  Netherland,"  and  editor  of 
"  Documentary  History  of  New  York,"  "  Documents  Relating  to  the  History 
of  New  York"  (n  vols.),  "Remonstrance  of  New  Netherlands,"  etc. 

O'Conor,  Charles  (1804-1884),  of  New  York,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  at 
the  age  of  twenty.  He  sympathized  with  the  Confederates  during  the  Civil 
War.  He  was  nominated  for  President  of  the  United  States  by  the  "  Labor 
Reform  "  branch  of  the  Democratic  party  in  1872.  He  was  counsel  for  Jef- 
ferson Davis  when  he  was  indicted  for  treason.  He  was  largely  the  means 
of  destroying  the  "  Tweed  Ring,"  and  was  noted  as  a  lawyer. 

Oconostota  (before  i73O-after  1809),  head  king  of  the  Cherokee  Indians. 
He  captured  Fort  Prince  George  and  Fort  Loudon,  and  massacred  the  gar- 
risons in  revenge  for  an  attack  by  English  settlers  in  1756.  He  aided  the 
English  in  the  Revolutionary  War  by  harassing  the  frontiers  of  Virginia 
and  the  Carolinas,  but  was  soon  afterward  dethroned. 

Odd  Fellows.  The  first  lodge  of  the  Independent  Order  of  Odd  Fellows 
in  the  United  States  was  organized  at  Baltimore  in  April  1819,  by  Thomas 
Wildey  and  four  others.  Lodges  were  established  in  Boston  in  1820,  and 
in  Philadelphia  in  1821,  receiving  charters  from  the  Grand  Lodge  at  Balti- 
more. Since  then  the  order  has  been  established  in  every  State  and  Terri- 
tory of  the  Union. 

Odell  Town  (Canada,  near  Lake  Champlain).  Here  Lieutenant-Colone 
Forsyth  had  two  small  skirmishes  with  the  British,  June  22,  1814,  in  whicl 
the  former  was  successful,  but  lost  his  own  life.  The  British  loss  was  seven 
teen  killed. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  467 

Ogden  vs.  Saunders,  an  important  case  in  the  U.  S.  Supreme  Court, 
decided  in  1827.  Ogden,  of  Louisiana,  declared  upon  certain  bills  of 
exchange  drawn  upon  the  defendant  Saunders,  a  citizen  of  Kentucky,  but 
then  living  in  New  York.  Saunders  pleaded  a  certificate  of  discharge  under 
the  Act  of  the  New  York  Legislature  of  1801  for  the  relief  of  insolvent 
debtors.  The  District  Court  of  Louisiana  found  judgment  for  the  plaintiff. 
On  a  writ  of  error  the  case  was  brought  before  the  Supreme  Court,  which 
decided  in  1827  tnat  tne  power  to  pass  bankruptcy  laws  did  not  belong  exclu- 
sively to  the  United  States,  and  that  the  fair  exercise  of  that  power  by  the 
States  need  not  involve  a  violation  of  the  obligation  of  contracts;  but  that 
the  State  law  could  not  discharge  a  debt  due  to  a  citizen  of  another  State. 

Ogdensburg,  N.  Y.  February  22,  1813,  Colonel  McDonell,  with  800 
British  soldiers,  attacked  the  village  and  also  Fort  Presentation,  commanded 
by  Colonel  Forsyth.  The  attack  upon  the  fort  was  repulsed,  but  that  on  the 
village  was  successful.  The  British  now  reformed  and  moved  against  the 
fort  which,  however,  had  meanwhile  been  evacuated,  the  Americans  retreat- 
ing to  Black  Lake,  nine  miles  away.  Two  armed  sloops  and  the  barracks 
were  burned,  the  village  plundered,  and  fifty-two  prisoners  made.  The 
American  loss  was  five  killed  and  fifteen  wounded;  the  British,  six  killed 
and  forty-eight  wounded. 

Oglesby,  Richard  J.,  born  in  1824,  engaged  in  the  Mexican  War.  In  the 
Civil  War  he  commanded  a  brigade  at  Fort  Henry  and  Fort  Donelson. 
From  1863  to  1864  ne  commanded  the  Sixteenth  Army  Corps.  He  was 
Governor  of  Illinois  from  1864  to  1869  and  in  1872.  He  was  a  Republican 
U.  S.  Senator  from  1873  to  I^79,  and  was  again  Governor  from  1884  to 
1888. 

Oglethorpe,  James  Edward  (1698-1785),  the  founder  of  Georgia,  was  an 
officer  in  the  British  army  and  a  member  of  Parliament,  whose  sympathies 
had  become  directed  toward  the  misfortunes  of  debtors.  In  1732  he 
received  from  the  king  a  grant  of  land  for  the  purpose  of  founding  a  colony 
for  this  class,  and  in  1733  founded  Savannah.  The  settlement  prospered 
fairly.  Oglethorpe,  who  had  twice  returned  to  England,  commanded  an 
unsuccessful  expedition  against  St.  Augustine  in  1741  in  the  war  with 
Spain.  The  next  year  he  repelled  a  Spanish  attack  on  the  colony,  and 
returned  finally  to  England  in  1743.  Subsequently,  for  the  conduct  of  a 
force  against  the  Young  Pretender  he  received  severe  criticism.  In  1752  he 
resigned  the  charter  of  Georgia  to  the  crown. 

O'Hara,  Charles  (17307-1802),  came  to  Virginia  from  England  in  com- 
mand of  a  regiment  in  1780.  He  served  at  Cowpens,  led  the  left  wing  of 
Cornwallis'  army  at  Guilford,  and  surrendered  at  Yorktown. 

Ohio,  a  State  of  the  Union,  was  formed  from  the  Northwest  Territory. 
It  was  originally  explored  by  the  French,  and  at  the  time  of  the  French  and 
Indian  War  was  claimed  by  both  English  and  French.  The  former's  claim 
was  made  good  by  the  treaty  of  1763.  In  1774  the  "  Quebec  Act"  joined 
Ohio  and  the  whole  Northwest  to  Canada,  but  this  act  was  nullified  by  the 
treaty  of  1783.  South  of  41°  north  latitude  Ohio  formed  a  part  of  the 
cession  of  Virginia  to  the  general  government  in  1783.  The  territory  north 


468  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

of  that  line  was  claimed  by  Connecticut  by  virtue  of  the  charter  of  Charles 
II.,  which  extended  her  territory  to  the  South  Sea.  The  jurisdiction  over  this 
part  was  ceded  to  the  United  States  by  Connecticut  in  1786,  but  the  owner- 
ship of  the  lands  was  retained  by  that  State,  which  gave  rise  to  the  name, 
"The  Connecticut  Reservation,"  or  "  Western  Reserve."  In  1786  the  Ohio 
Company,  composed  of  Massachusetts  people,  obtained  control  of  1,500,000 
acres  through  the  agency  of  Manasseh  Cutler.  The  following  year  Congress 
passed  the  Ordinance  of  1787  for  the  government  of  the  Northwest  Terri- 
tory. This  provided  for  not  more  than  five  nor  less  than  three  States,  for- 
bade slavery  and  provided  for  the  support  of  education.  In  1788  Marietta 
was  founded  by  settlers  under  General  Putnam.  In  1791  St.  Clair's  army 
was  surprised  and  cut  to  pieces  by  the  Indians,  who  were  finally  defeated  by 
General  Wayne  in  1794.  In  1800  Ohio  was  set  off  from  the  Northwest 
under  a  separate  government,  and  in  1803  was  admitted  as  a  State.  A 
boundary  dispute  with  Michigan,  called  the  "  Toledo  War,"  was  settled  in 
favor  of  Ohio  by  the  act  of  Congress  which  provided  for  the  admission  of 
Michigan  in  1836.  The  Democrats  held  control  of  the  State  until  1824, 
when  Clay  obtained  its  electoral  votes.  From  1824  until  1838  the  Whigs 
usually  controlled  the  State  because  of  their  policy  of  internal  improve- 
ments and  protective  tariff.  From  1838  until  1855  the  Democrats  were  suc- 
cessful, except  in  the  years  1840  and  1844.  In  1848  a  deadlock  occurred  in 
the  organization  of  the  Legislature,  which  resulted  in  favor  of  the  Demo- 
crats and  in  the  election  of  Salmon  P.  Chase,  a  Free-Soil  Democrat,  to  the 
U.  S.  Senate.  In  1855  the  Republicans  elected  a  Governor,  and  in  1856 
Republican  electors  were  chosen  as  in  all  subsequent  Presidential  elections. 
In  State  elections  the  State  has  been  usually  Republican,  as  at  present  (1894). 
The  "  Pond  Law,"  for  the  taxation  of  liquor  selling,  was  declared  unconsti- 
tutional in  1882,  and  was  followed  by  the  "  Scott  Law,"  which  was  upheld 
by  the  courts.  Ohio  furnished  319,659  troops  to  the  Union  army.  In  1863 
General  Morgan,  who  had  invaded  Ohio,  was  captured  at  New  Lisbon. 
The  State  furnished  some  of  the  most  successful  generals  of  the  Union 
army.  The  population  of  the  State  in  1802  was  41,915;  in  1890  it  was 
3,672,316.  The  present  Constitution  was  made  in  1851.  History  by  Howe. 

Ohio  Company.  In  1749  George  II.  granted  to  a  band  of  wealthy  Vir- 
ginians, calling  themselves  the  Ohio  Company,  a  tract  of  land  containing 
500,000  acres,  and  lying  mostly  to  the  west  of  the  mountains  and  south  of 
the  Ohio  River.  Thomas  Lee  was  the  projector  of  this  company,  but  it  was 
later  conducted  by  Lawrence  Washington.  The  conditions  of  the  grant 
were  that  100  families  should  be  established  upon  it,  a  fort  should  be  built 
and  a  garrison  maintained.  Numerous  store  houses  were  also  established. 

Ohio  Company  (the  second),  formed  March  i,  1786,  on  the  suggestion 
and  in  the  house  of  Rufus  Putnam,  of  Rutland,  Mass.  March  3,  Putnam, 
Cutler,  Brooks,  Sargent  and  Gushing  reported  an  association  of  1000  shares, 
each  of  $1000  in  Continental  certificates,  or  $125  in  gold.  A  year  was 
allowed  for  subscription.  Land  was  to  be  purchased  from  Congress,  in 
tracts  lying  between  the  Ohio  and  Lake  Erie.  May  9,  1787,  Parsons,  agent 
for  the  company,  appeared  before  Congress  and  was  well  received.  Congress 
granted  certain  lots  free  of  charge,  and  an  enormous  tract  was  bought  at 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  .  469 

about  eight  or  nine  cents  per  acre  in  specie.  Colonization  was  immediately 
begun,  and  slavery  was  prohibited.  The  company  had  much  influence  in 
shaping  the  Ordinance  for  the  Government  of  the  Northwest  Territory. 

Ohio  Historical  Society,  founded  in  1831,  and  reorganized  in  1867.  This,' 
together  with  the  Firelands  Historical  Society  and  the  Licking  County 
Pioneer  Historical  Society,  organized  respectively  in  1857  an(*  1867,  have 
furnished  much  valuable  information  regarding  early  settlements  in  Ohio. 

Ojibways,  or  Chippewas,  a  tribe  of  Algonquin  Indians  living  on  the 
shores  of  I^ake  Huron  and  Lake  Superior.  Early  wars  with  neighboring 
tribes  greatly  reduced  their  numbers.  They  joined  Pontiac.  During  the 
Revolution  they  were  allies  of  England,  but  made  peace  by  treaties  in  1785 
and  1789.  They  joined  in  the  Miamis'  uprising,  but,  reduced  by  Wayne, 
made  peace  in  1795.  They  ceded  most  of  their  lands  on  Lake  Erie  in  1805. 
They  renewed  hostilities  in  1812,  but  joined  in  the  peace  of  1816,  and 
relinquished  all  their  lands  in  Ohio.  Other  treaties  ceding  territory  followed, 
and  by  1851  nearly  the  entire  tribe  had  moved  west  of  the  Mississippi. 

Oklahoma,  a  Territory  of  the  United  States,  was  organized  May  2,  1890. 
It  was  formed  from  Indian  Territory  and  the  Public  Land.  The  Territory 
was  first  opened  to  settlers  April  22,  1889,  and  in  1890  the  population  was 
61,834,  including  that  of  Green  County,  which  is  claimed  by  Texas.  The 
population  now  (1894)  is  more  than  double  what  it  was  in  1890. 

"  Old  Bullion,"  a  nickname  of  Senator  Benton.     (See  art.) 

Old  Colony,  a  name  given  in  Massachusetts  history  to  the  territory 
formerly  occupied  by  the  Plymouth  colony,  and  absorbed  into  that  of  Massa- 
chusetts Bay  in  1691,  now  Plymouth  and  Bristol  counties. 

Old  Dominion,  a  name  commonly  given  to  Virginia,  which  in  colonial 
documents  is  frequently  called  "  His  Majesty's  Dominion  "  of  Virginia. 

"  Old  Lights,"  the  name  applied  to  the  orthodox  conservative  churchmen 
to  distinguish  them  from  the  "  New  Lights,"  or  revivalists,  followers  of 
Jonathan  Edwards  and  George  Whitefield  during  the  period  of  the  "  Great 
Awakening"  in  1734,  and  later  in  Massachusetts  and  Connecticut. 

Old  Man  Eloquent,  the  nickname  for  John  Quincy  Adams,  sixth  Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States,  used  during  his  latter  years  in  the  House  of 
Representatives,  with  allusion  to  a  line  in  Milton's  sonnet  to  the  Lady 
Margaret  Ley  in  which  Milton  thus  refers  to  Isocrates. 

Old  Public  Functionary,  a  nickname  of  President  James  Buchanan,  he 
having  alluded  to  himself  under  that  designation  in  a  message  to  Congress 
in  1859. 

Old  South  Church,  a  church  built  in  Boston  in  1730,  and  famous  during 
the  period  just  preceding  the  Revolution  as  a  place  for  public  meetings  held 
by  the  Revolutionary  party.  During  the  siege  of  Boston  the  British  used  it 
as  a  ri.V  ig-school,  and  the  New  England  Library  which  the  Rev.  Thomas 
Prince  'id  gathered  in  its  belfry  was  scattered.  It  is  now  used  as  a  museum 
of  historical  relics,  and  as  a  hall  for  lectures  on  American  history,  known  as 
the  "Old  South  Lectures,"  of  patriotic  object 


470  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Old  State  House.  In  1658  a  "  Town  House "  was  erected,  on  what  is 
now  State  Street,  Boston,  with  money  left  by  Captain  Keayne,  of  Boston, 
for  that  purpose.  This  Town  House  was  in  use  as  the  capitol  of  the  colony 
until  1711,  when  it  was  destroyed  by  fire.  In  the  next  year  there  was 
erected  on  the  same  site  the  building  which  is  standing  to-day  and  is  called 
the  Old  State  House.  It  has  long  been  used  as  an  office  building,  but  was 
formally  rededicated  in  1882,  when  the  whole  history  of  the  old  building  was 
rehearsed  in  addresses  by  prominent  citizens. 

Oldenburg.  In  1846  Oldenburg  acceded  to  the  commercial  treaty  between 
the  United  States  and  Hanover,  and  in  1852  to  the  German  extradition 
treaty  of  that  year. 

Oldham,  John  (1600  ?-i636),  came  to  Plymouth  from  England  in  1623. 
His  murder  by  Indians  on  Block  Island  in  1636  was  a  chief  incident  leading 
to  the  Pequot  War. 

Oliver,  Andrew  (1706-1774),  loyalist,  was  a  member  of  the  Massachusetts 
Council  from  1746  to  1765,  provincial  secretary  from  1756  to  1770  and  Lieu- 
tenant-Governor from  1771  to  1774.  Mob  violence  compelled  him  to 
resign  the  appointment  as  stamp  officer  in  1765. 

Olmstead  et  als.  vs.  Rittenhouse's  Executrixes,  a  celebrated  case  of 
capture  involving  questions  of  prerogative  regarding  which  the  decisions  of 
the  Federal  commissioners  were  set  at  naught  by  a  State  Court  of  Admiralty, 
and  which  aided  in  establishing  the  Supreme  Court.  Olmstead  and  others, 
of  Connecticut,  being  pressed  into  British  service  aboard  the  sloop  "  Active  " 
in  1777,  took  possession  of  the  sloop,  and  were  in  turn  captured  by  Houston, 
commanding  the  Pennsylvania  armed  brig  "  Convention."  The  State  Court 
of  Admiralty  of  Pennsylvania  adjudged  a  large  share  of  the  prize  money  to 
the  State,  the  officers  and  crew  of  the  "  Convention,"  and  the  owners,  officers 
and  crew  of  a  privateer  which  assisted  in  the  capture.  Olmstead  and  others 
appealed  to  the  Federal  Commissioners  of  Appeals  and  received  a  favorable 
verdict.  This  the  State  Court  set  aside  and  deposited  the  moneys  with  David 
Rittenhouse,  State  Treasurer.  His  executrixes  were  sued  in  1802  before  the 
Supreme  Court,  and  judgment  was  executed  in  favor  of  Olmstead  and  others, 
in  1809,  against  violent  opposition  from  Pennsylvania.  (See  Peters,  U.  S.  vs.) 

Olmsted,  Frederick  Law,  born  in  1822,  landscape  architect,  wrote  the 
works  condensed  in "  The  Cotton  Kingdom,"  so  prominent  during  the 
Rebellion.  He  superintended  the  construction  of  Central  Park,  New  York, 
Jackson  Park,  Chicago,  and  many  others. 

Olney,  Jesse  (1798-1872),  published  a  "Geography  and  Atlas"  in  1828, 
which  revolutionized  geographical  methods.  It  reversed  the  ancient  system 
of  beginning  with  astronomy  and  the  solar  system  and  concluding  with  the 
earth. 

Olney,  Richard,  of  Massachusetts,  was  born  in  1835.  A  lawyer  and  states- 
man. He  was  Attorney-General  in  Cleveland's  Cabinet  from  1893  to  1895, 
and  on  death  of  Mr.  Gresham,  became  Secretary  of  State,  serving  till  March 
4,  1897. 

Olustee,  Fla.  At  this  place,  February  20,  1864,  Seymour,  commanding 
6000  of  Gillmore's  Federal  army  then  operating  in  the  Department  of  the 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  471 

South,  fell  in  with  a  Confederate  ambush  of  nearly  13,000  men  under  Fin- 
negan.  Gillinore  had  ordered  Seymour  to  give  up  his  contemplated  expedi- 
tion to  the  Suwanee  River,  but  the  order  came  too  late.  Seymour  was 
wholly  defeated  in  less  than  half  an  hour,  an4  had  to  retreat  with  great 
haste,  leaving  1400  killed  and  wounded. 

Olympia,  capital  of  Washington  State,  was  settled  in  1846,  and  laid  out 
as  a  town  in  1851.  It  became  a  city  in  1859. 

Ornahas,  a  tribe  of  Dakota  Indians,  lived  on  the  Quicoure  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  century.  Treaties  in  1815  and  1820  ceded  lands  at  Council 
Bluffs,  and  other  treaties  of  a  similar  nature  were  made  in  1825  and  1830. 
In  1854  they  gave  up  more  of  their  lands.  Their  reservation  lies  in  the 
northeastern  part  of  Nebraska.  They  have  suffered  much  from  the  hostility 
of  the  Sioux. 

O'Mahony,  John  F.  (1816-1877),  born  in  Ireland,  came  to  the  United 
States  in  1854.  He  organized  the  Fenian  brotherhood  in  1860,  whose 
object  was  the  freeing  of  Ireland.  He  translated  the  "  History  of  Ireland  " 
by  Geoffrey  Keating. 

Omnibus  Bill,  a  bill  submitted  to  Congress  by  Henry  Clay,  January 
29,  1850,  at  the  time  of  the  application  of  California  for  admission  to  the 
Union.  The  bill  provided  for  the  admission  of  California  with  her  free  con- 
stitution; territorial  governments  in  New  Mexico  and  Utah  without  express 
restriction  upon  slavery;  a  territorial  boundary  line  between  Texas  and  New 
Mexico  in  favor  of  the  former;  a  more  effective  fugitive  slave  law;  and 
denial  to  Congress  of  power  to  interfere  with  the  slave  trade  between  slave 
States.  After  much  cutting  and  amendment  the  bill  was  passed  in  July, 
1850,  as  a  series  of  acts. 

Oneida  Community,  a  communistic  settlement  at  Oneida,  N.  Y.,  founded 
in  1848  by  John  Humphrey  Noyes,  of  Vermont.  They  call  themselves 
Perfectionists.  They  possess  property  in  common,  believe  in  the  faith 
cure,  and  permit  freedom  of  sexual  intercourse  within  the  limits  of  the 
community,  which  practice  they  deem  less  conducive  to  selfishness  than  the 
ordinary  relationship  of  man  and  wife. 

Oneidas,  a  tribe  of  American  Indians  formerly  of  the  Iroquois  confeder- 
acy, from  an  early  period  lived  in  New  York  State.  They  were  generally 
favorable  to  the  English,  but  in  the  Revolution  supported  the  colonists. 
For  this  their  villages  were  ravaged  and  their  property  destroyed.  By  a 
treaty  in  1794,  the  Government  made  compensation  for  their  losses.  In 
1785  and  1788,  they  ceded  lands  to  the  State  of  New  York.  Later,  some 
went  to  Canada,  and  in  1821,  a  large  number  acquired  lands  on  Green  Bay. 

O'Neill,  John  (1834-1878),  served  in  the  National  army  from  1861  to  1864. 
He  commanded  the  Fenian  expedition  to  Canada  in  1867  and  captured  Fort 
Erie.  Further  operations  were  prevented  by  United  States  authorities. 

O'Neill,  Peggy.     (See  Eaton,  Margaret  L.) 

Onis,  Nuis  de  (1769-1830),  while  minister  from  Spain  to  the  United 
States  from  1815  to  1819,  negotiated  the  treaty  by  which  Spain  ceded 
Florida  to  the  United  States  (1819). 


472  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Onondagas,  a  tribe  of  Iroquois  in  New  York  State,  and  head  of  the  "five 
nations."  They  were  early  won  over  to  the  English  and  often  served  against 
the  French.  During  the  Revolution  they  joined  the  English.  In  September, 
1788,  they  ceded  all  their  Jterritory  to  the  State  of  New  York,  with  the 
exception  of  a  small  tract  which  they  have  since  continued  to  hold. 

Ontario,  Fort,  erected  in  1756  during  the  French  and  Indian  wars  by  the 
English  troops  under  Shirley  at  Oswego,  N.  Y.  It  was  attacked  the  same 
year,  while  commanded  by  Colonel  Mercer,  by  Montcalm.  Both  Oswego 
and  Ontario  were  captured,  and  the  latter  was  burned  to  the  ground. 

Opequon.     (See  Winchester.) 

Opera.  In  the  autumn  of  1825  the  first  Italian  opera  ever  introduced 
into  the  United  States  was  given  at  the  Park  Theatre  in  New  York.  Gar- 
cia's  daughter,  afterward  famous  as  Malibran,  appeared  in  Rossini's  "  Barber 
of  Seville." 

Orartge,  Fort,  erected  in  1623,  near  the  present  site  of  Albany,  by  Captain 
Cornelius  Jacobsen  Mey,  representing  the  Dutch  West  India  Company. 

Orange  River  Free  State.  A  treaty  of  commerce  and  extradition  was 
concluded  between  the  United  States  and  the  Orange  River  Free  State  in 
1871. 

Ord,  Edward  O.  C.  (1818—1883),  commanded  the  national  forces  at  Dranes- 
ville  in  1861.  He  led  the  left  wing  of  Grant's  army  at  luka  and  Hatchie  in 
1862.  He  led  a  corps  at  Vicksburg,  Jackson,  Richmond  and  Fort  Harrison. 
In  1865  he  commanded  the  Department  of  Virginia  and  the  Army  of  the 
James  at  Petersburg  and  in  the  subsequent  battles  ending  at  Appomattox 
Court  House. 

Orders  in  Council.  Decrees  issued  by  the  king  of  Great  Britain  and  his 
Privy  Council,  of  which  the  most  famous  were  those  prohibiting  com- 
mercial intercourse  by  neutral  countries  with  States  with  whom  he  was  at 
war.  A  proclamation  of  June  8,  1793,  had  prohibited  trade  with  France  and 
directed  the  seizure  of  neutral  ships  engaged  in  such  traffic.  Similar  orders 
were  issued  in  1794.  November  n,  1807,  the  famous  Orders  in  Council  pro- 
hibited direct  trade  from  the  United  States  to  any  European  country  under 
Napoleon's  power. 

Ordinance  of  1787.     (See  Northwest  Territory.) 

Ordinary  was  in  England  the  title  of  a  bishop  or  his  deputy  acting  as 
an  ecclesiastical  judge.  In  the  United  States,  in  the  colonial  period,  the 
colonial  governor  was  ex-officio  ordinary,  or  head  of  the  ecclesiastical  courts 
of  the  colony,  which  then  had  jurisdiction  of  matrimonial  and  testamentary 
causes.  In  New  Jersey  the  probate  judge  is  still  called  an  ordinary. 

Oregon,  a  State  of  the  American  Union,  was  acquired  by  treaty  with 
England  in  1846.  It  was  visited  by  Drake  in  1558  and,  it  is  said,  by  Juan 
de  Fuca  in  1592.  In  1792  Vancouver,  an  English  officer,  surveyed  the  coast 
from  30°  to  60°  north  latitude.  Robert  Gray,  of  Boston,  had  previously 
discovered  the  Columbia  River.  It  was  claimed  by  the  United  States  that 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  473 

the  "Oregon  country,"  included  between  42°  and  54°  40',  formed  a  part  of 
the  Louisiana  cession,  but  England  refused  to  recognize  the  claim.  Lewis 
and  Clark  surveyed  the  country  in  1804-1806.  In  1818  the  United  States 
and  England  agreed  upon  a  treaty  of  joint  occupancy,  which  was  renewed 
in  1827.  Russia  had  claims  to  the  Oregon  country  south  of  54°  40',  which 
she  finally  withdrew.  Emigration  from  the  United  States  into  the  region 
was  stimulated  by  the  reports  of  Dr.  Whitman,  a  missionary,  who  made  a 
perilous  journey  on  horseback  to  Washington  in  the  winter  of  1842-43,  and 
urged  the  Government  at  Washington  to  assert  the  claims  of  the  United 
States  to  that  region.  The  people  of  Oregon  formed  a  provisional  govern- 
ment in  1843.  In  the  Presidential  campaign  of  1844  the  Democratic  plat- 
form demanded  the  reoccupation  of  Oregon.  The  cry  "fifty-four-forty  or 
fight  "  threatened  war  with  England,  which  was  averted  by  the  treaty  of  1846, 
whereby  the  northern  boundary  of  the  ^United  States  at  49°  north  latitude 
was  extended  to  the  Fuca  Strait.  In  1848  the  territory  of  Oregon  was 
organized  and  made  to  include  the  present  States  of  Washington  and  Idaho. 
A  State  constitution  was  adopted  in  1857,  which  forbade  slavery  and  the 
immigration  of  negroes.  The  "  anti-negro  "  provision  prevented  the  admis- 
sion of  Oregon  until  1859,  February  14.  In  politics  the  State  was  at  first 
Democratic,  but  in  1860  the  Republicans  secured  the  electoral  vote  of  the 
State  for  Lincoln  by  a  plurality.  .  From  1860  to  1868  the  State  was  Repub- 
lican in  all  elections.  In  1868  the  Democrats  carried  the  State,  and  again 
in  1870,  1874,  1878.  At  other  elections  the  Republicans  have  been  success- 
ful, except  in  1892,  when  the  electoral  votes  were  cast  for  the  fusion  candi- 
date. The  population  of  Oregon  in  1860  was  52,465;  in  1890,  313,767. 
Histories  by  Bancroft  and  Barrows. 

"  Oregon  Spectator."  This  was  the  first  newspaper  printed  in  Oregon.  It 
was  established  at  Oregon  City,  and  the  first  issues  appeared  during  Febru- 
ary 1846. 

O'Reilly,  John  B.  (1844-1890),  born  in  Ireland,  transported  for  treason 
in  1866,  escaped  from  Australia  to  the  United  States  in  1869.  He  was 
editor  of  the  "  Pilot "  from  1874  to  1890,  and  was  noted  as  a  poet. 

Original  Package.  In  1890  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States,  in 
the  case  of  Leisy  &  Co.  vs.  Hardin,  held  that  the  plaintiffs,  brewers  in  Illi- 
nois, had  the  right  to  bring  beer  into  Iowa  and  sell  it  in  the  original  pack- 
ages, regardless  of  the  Iowa  prohibitory  law.  Their  decision  rested  on  the 
right  of  Congress  to  have  exclusive  control  of  interstate  commerce.  Con- 
gress immediately  passed  an  act  giving  the  State  control  of  the  liquors  so 
imported,  though  in  the  original  packages. 

Oriskany,  Battle  of.  On  August  6,  1777,  General  Herkimer  with  800 
men  started  to  relieve  Fort  Stanwix,  now  besieged  by  St.  Leger  and  his 
Indians.  At  Oriskany,  ten  miles  away,  he  halted  and  attempted  to  concert 
an  attack  and  a  sortie.  The  plan  miscarried.  Herkimer  advanced  and  was 
attacked  by  the  Indians  and  Tories  in  a  deep  ravine.  The  battle  raged 
furiously  for  hours,  despite  a  terrific  thunder-storm,  and  was  one  of  the  most 
cruel  and  bloody  of  the  war.  Each  side  lost  a  third  of  its  number.  The 
Americans  remained  masters  of  the  field,  although  badly  disabled.  The 
sortie  from  the  fort  was  a  success,  and  badly  crippled  the  enemy. 


474  DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Orkney,  Earl  of.  In  1704  the  Earl  of  Orkney  was  made  titular  Governor 
of  Virginia,  a  sinecure  which  he  held  for  forty  years,  with  an  annual  emolu- 
ment of  £1200. 

Orleans,  Territory  of.  In  March,  1804,  the  region  purchased  from  France 
under  the  name  of  Louisiana  was  divided  by  Congress  into  two  territories — 
the  District  of  Louisiana  and  the  Territory  of  Orleans,  the  latter  being  the 
present  area  of  the  State  of  Louisiana.  In  February,  1811,  an  act  was 
passed  "  to  enable  the  people  of  the  Territory  of  Orleans  to  form  a  consti- 
tution and  State  Government."  April  12,  1812,  an  act  was  passed  for  the 
admission  of  the  State  of  Louisiana  into  the  Union. 

Orr,  James  L.  (1822-1873),  represented  South  Carolina  in  the  U.  S. 
Congress  as  a  Democrat  from  1849  to  1859,  and  was  Speaker  from  1857  to 
1859.  He  was  a  Confederate  senator  from  1861  to  1865,  and  Governor  of 
South  Carolina  from  1865  to  1868. 

Orth,  Godlove  S.  (1817-1882),  was  a  member  of  the  Indiana  Senate  from 
1842  to  1848.  He  was  prominent  in  the  Peace  Conference  of  1861.  He 
represented  Indiana  in  the  U.  S.  Congress  as  a  Republican  from  1863  to  1871 
and  from  1873  to  1875.  He  was  active  in  securing  the  recognition  of  the 
right  of  expatriation  by  European  governments.  He  framed  the  "Orth 
bill,"  which  reorganized  the  diplomatic  and  consular  system.  He  was  Min- 
ister to  Austria  from  1875  to  1877,  and  again  a  Congressman  from  1879  to 
1882. 

Orton,  James  (1830-1877),  professor  in  Vassar  College,  was  recognized  as 
an  authority  on  the  subject  of  the  geology  and  physical  geography  of  the 
west  coast  of  South  America  and  the  Amazon  Valley,  which  he  had  care- 
fully explored. 

Osage  Indians,  were  early  driven  to  the  Arkansas.  They  allied  them- 
selves with  the  French  against  England.  In  1808  they  ceded  lands  to  the 
Government;  and  made  further  cessions  in  1815,  1818,  1822,  1825  and  1839. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  Civil  War  1000  went  South;  treaties  in  September, 
1865,  and  May,  1868,  prepared  for  the  removal  of  the  whole.  In  1870  the 
tribe  conveyed  their  lands  to  the  Government  and  agreed  to  remove  to 
Indian  Territory. 

Osborn  vs.  U.  S.  Bank,  Ohio,  an  important  case  in  the  U.  S.  Supreme 
Court.  Ralph  Osborn,  auditor  of  the  State  of  Ohio,  per  J.  L.  Harper,  his 
deputy,  took  by  force  from  the  U.  S.  Bank  at  Chilliccthe,  $100,000  and 
delivered  it  to  the  State  Treasurer  as  just  payment  to  the  State  under  the 
law  which  was  passed  by  the  State's  Legislature  levying  taxes  upon  banks 
doing  business  in  the  State  with  the  consent  of  the  law.  The  Circuit  Court 
of  Ohio  decided  that  a  restitution  be  made  with  interest.  The  Supreme 
Court,  the  case  being  appealed  thereto,  confirmed  the  decision  of  the  Circuit 
Court,  omitting  the  interest  (1824).  (See  McCulloch  vs.  Maryland.) 

Osceola  (1804-1838),  chief  of  the  Seminole  Indians,  inaugurated  the 
second  Seminole  War  in  1836  by  killing  General  Thompson  in  revenge  for 
the  enslavement  of  his  wife.  He  conducted  the  war  for  over  a  year,  fighting 
at  the  Withlacoochee  River,  Micanopy  and  Fort  Drane.  He  was  seized  while 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  475 

negotiating  a  treaty  under  a  flag  of  truce  with  General  Jesup  near  St.  Aug- 
ustine in  1837. 

Osgood,  Samuel  (1748-1813),  was  a  delegate  from  Massachusetts  to  the 
Continental  Congress  from  1780  to  1784,  Commissioner  of  the  Treasury  from 
1785  to  1789,  and  Postmaster-General  from  1789  to  1791. 

Ostend  Manifesto.  In  1852  France  and  Great  Britain,  fearful  of  the  fili- 
bustering expeditions  against  Cuba  and  the  possible  future  favor  of  the  United 
States  toward  such  expeditions,  suggested  a  tripartite  convention  in  which 
each  should  disclaim  all  intention  to  obtain  possession  of  Cuba  and  should 
discountenance  such  intention  by  another  power.  October  9,  1854,  the 
American  Ministers  to  Great  Britain,  France  and  Spain,  James  Buchanan, 
John  Y.  Mason  and  Pierre  Soule,  met  at  Ostend  and  drew  up  the  "  Ostend 
Manifesto."  This  declared  that  a  sale  of  Cuba  to  the  United  States  would 
be  advantageous  to  both  governments;  but  that  if  Spain  refused  to  sell,  it 
was  incumbent  upon  the  Union  to  "  wrest  it  from  her,"  rather  than  see  it 
Africanized  like  San  Domingo. 

Oswald,  Richard  (1705-1784),  was  appointed  by  Great  Britain  diplomatic 
agent  in  1782  to  negotiate  the  treaty  of  peace  with  the  United  States  which 
was  signed  at  Paris  in  1783. 

Oswego,  Capture  of.  In  the  French  and  Indian  War,  in  July,  1756, 
Montcalm  hastened  from  Ticonderoga  to  Oswego.  It  was  hoped  to  divert 
the  English  from  Ticonderoga,  The  expedition  was  conducted  with  secrecy, 
and  by  August  10  Montcalm  was  near  the  fort.  On  the  thirteenth  he  forced 
the  abandonment  of  Fort  Ontario,  opposite  Oswego.  On  the  fourteenth 
Oswego,  subject  to  bombardment  and  assault,  surrendered.  The  English 
force  was  about  1000,  of  whom  fifty  were  killed.  The  attacking  party  num- 
bered 3000.  Both  forts  were  burned. — In  the  War  of  1812,  May  5,  1814, 
Sir  James  Yeo  with  about  3000  land  troops  and  marines  attacked  Oswego, 
defended  by  a  fort  garrisoned  by  300  men  under  Colonel  Mitchell.  The  first 
attack  was  repulsed  by  a  heavy  cannon  placed  near  the  shore.  The  second 
attack,  the  next  day,  was  successful,  and  the  garrison  retreated  up  the  river. 
The  British  withdrew  after  burning  the  barracks  and  seizing  the  stores  and 
a  war  schooner.  The  American  loss  was  sixty-nine  men;  the  British,  nine- 
teen killed  and  seventy-five  wounded. 

Otis,  Elwell  Stephen,  born  in  1838.  He  fought  at  Gettysburg,  and  be- 
came brigadier-general  of  volunteers,  joined  the  regular  army  in  1866.  In 
1898  he  was  appointed  major-general  of  volunteers,  and  military  governor  of 
the  Philippines. 

Otis,  Harrison  Gray  (1765-1848),  represented  Massachusetts  in  the  U.  S. 
Congress  as  a  Federalist  from  1797  to  1801.  He  was  Speaker  of  the  Massa- 
chusetts Legislature  from  1803  to  1805,  and  president  of  the  Senate  from 
1805  to  1806  and  from  1808  to  1811.  He  was  prominent  at  the  Hartford 
Convention  in  1814.  He  was  a  U.  S.  Senator  from  1817  to  1822. 

Otis,  James  (1725-1783),  patriot  and  orator,  was  graduated  at  Harvard  in 
1743,  and  rose  to  the  first  place  at  the  Boston  bar.  When  the  British  Gov- 
ernment adopted  a  stronger  coercive  policy  with  its  Writs  of  Assistance  in 
1761,  Otis  opposed  the  measure  in  a  celebrated  speech.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  Massachusetts  Legislature,  and  published  in  1764  an  influential 
pamphlet  entitled  "  Rights  of  the  Colonies  Vindicated."  He  moved  the 
appointment  of  a  Stamp  Act  Congress,  and  was  one  of  the  delegates,  and 


476  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

lie  made  a  spirited  opposition  to  Townshend's  acts.  In  1769  he  was  severely 
beaten  by  some  British  officers  and  became  insane  for  the  remainder  of  his 
life.  Otis  ranks  as  one  of  the  eloquent  orators  of  the  pre-Revolution  period. 

Ottawas,  a  tribe  of  Algonquin  Indians,  aided  the  French  against  Eng- 
land. During  the  Revolution  they  were  under  British  influence.  They 
joined  in  treaties  made  in  1785  and  1789,  but  took  up  arms  with  the  Miamis 
soon  after,  again  making  peace  in  1795.  Numerous  treaties  ceding  territory 
around  Lake  Michigan  to  the  United  States  followed.  A  part  went  south 
of  the  Missouri  in  1833,  where  they  lost  their  identity.  A  band  of  Ottawas 
in  Ohio  removed  to  the  Osage  in  1836.  Those  remaining  became  scattered. 
The  emigrants  again  removed  to  Indian  Territory  in  1870.  In  1836  the 
Michigan  Ottawas  ceded  all  their  lands  except  reservations. 

Ottendorfer,  Oswald,  born  in  Moravia  in  1826,  fled  to  America  in  1850. 
He  became  an  editor  of  the  Staats-Zeitung,  and  afterward  its  proprietor  and 
manager,  making  it  an  independent  reform  journal. 

Ottoman  Porte.  The  United  States  concluded  a  commercial  treaty  with 
the  Ottoman  Porte  in  1830.  The  translation  of  an  article  of  this  treaty 
relating  to  extra-territorial  jurisdiction  caused  an  extended  dispute.  In  1862 
another  commercial  treaty  was  concluded,  which  has  ceased  to  be  in  opera- 
tion, though  the  most  favorable  commercial  relations  continue. 

Otto's  Reports,  more  often  cited  as  United  States  Reports  (Otto),  are  law 
reports  of  cases  from  the  United  States  Supreme  Court  1875-1881,  and  are 
contained  in  fifteen  volumes. 

Owen,  Robert  (1771-1858),  came  to  the  United  States  from  Scotland  in 
1824  and  founded  an  unsuccessful  communistic  society  at  New  Harmony, 
Ind. 

Owen,  Robert  Dale  (1800-1877),  came  to  the  United  States  from  Scotland 
in  1824  with  the  communistic  colony  established  at  New  Harmony,  Ind.,  by 
his  father.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Indiana  -Legislature  from  1835  to  1838, 
and  represented  Indiana  in  the  U.  S.  Congress  as  a  Democrat  from  1843  to 
1847.  He  was  charge  d'affaires  at  Naples  from  1853  to  1855  and  Minister 
from  1855  to  1858,  and  was  of  some  note  as  a  writer. 

Oxenstjerna,  Axel  (1583-1654),  Chancellor  of  Sweden,  subscribed,  in  1624, 
to  the  stock  of  the  Swedish  West  India  Company,  and  later  was  personally 
interested  in  the  Swedish  settlements  along  the  Delaware. 


Paca,  William  (1740-1799),  opposed  all  taxation  of  the  colonies  by  Eng- 
land. He  was  a  member  of  the  Maryland  Legislature  from  1771  to  1774. 
He  represented  Maryland  in  the  Continental  Congress  from  1774  to  1779  and 
signed  the  Declaration  of  Independence.  He  was  a  State  Senator  from  1777 
to  1779,  Judge  of  the  Federal  Court  of  Appeals  1780-1782,  and  Governor  of 
Maryland  from  1782  to  1786.  He  was  U.  S.  Judge  for  the  District  of  Mary- 
land from  1789^0  1799. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  477 

Pacific  Railroads.  The  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  and  the  feeling  of 
necessity  of  a  better  connection  with  the  Pacific  coast,  induced  the  Govern- 
ment to  make  large  grants  in  favor  of  the  Central  Pacific,  Union  Pacific  and 
Kansas  Pacific  Railroads,  by  an  act  of  July  i,  1862.  Later,  47,000,000  acres 
were  granted  to  the  Northern  Pacific.  The  Central  Pacific  and  Union  Pacific 
were  completed  in  1869.  The  construction  and  finance  of  the  Union  Pacific 
were  managed  by  the  Credit  Mobilier  (see  art.)  and  involved  in  legislative 
scandals.  In  1878  the  office  of  Commissioner  of  Railroads  was  instituted, 
to  supervise  the  accounts  of  the  Pacific  railways. 

Packard,  Alpheus  S.  (1798-1884),  was  a  professor  at  Bowdoin  College, 
chiefly  of  Greek,  from  1824  to  1884,  and  was  librarian  of  the  Maine  Histori- 
cal Society  for  forty-eight  years. 

Packard,  Alpheus  S.,  born  in  1839,  has  made  valuable  contributions  to 
entomology  and  paleontology.  He  arranged  the  generally  accepted  classifi- 
cation of  insects.  He  published  a  great  number  of  scientific  monographs, 
and  a  popular  "Zoology."  Since  1878  he  has  been  a  professor  in  Brown 
University.  - 

Paddock,  Algernon  S.,  born  in  1830,  was  secretary  of  Nebraska  Territory 
from  1861  to  1867.  He  represented  Nebraska  in  the  U.  S.  Senate  as  a 
Republican  from  1875  to  1881,  and  from  1887  to  1893.  Died  1897. 

Paducah,  Ky.,  scene  of  the  first  disaster  encountered  by  the  Confederate 
leader  Forrest  during  his  great  raid  through  Kentucky,  Tennessee  and 
northern  Mississippi  in  1864.  Forrest  had  5000  men,  while  Hicks  lay 
fortified  in  Paducah  with  800  National  troops.  March  25  Forrest  demanded 
a  surrender.  Hicks  refused  peremptorily.  Forrest  then  charged  the  earth- 
works again  and  again,  but  with  signal  failures  each  time.  He  was  obliged 
to  retreat,  having  suffered  severe  losses. 

Page,  John  (1744-1808),  represented  Virginia  in  the  U.  S.  Congress  as  a 
Democrat  from  1789  to  1797.  He  was  Governor  of  Virginia  from  1802  to 
1805.  He  published  "Political  Addresses,"  and  was  an  early  friend  of 
Jefferson. 

Page,  Thomas  J.,  born  in  1808,  made  an  extensive  exploration  of  La  Plata 
River.  He  became  a  commander  in  the  U.  S.  navy  in  1855.  He  was  active 
in  the  construction  of  the  Confederate  navy. 

Page,  Thomas  Nelson,  born  in  1853,  is  a  popular  writer  of  sLories  and 
poems  in  the  negro  dialect.  Some  of  his  chief  stories  have  been  published 
under  the  title  of  "  In  Ole  Virginia,"  etc. 

Page,  William  (1811—1885),  of  Albany,  was  one  of  the  most  famous 
American  artists.  He  won  great  distinction  for  his  portrait-painting.  He 
was  famous  as  a  colorist,  and  was  an  accurate  draughtsman. 

Paine,  Robert  Treat  (1731-1814),  was  a  member  of  the  Massachusetts 
Assembly  from  1773  to  1774,  and  of  the  Provincial  Congress  from  1774 
to  1775.  He  was  a  delegate  from  Massachusetts  to  the  Continental  Con- 
gress from  1774  to  1778  and  signed  the  Declaration  of  Independence. 
He  was  Attorney-General  of  Massachusetts  from  1780  to  1790,  and  a  Judge 


478  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTOHY, 

of  the  Massachusetts  Supreme  Court  from  1790  to  1804,  when  he  resigned. 
He  was  an  able  lawyer  and  an  impartial  judge. 

Paine,  Robert  Treat  (1773-1811),  is  eminent  as  the  author  of  several 
remarkable  poems,  among  them  being  "  The  Invention  of  Letters,"  "  The 
Ruling  Passion,"  and  the  song  "  Adams  and  Liberty." 

Paine,  Thomas,  generally  styled  Tom  Paine  (1737-1809),  a  native  of 
England,  passed  his  early  years  there  as  an  exciseman,  political  writer,  and 
ardent  republican.  He  came  to  America  in  1774  and  edited  the  Pennsyl- 
vania Magazine.  In  1776  he  published  a  pamphlet,  "  Common  Sense," 
advocating  independence,  which  was  widely  circulated  and  created  a  profound 
impression.  At  intervals  through  the  war  he  published  the  "  Crisis,"  and 
was  secretary  to  the  Congressional  Committee  on  Foreign  Affairs.  His  ser- 
vices in  the  Revolution  were  of  undoubted  value.  Subsequently  he  was 
clerk  to  the  Pennsylvania  Legislature.  He  was  in  France  at  the  opening  of 
the  French  Revolution,  and  in  England  where  he  published  in  1791  his 
"  Rights  of  Man,"  and  was  outlawed  in  consequence.  Escaping  to  France 
he  was  elected  to  the  Convention,  was  imprisoned  by  the  Jacobins,  and  wrote 
his  "  Age  of  Reason."  He  returned  to  the  United  States,  and  died  in  New 
York.  Life  by  Conway. 

Pakenham,  Sir  Edward  M.  (1778-1815),  served  in  the  Peninsular  War 
and  in  the  South  of  France  under  the  Duke  of  Wellington.  He  succeeded 
General  Ross  in  command  of  a  British  force  employed  against  New  Orleans 
in  1814.  His  troops  were  defeated  by  General  Jackson  on  January  8,  1815, 
and  he  was  killed  during  the  battle. 

Palatinate.  Palatinates  were  in  Europe  districts  the  ruler  of  which 
received  from  the  king  almost  royal  rights  of  ruling  in  his  province.  Mary- 
land was  by  its  charter  erected  into  a  palatinate  after  the  model  of  the 
palatinate  of  Durham  in  England,  and  so  continued  as  long  as  it  was  under 
proprietary  government.  The  proprietors  of  Carolina  were  at  first  given 
their  province  as  a  palatinate. 

Palfrey,  John  G.  (1796-1881),  was  editor  of  the  North  American  Review 
from  1835  to  1843.  He  was  Secretary  of  State  in  Massachusetts  from  1844 
to  1848,  and  represented  Massachusetts  in  the  U.  S.  Congress  as  a  Whig 
from  1847  to  1849.  He  wrote  a  valuable  "  History  of  New  England,"  a 
"  Life  of  Colonel  William  Palfrey  "  and  "  The  Progress  of  the  Slave  Power." 

Palmer,  James  S.  (1810—1867),  commanded  the  "  Flirt"  during  the  Mexi- 
can War.  He  commanded  the  "  Iroquois  "  at  Vicksburg,  and  was  Farragut's 
flag-captain  at  New  Orleans  and  Mobile. 

Palmer,  John  M.,  born  in  1817,  Senator,  was  a  member  of  the  Illinois 
Senate  from  1852  to  1854.  He  commanded  a  brigade  at  New  Madrid, 
Island  No.  10,  Farmington  and  Stone  River,  and  a  corps  in  Sherman's 
Georgia  campaign  in  1864.  He  was  Governor  of  Illinois  from  1869  to  1873. 
He  was  elected  to  the  U.  S.  Senate  as  a  Democrat  in  1891. 

Palmer,  Thomas  W.,  born  in  1830,  was  a  member  of  the  Michigan  Sen- 
ate from  1879  to  l88°-  He  represented  Michigan  in  the  U.  S.  Senate  as  a 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  479 

Republican  from   £883  to  1889,  an^  fr°m  J889  to   1890  was  Minister   to 
Spain. 

Palmetto  Ranche,  Tex.,  last  engagement  of  the  Civil  War,  occurring 
May  n,  1865.  Colonel  Barrett  with  450  Federal  soldiers  endeavored  to  sur- 
prise General  Slaughter,  commanding  600  Confederates.  Barrett  was  defeated 
with  a  loss  of  eighty  men. 

Palo  Alto,  Texas,  first  important  battle  of  the  Mexican  War,  May  8, 
1846.  General  Taylor  commanded  the  United  States  forces,  Generals  Arista 
and  Ampudia  the  Mexican.  Arista  opposed  Taylor's  march  from  Point 
Isabel  to  Matamoras  to  relieve  Major  Brown,  firing  upon  his  advancing  col- 
umns. Ringgold's  battery  replied,  while  Taylor  ordered  the  main  portion 
of  his  troops  to  deploy  into  line.  Taylor  acted  on  the  defensive,  depending 
upon  his  batteries.  The  battle  lasted  one  afternoon,  at  the  close  of  which 
Arista  began  to  retire,  defeated,  but  in  fairly  good  order.  The  Americans 
numbered  2300,  the  Mexicans  6000. 

Panama  Canal.  The  Panama  Canal  Company  (French)  was  organized 
by  Count  de  Lesseps,  March  3,  1880,  and  under  the  concession  obtained 
from  the  Colombian  Government,  was  to  construct  and  open  the  canal  by 
March  3,  1892.  The  face  value  of  the  shares  issued  was  approximately 
$500,000,000,  but  after  $266,000,000  had  been  expended,  the  company  in 
1889  became  bankrupt.  The  total  length  of  the  proposed  waterway  is 
forty-five  and  one-half  miles,  and  the  work  actually  done  is  variously  esti- 
mated at  one-third,  one-fifth  and  one-tenth  of  the  whole.  In  1891  Lieuten- 
ant Wyse  obtained  an  extension  of  the  concession  for  ten  years,  provided  a 
company  be  formed  for  its  completion;  otherwise  the  Colombian  Govern- 
ment will  seize  the  property.  In  November,  1892,  the  French  Government 
instituted  criminal  proceedings  against  the  leading  officials  of  the  Canal 
Company. 

Panama  Congress,  was  called  by  the  Spanish  -  American  Republics 
in  1826.  The  United  States  sent  delegates  too  late  for  the  preliminary 
meeting  and  the  adjourned  congress  for  1827  never  occurred.  Among  the 
objects  of  the  proposed  congress  interesting  to  the  United  States  were:  The 
establishment  of  liberal  doctrines  of  commercial  intercourse;  assent  to  the 
doctrine  that  free  ships  make  free  goods,  and  an  agreement  that  "  each  will 
guard  against  the  establishment  of  any  future  European  colony  within  its 
borders."  The  failure  of  the  Congress  showed  that  an  alliance  between  the 
United  States  and  the  petty  Republics  was  inadvisable.  President  John 
Quincy  Adams  was  warmly  in  favor  of  the  proposed  meeting,  but  Congress 
did  not  favor  it. 

Pan-American  Congress,  an  international  conference  of  representatives 
from  the  United  States  and  from  seventeen  States  of  Central  and  South 
America,  which  assembled  at  Washington,  October  2,  1889,  on  the  invitation 
of  the  United  States.  Its  purpose  was  to  adopt  some  plan  of  arbitration  for  the 
settlement  of  disputes,  and  plans  for  the  improvement  of  business  intercourse 
and  means  of  communication  between  the  countries.  San  Domingo  was  the 
only  State  to  refuse  the  invitation.  The  delegates  were  taken  on  a  tour  of 


48o  DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

inspection  through  the  Union,  prior  to  assembling  for  the  business  conven- 
tion. Nothing  very  definite  was  arrived  at  in  the  convention,  which  was  of 
value  chiefly  through  its  exposition  of  the  commercial  status  and  resources 
of  the  various  countries.  The  Bureau  of  American  Republics  was  established 
at  the  suggestion  of  this  convention. 

Panics,  or  commercial  crises  in  United  States  history,  begin  with  that  of 
1819,  due  to  speculation  and  disorder  following  upon  the  War  of  1812.  The 
next  followed  in  1837.  The  years  preceding  had  been  years  of  extraordinary 
speculation,  carried  on  with  a  most  unsound  banking  system.  Jackson  gave 
the  final  impetus  to  the  panic  by  his  "  specie  circular,"  which  struck  a  great 
blow  at  credit,  and  forced  many  banks  to  suspend  specie  payments.  The 
country  gradually  righted  itself  without  the  aid  of  governmental  interfer- 
ence, which  Van  Buren  refused  to  give.  In  1857  another  period  of  inflation 
was  followed  by  another  crisis.  After  the  war  came  another  period  of  inflation, 
and,  as  a  result,  the  panic  of  1873.  The  crisis  of  1893  seems  to  have  been 
rather  due  to  financial  legislation  than  to  an  unsound  condition  of  the  busi- 
ness of  the  country  at  large. 

Paoli,  Pa.  Here  the  British,  under  Major-General  Grey,  made  a  night 
attack  upon  Wayne's  encampment,  September  20,  1776.  Wayne  was  utterly 
surprised  and  could  make  no  effective  resistance.  He  lost  150  men. 

Paper.  The  first  attempt  at  the  manufacture  of  paper  in  the  United 
States  was  made  in  1690  by  William  Rittinghuysen  and  William  Bradford, 
who  established  a  paper  mill  at  Roxbury  near  Philadelphia.  The  paper  was 
made  wholly  of  linen  rags.  In  1710  William  de  Wers  erected  a  second  mill 
in  German  town,  and  the  third,  erected  in  1714,  on  the  Chester  Creek  in 
Delaware,  furnished  Benjamin  Franklin  with  paper.  By  1810  the  number 
of  paper  mills  in  the  United  States  was  estimated  at  185,  nearly  every  State 
possessing  one  or  more.  In  1870  there  were  nearly  700  of  these  establish- 
ments, manufacturing  printing,  writing  and  wrapping  paper,  with  a  capital 
of  $34,365,000. 

Paraguay.  A  commercial  treaty  was  concluded  between  the  United 
States  and  Paraguay  in  1853,  DU^  Paraguay  failed  to  ratify.  Differences 
arose  which  led  to  the  manifestation  of  force  by  the  United  States,  and 
treaties  of  indemnity,  commerce  and  navigation  were  concluded  in  1859. 

Paris,  Louis  Philippe  d'Orleans,  Cornte  de,  eldest  grandson  of  Louis 
Philippe,  king  of  the  French,  born  in  Paris  in  1838,  became  an  aide-de-camp 
to  General  McClellan  in  1861.  He  returned  to  England  in  1862.  He  has 
published  several  volumes  of  a  "  Histoire  de  la  Guerre  Civile  en  Amerique," 
which  is  to  be  completed  in  eight  volumes.  He  has  since  been  noted 
because  of  his  claims  to  the  French  throne.  Died  September  8,  1894. 

Paris,  Declaration  of.  At  the  Peace  of  Paris,  in  1856,  the  following 
declaration  with  regard  to  the  conduct  of  war  was  subscribed  to  by  all  the 
parties  to  the  treaty,  and  has  since  been  accepted  by  nearly  all  civilized 
nations,  except  the  United  States,  (i)  Privateering  is  and  remains  abol- 
ished. (2)  Neutral  goods  in  enemies'  ships  and  enemies'  goods  in  neutral 
ships,  except  contraband  of  war,  are  not  liable  to  capture.  (3)  Paper 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  481 

blockades  are  unlawful.     The  United  States  refused  to  agree  to  the  aboli- 
tion of  privateering.     This  cost  them  heavily  in  the  Civil  War. 

Paris,  Monetary  Conferences  at.  There  have  been  three  International 
Monetary  Conferences  held  in  Paris.  The  first  was  assembled  June  17, 
1867,  at  the  solicitation  of  France,  "  to  consider  the  question  of  uniformity 
of  coinage  and  seek  for  the  basis  of  ulterior  negotiations."  The  United 
States  and  nearly  every  nation  of  Europe  were  represented.  No  definite 
decision  could  be  reached,  the  convention  adjourning  July  6.  On  August 
1 6,  1878,  the  second  International  Monetary  Convention  assembled  at  Paris, 
at  the  suggestion  of  the  United  States,  "  to  adopt  a  common  ratio  between 
gold  and  silver  for  the  purpose  of  establishing  internationally  the  use  of 
bimetallic  money  and  securing  fixity  of  relative  value  between  those 
metals."  The  collective  decision  of  the  European  delegates  was  that  this 
would  be  impossible,  monetary  questions  being  necessarily  governed  by  the 
special  situation  of  each  state  or  group  of  states.  Adjournment  took  place 
August  29.  The  Conference  of  April  8,  1881,  assembled  at  the  call  of 
France  and  the  United  States,  to  adopt  a  settled  relative  and  international 
value  between  gold  and  silver.  The  Conference  adjourned  July  8,  having 
arrived  at  no  agreement.  (See  Brussels.) 

Paris,  Treaty  of  (1763),  was  a  treaty  concluded  between  Great  Britain, 
France,  Spain  and  Portugal.  France  ceded  to  Great  Britain  Canada,  Cape 
Breton  and  the  islands  and  coasts  of  the  St.  Lawrence.  The  Mississippi 
River  from  its  source  to  the  Iberville  and  a  line  thence  through  Lakes  Mau- 
repas  and  Pontchartrain  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  were  to  bound  the  Spanish 
and  British  possessions.  Spain  ceded  Florida  to  Great  Britain.  England 
renounced  her  pretensions  to  Cuba  in  favor  of  Spain  and  surrendered  her 
forts  in  Spanish  America. 

Paris,  Treaty  of  (1782-83).  See  Versailles,  by  which  name  that  treaty  is 
more  familiarly  known,  though  in  reality  the  treaty  between  the  United 
States  and  Great  Britain  was  signed  at  Paris  and  not,  like  the  treaty  between 
Great  Britain  and  France,  at  Versailles. 

Parish.  In  England  the  parish  was,  at  the  time  of  the  settlement  of 
America,  the  unit  of  local  government.  Its  leading  institutions  were  appa- 
rently adopted  in  the  town  government  of  the  New  England  colonies,  but 
in  the  Southern  colonies  were  imitated  exactly,  with  the  same  name.  The 
Virginia  parish,  for  instance,  was  usually  a  sub-division  of  the  county. 
Besides  its  religious  duties,  the  vestry  of  the  parish  had  to  choose  church- 
wardens and  with  them  to  take  charge  of  the  poor,  of  public  processioning 
of  bounds,  of  the  counting  of  tobacco,  and  of  other  administrative  matters. 
They  chose  the  clergyman  and  provided  for  his  salary.  In  New  England 
the  word  parish  had  only  an  ecclesiastical  significance.  In  South  Carolina 
the  parish  was  the  chief  subdivision  of  the  colony,  there  being  no  counties. 
In  Louisiana  the  same  is  still  true. 

Parke,  John  G.,  born  in  1827,  was  first  in  command  at  Fort  Macon.  He 
fought  at  South  Mountain  and  Antietam,  and  was  chief  of  staff  to  General 
Burnside  at  Fredericksburg  and  Vicksburg.  He  was  promoted  major-general 
pf  volunteers. 


j82  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Parker,  Amasa  J.  (1807-1890),  represented  New  York  i;;  the  U.  S.  Con^ 
gress  as  a  Democrat  from  1837  to  1839.  He  was  a  Judge  of  the  New  York 
Supreme  Court  from  1847  to  1855. 

Parker,  Foxhall  A.  (1821-1879),  commanded  the  "Mahaska"  from  1862 
to  1863.  From  1863  to  1866  he  commanded  the  Potomac  iiotilla.  He  was 
chief  signal  officer  of  the  navy  from  1873  to  1876. 

Parker,  Sir  Hyde  (1739-1807),  British  naval  officer,  served  on  the 
"Phoenix"  on  the  American  station,  and  in  1776  engaged  i.i  the  attack  on 
New  York.  He  conveyed  the  troops  which  captured  Savannah  in  1778. 

Parker,  Joel  (1816-1888),  was  a  member  of  the  New  Jersey  Assembly 
from  1847  to  1850,  and  prosecuting  attorney  from  1852  to  1857.  He  was 
Governor  of  New  Jersey  from  1862  to  1866  and  in  1870.  The  National 
Labor  Convention  in  1872  nominated  him  for  Vice-President  of  the  United 
States.  He  was  a  Judge  of  the  New  Jersey  Supreme  Court  from  1880  to 
1888. 

Parker,  Sir  Peter  (1721-1811),  left  England  in  1775  as  post-captain  in 
the  "  Bristol "  to  co-operate  with  Sir  Henry  Clinton  in  an  attack  on  Charles- 
ton, S.  C.  He  made  a  gallant  but  unsuccessful  assault  on  Fort  Moultrie  in 
1776.  He  aided  Lord  Howe  in  the  capture  of  New  York,  and  commanded 
the  squadron  that  took  possession  of  Rhode  Island.  In  1782  he  took  De 
Grasse  prisoner. 

Parker,  Sir  Peter  (1786-1814),  was  sent  in  command  of  the  "Menelaus" 
to  patrol  Chesapeake  Bay  and  blockade  Baltimore,  harbor  in  1814.  He 
wantonly  destroyed  and  plundered  public  and  private  property,  and  com- 
pletely destroyed  all  domestic  commerce  during  the  month  of  his  blockade. 
His  conduct  was  exceedingly  exasperating  to  the  Americans.  He  was  killed 
during  one  of  his  skirmishing  "  frolics." 

Parker,  Theodore  (1810-1860),  was  pastor  of  a  Unitarian  church  at  West 
Roxbury,  Mass.,  from  1837  to  1845.  In  1845  he  established  the  "Twenty- 
Eighth  Congregational  Society  "  in  Boston.  He  was  an  ardent  opponent  of 
all  pro-slavery  sentiments,  and  exerted  a  powerful  anti-slavery  influence. 
He  was  the  leader  of  a  new  and  more  practical  phase  of  the  Unitarian 
movement. 

Parkman,  Francis  (1823-1893),  attained  high  rank  as  a  historian  and 
writer  by  a  series  of  works  relating  to  the  rise  and  fall  of  the  French 
dominion  in  America.  During  his  later  years  he  was  regarded  as  the  fore- 
most of  American  historians.  In  the  preparation  of  his  series  he  fre- 
quently visited  Europe  to  consult  the  French  archives.  It  is  a  work  of  great 
candor  and  fairness,  and  is  notable  for  its  brilliant  and  graphic  style  and 
evidences  of  careful  research.  It  includes  "The  Conspiracy  of  Pontiac,"' 
"  Pioneers  of  France  in  the  New  World,"  "  The  Discovery  of  the  Great 
West,"  "The  Jesuits  in  North  America,"  "The  Old  Regime  in  Canada," 
"  Count  Frontenac  and  New  France  under  Louis  XIV.,"  "  A  Half-Century 
of  Conflict,"  and  "  Montcalm  and  Wolfe. " 

Parliament.  The  right  of  Parliament  to  legislate  for  the  colonies  was 
*ot  seriously  questioned  during  the  earlier  portions  of  colonial  history.  In 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  483 

1761  James  Otis  denied  the  right  of  Parliament  to  tax  the  colonists,  since 
they  were  not  represented  in  Parliament.  The  Stamp  Act  of  1765,  and 
other  measures  of  taxation  caused  by  the  Seven  Years'  War,  caused  the  same 
protest  to  be  made  generally.  From  this  the  revolutionary  party  advanced 
to  the  position  that  Parliament  had  also  no  right  to  legislate  for  the  colonies. 
The  Declaratory  Act  of  1766  and  the  Townshend  Acts  of  1767  aimed  to 
perpetuate  the  system.  The  Parliament  of  1768-1774,  noted  for  aversion  to 
popular  rights  in  England,  as  well  as  in  America,  abetted  the  king  in  all  his 
American  policy.  Chief  among  their  measures  of  this  purport  were  the 
Boston  Port  Act,  the  Massachusetts  Charter  Act,  the  Quebec  Act  and  the 
Quartering  Act. 

Parris,  Samuel  (1653-1720),  born  in  England,  was  a  clergyman  in  Salem, 
Mass.,  from  1689  to  1696.  In  1692  his  daughter  and  niece  accused  Tituba, 
a  slave,  of  bewitching  them.  Mr.  Parris  beat  Tituba  until  she  confessed. 
The  delusion  spread,  and  during  the  horrors  of  the  "  Salem  witchcraft," 
here  inaugurated,  nineteen  persons  were  hanged.  He  afterward  acknowl- 
edged his  error. 

Parrott,  Robert  P.  (1804-1877),  invented  the  system  of  rifled  cannon  and 
projectiles  which  bears  his  name.  The  Parrott  guns  exhibit  great  endur- 
ance, one  at  Charleston  having  been  fired  4606  times  before  bursting,  and 
were  of  great  service  in  the  Civil  War. 

Parsons,  Samuel  H.  (1737-1789),  was  a  member  of  the  Connecticut 
Assembly  from  1762  to  1780.  He  planned  the  capture  of  Ticonderoga  in 
1775.  He  fought  at  Long  Island  in  1776,  and  commanded  a  brigade  at 
White  Plains  and  the  troops  at  New  York  Highlands  from  1778  to  1779. 
He  succeeded  General  Israel  Putnam  in  command  of  the  Connecticut  line 
in  1780.  He  had  an  important  part  in  the  forming  of  the  Ohio  Company, 
the  securing  of  the  Ordinance  for  the  Government  of  the  Northwest  Terri- 
tory and  the  early  settlement  of  Ohio. 

Parsons,  Theophilus  (1750—1813),  was  graduated  at  Harvard,  and  rose  to 
the  leading  position  among  the  lawyers  of  Massachusetts.  He  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  famous  Essex  Junto.  He  was  foremost  among  the  Federalists 
in  the  Ratifying  Convention  of  1788.  Aside  from  service  in  the  State 
Legislature  he  held  no  further  political  office.  He  was  Chief  Justice  of  the 
Massachusetts  Supreme  Court  from  1806  until  his  death. 

Parsons'  Case,  a  celebrated  law  case  won  by  Patrick  Henry  in  November 
session  of  the  Court  of  Hanover  County,  Va.,  in  1763.  This  case  involved 
the  constitutionality  of  the  "  option  law  "  or  "  two  penny  act,"  passed  by  the 
Virginia  Legislature  in  1758.  The  operation  of  this  act  affected  each  parish 
minister,  compelling  him  to  receive  the  value  of  the  16,000  pounds  of  tobacco, 
due  for  his  year's  services,  in  paper  money  of  the  colony,  amounting  to 
^"133  instead  of  ^400  sterling,  the  selling  value  of  the  tobacco.  The  clergy 
appealed  to  the  crown.  The  crown  disallowed  (vetoed)  the  law.  Under 
this  disallowance  the  Rev.  James  Maury  having  sued  for  damages,  the  court 
squarely  "  adjudged  the  act  to  be  no  law,"  and  decided  for  the  plaintiff.  A 
new  trial  was  allowed  on  a  demurrer,  and  Henry  was  retained  as  counsel  for 
the  defendant.  His  eloquence  induced  the  jury,  a  picked  jury,  to  return 


484  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORV. 

one  penny  damages  for  the  plaintiff.     Success  in  this  famous  case  made 
Henry's  reputation  at  once. 

Parton,  James  (1822-1891),  came  to  the  United  States  from  England  in 
1827.  He  published  lives  of  Horace  Greeley,  Aaron  Burr,  Andrew  Jackson, 
Benjamin  Franklin  and  Thomas  Jefferson,  "  General  Butler  in  New  Orleans," 
"  Noted  Women  in  Europe  and  America,"  "  How  New  York  is  Governed  " 
and  "  Captains  of  Industry."  Of  these  his  Jackson  is  the  most  important. 

Pastorius,  Francis  D.  (1651-1719),  came  to  America  from  Germany  in 
1683  and  founded  a  colony  of  Germans  and  Dutch  at  Germantown,  Pa.  He 
signed  the  first  protest  made  in  America  against  slavery  in  1688. 

Patent  Office.  This  office,  or  bureau,  was  created  in  1836  in  the  Depart- 
ment of  State,  the  chief  officer  being  the  Commissioner  of  Patents.  The 
Patent  Office  was  transferred  to  the  Department  of  the  Interior  in  1849, 
when  this  latter  department  was  created.  Originally  patents  were  signed  by 
the  President,  then  by  the  Secretary  of  State  and  the  Commissioner  of 
Patents;  now  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior  and  the  Commissioner. 

Patents.  The  Constitution  confers  upon  Congress  the  power  to  issue 
patents  for  useful  inventions.  A  few  patents  had  been  issued  by  the  States. 
The  first  patent  law,  passed  in  1790,  granted  letters  patent  upon  any  new 
invention,  for  fourteen  years,  to  both  citizens  and  foreigners.  Application 
had  to  be  made  to  the  Secretaries  of  War,  the  State  and  the  Navy.  The 
Act  of  1793  permitted  the  issue  of  patents  to  citizens  only  and  required  a 
fee  of  $30.  States  were  not  permitted  to  issue  patents.  This  was  decided 
in  the  case  of  Gibbons  vs.  Ogden  in  New  York.  In  1836,  the  year  of  the 
establishment  of  the  patent  office,  a  law  was  passed  requiring  a  preliminary 
examination  of  the  novelty  and  patentability  of  inventions.  Under  the  Law 
of  1842  patents  were  granted  for  seven  years.  This  term  was  afterward 
extended  to  its  present  length  of  seventeen  years.  Finally  by  the  Act  of 
1870  patents  are  to  be  granted  to  any  person  who  can  prove  the  newness 
and  desirability  of  his  invention,  on  payment  of  the  required  fee.  The 
number  of  patents,  annually  issued,  which  in  1844  was  502,  is  now  (1894) 
about  25,000. 

Paterson,  William  (1745—1806),  was  a  New  Jersey  Delegate  to  the  Conti- 
nental Congress  from  1780  to  1781.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Federal  Con- 
vention of  1787,  and  proposed  the  preservation  of  State  sovereignty,  in  what 
was  called  the  "New  Jersey  Plan."  He  was  a  U.  S.  Senator  from  1789 
to  1790,  Governor  of  New  Jersey  from  1791  to  1793,  and  a  Justice  of  the 
U.  S.  Supreme  Court  from  1793  to  1806. 

Pathfinder,  the  nickname  of  General  John  C.  Fremont,  given  him  because 
of  his  valuable  western  explorations  from  1837  to  1853. 

Patrol,  a  military  system  adopted  by  the  parishes  of  most  of  the  Southern 
colonies,  notably  South  Carolina.  The  patrol  was  a  sort  of  police  for  the 
parish,  and  was  designed  especially  to  prevent  and  subdue  insurrections 
among  the  slaves.  In  South  Carolina  the  patrol  was  established  by  law  in 
1704.  The  patrollers  furnished  their  own  pistols  and  horses.  They  rode 
from  plantation  -to  plantation  and  arrested  all  slaves  who  could  not  show 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  485 

passes  from  their  owners.     This  system  soon  became  general  through  the 
South,  and  continued  under  various  forms  for  many  years. 

Patrons  of  Husbandry,  or  "  Grangers,"  a  secret  association  formed  at 
Washington,  December  4,  1867,  for  the  promotion  of  agricultural  interests. 
It  somewhat  resembles  the  order  of  the  Masons.  By  1875,  it  numbered 
1,500,000  members  in  every  section  of  the  country.  Though  not  intended 
for  political  purposes,  its  aim  to  cheapen  transportation  involved  it  in  a 
guasi-political  warfare  with  railroad  corporations. 

Patroons.  In  1629  the  Dutch  West  India  Company,  in  order  to  effect  a 
permanent  agricultural  colonization  of  New  Netherland,  granted  a  charter 
of  "Privileges  and  Exemptions"  to  any  members  of  the  company  who 
would  within  four  years  plant  a  colony  of  fifty  anywhere  in  New  Nether- 
land,  except  on  Manhattan  Island.  These  wealthy  grantees  were  called 
Patroons,  and  were  privileged  to  rule  their  colonies  in  absolute  feudal  .style, 
the  colonists  being  bound  to  them  for  a  certain  number  of  years.  This  system 
was  soon  found  to  be  disadvantageous,  since  it  tended  to  debar  the  less 
wealthy  class  of  individual  colonists.  In  1640  the  charter  was  modified  and 
extended  to  any  good  citizen  of  the  Netherlands.  In  later  years  there  were 
frequent  quarrels  between  the  Patroons  and  the  provincial  government. 

Patterson,  Daniel  T.  (1786-1839),  commanded  the  naval  forces  at  New 
Orleans  in  1814,  co-operating  with  General  Jackson.  He  commanded  the 
flotilla  that  destroyed  the  stronghold  of  Jean  L,afitte  at  Barataria. 

Patterson,  Robert  (1743-1824),  came  to  Pennsylvania  from  Ireland  in 
1768.  He  served  in  the  Colonial  army,  was  appointed  Director  of  the  Mint 
by  President  Jefferson  in  1805  and  served  till  1824. 

Pattison,  Robert  E.,  born  in  1850,  was  comptroller  of  Philadelphia  from 
1877  to  1882.  He  was  Governor  of  Pennsylvania  from  1883  to  1887,  and 
was  again  elected  in  1890,  to  serve  from  1891  to  1895. 

Patton,  Jacob  H.,  born  in  1812,  has  published  "A  Concise  History  of  the 
American  People,"  "The  Democratic  Party,  Its  History  and  Influences," 
"  A  Brief  History  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  the  United  States,"  and 
"  The  Natural  Resources  of  the  United  States." 

Paul  vs. Virginia,  an  important  case  before  the  U.  S.  Supreme  Court.  In 
1866  Samuel  Paul,  of  Virginia,  was  indicted  by  the  Circuit  Court  of  Peters- 
burg and  sentenced  to  pay  a  fine  of  fifty  dollars  for  refusing,  in  his  capacity 
of  insurance  agent  for  a  New  York  company,  to  comply  with  that  statute  of 
the  State  of  Virginia  which  required  the  deposit  in  the  State  Treasury  of 
certain  moneys  in  State  bonds  by  insurance  companies  not  incorporated 
under  the  State  laws,  or  the  agents  of  such  companies,  in  return  for  a  license. 
The  Court  of  Appeals  of  Virginia  confirmed  the  decree  of  the  Circuit  Court, 
and  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States  confirmed  that  of  the  Court  of 
Appeals  on  the  ground  that  the  State  statute  in  question  did  not  conflict 
with  the  clause  of  the  National  Constitution,  which  declares  that  "  the 
citizens  of  each  State  shall  be  entitled  to  all  the  privileges  and  immunities 
of  citizens  in  several  States,"  nor  with  the  power  of  Congress  to  "  regulate 
commerce  with  foreign  nations  and  among  the  several  States." 


486  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Paulding,  James  K.  (1779-1860),  was  associated  with  Washington  Irving 
in  the  publication  of  the  "  Salmagundi "  in  1807.  He  was  Secretary  of  the 
U.  S.  Navy  from  1838  to  1841.  He  was  a  facile  essayist  and  humorist.  He 
wrote  "  Life  of  Washington,"  "  The  Backwoodsman,"  "  Slavery  in  the 
United  States,"  "Old  Continental,  or  the  Price  of  Liberty,"  and  "The 
Dutchman's  Fireside,"  a  novel. 

Paulding,  John  (1758—1818),  was  one  of  the  three  captors  of  Major 
Andre,  and  it  was  largely  due  to  his  influence  that  Andre*  was  delivered  to 
the  authorities.  He  served  throughout  the  Revolution. 

Paulus  Hook,  Capture  of,  August  18,  1779.  Paulus  Hook  was  a  sandy 
isthmus  on  the  site  of  Jersey  City.  This  place  was  captured  from  the  British 
by  Major  Lee  with  300  men.  A  mistake  of  the  British  favored  their  sur- 
prise. One  hundred  and  fifty-nine  prisoners  were  taken. 

Pawnee  Indians,  for  a  long  time  inhabitants  of  Nebraska  on  the  Platte, 
have  always  been  friendly  to  the  Americans.  By  a  treaty  in  1833  they  sold 
lands  south  of  the  Nebraska.  They  were  afterward  attacked  by  the  Sioux 
and  their  lands  devastated.  In  1857  they  sold  more  of  their  lands,  but  the 
Government  did  not  protect  them  from  further  ravages  of  the  Sioux. 

Payne,  Henry  B.,  born  in  1810,  represented  Ohio  in  the  U.  S.  Congress 
as  a  Democrat  from  1875  to  1877.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Electoral  Com- 
mission in  1877,  and  a  U.  S.  Senator  from  1885  to  1891.  Died  1896. 

Payne,  John  Howard  (1792-1852),  was  an  author  and  actor  of  consider- 
able merit  and  fame  at  home  and  abroad.  He  is  eminent  as  the  author  of 
"  Home,  Sweet  Home,"  which  he  composed  for  his  drama,  "  Clari,  or  the 
Maid  of  Milan."  His  renown  as  a  song-poet  was  unsurpassed.  He  was 
U.  S.  Minister  to  Tunis  from  1841  to  1845  and  from  1851  till  his  death. 

Pea  Ridge,  Ark.,  a  hot  engagement,  March  7,  1862,  between  10,500 
Union  soldiers  under  General  Curtis  and  20,000  Confederate  troops,  includ- 
ing some  6000  Cherokee  Indians,  commanded  by  General  Van  Dorn,  who 
had  superseded  Price  and  McCulloch.  The  Confederates  began  the  fight, 
advancing  toward  Sugar  Creek,  along  which  Curtis  had  deployed  his  forces, 
Davis  occupying  the  centre,  Carr  the  right  and  Sigel  the  left.  McCulloch 
first  attacked  the  Union  left,  and  then,  moving  to  the  east,  endeavored  to 
join  Van  Dorn  and  Price  against  Curtis'  left  and  centre.  This  movement 
was  prevented  by  Sigel.  At  the  close  of  the  first  day  the  National  army 
had  been  defeated  on  their  right,  and  the  Confederates  on  their  right.  The 
following  day  the  Confederates  were  compelled  to  retreat  through  the  defiles 
of  Cross  Timber  Hollow,  being  unable  to  withstand  the  cross  firing  of  Davis 
and  Sigel.  The  loss  on  both  sides  was  quite  heavy,  the  Confederates  faring 
the  worst. 

Peabody,  Andrew  P.  (1811-1893),  was  editor  of  the  North  American 
Review  frrfm  1854  to  1863,  and  professor  of  Christian  morals  at  Harvard 
from  1860  to  1881.  He  won  esteem  as  a  profound  thinker,  facile  writer  and 
lovable  teacher. 

Peabody,  George  (1795-1869),  born  in  Danvers,  Mass.,  was  a  most  liberal 
philanthropist.  From  1814  to  1837  he  was  in  mercantile  business  in 


Braxton   Bragg. 
P.  G.  T.    Beauregard. 

James   Longstreet. 
Joseph    E.  Johnston. 


CONFEDERATE   GENERALS. 


David  H.  Hill. 
J.  E.  B.  Stuart. 
Robert  E.  Lee. 

Leonidas   Polk. 

John   B.   Hood. 


Thomas  Jonathan  Jackson. 

A     S.  Johnston. 

A.    P.    Hill. 
Jubal  A.    Early. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  487 

Baltimore.  In  1838  he  established  the  famous  banking  firm  of  George 
Peabody  and  Company  in  London.  He  founded  the  Peabody  Institute  at 
Baltimore  in  1857  with  $1,000,000,  gave  $2,500,000  for  constructing  lodging- 
houses  for  the  poor  in  London,  and  $3,500,000  for  the  promotion  of  educa- 
tion in  the  South.  His  public  charities  exceeded  $10,000,000. 

Peabody  Museum,  instituted  as  part  of  Harvard  University  in  1866  by 
George  Peabody,  an  American  banker,  living  in  England.  The  best  organ- 
ized work  in  archaeology  and  ethnology  accomplished  in  the  United  States 
has  been  done  under  the  auspices  of  this  institution. 

Peace  Commission.  In  May,  1778,  a  Peace  Commission  was  sent  to  the 
colonies  by  Lord  North.  The  Commission  offered  all  manner  of  conciliatory 
terms:  an  extension  of  the  privileges  of  trade,  an  abolition  of  the  quartering 
act,  a  representation  of  the  colonies  in  Parliament,  an  arrangement  for 
sustaining  Continental  bills  of  credit,  and  an  almost  independent  colonial 
administration.  The  terms  were  refused  and  a  treaty  with  France  concluded. 

Peace  Commission,  1898.  Pres.  McKinley  appointed  Wm.  R.  Day,  ex- 
Sec,  of  State,  U.  S.  Senators  Davis,  Frye  and  Gray,  with  Whitelaw  Reid,  to 
formulate,  with  the  five  Spanish  commissioners,  a  treaty  of  peace  between 
U.  S.  and  Spain.  The  joint  commission  met  in  Paris,  Oct.  to  Dec.  Spain 
yielded  Porto  Rico,  Cuba  and  Guam,  an  island  of  the  Ladrones,  and  the 
whole  Philippine  group  for  $20,000,000,  claimed  for  Spanish  improvements. 

Peace  Conference.  In  January,  1861,  the  Legislature  of  Virginia  passed 
a  resolution  inviting  the  various  States  to  appoint  delegates  to  meet  at 
Washington  to  consider  an  adjustment  of  the  national  difficulties  then 
pending.  This  Conference  met  February  4  and  adjourned  February  27. 
Twenty-one  States  were  represented.  As  a  result  of  the  deliberations  of  the 
Conference  a  constitutional  amendment  was  proposed  which  prohibited 
slavery  north  of  the  parallel  of  36*  30'  northern  latitude ;  south  of  this  line 
it  was  to  exist  without  restraint.  It  denied  the  right  of  passing  laws  giving 
freedom  to  slaves  temporarily  in  the  free  States  or  to  fugitive  slaves,  and 
forbade  Congress  from  controlling  slavery  in  the  Southern  States,  but  pro- 
hibited the  slave  trade.  The  amendment  was  brought  up  in  the  Senate,  but 
failed  of  introduction  in  the  House. 

Peach  Tree  Creek,  Ga.,  a  battle,  July  20,  1864,  during  Sherman's  cele- 
brated march  through  Georgia.  Sherman  was  then  advancing  on  Atlanta, 
and  Johnston  proposed  to  attack  him  as  he  crossed  Peach  Tree  Creek,  or  else 
allow  him  to  attack  the  Georgia  State  troops  at  the  Decatur  and  Marietta 
roads  and  then  fall  upon  his  flank.  Sherman  advanced  with  Thomas  on  the 
right,  Schofield  in  the  centre  and  McPherson  on  the  left.  June  20  Hood 
advanced  to  the  attack  and  endeavored  to  cut  Thomas  off  from  Schofield  and 
McPherson.  Stewart's  corps  attacked  Sherman's  right  centre  under  Newton, 
who,  though  surprised,  held  his  ground.  Hooker's  whole  corps  was  left 
uncovered  and  suffered  severely,  but  managed  to  drive  the  Confederates  back. 
Thus  the  attack  failed.  Sherman  had  30,000,  Hood  50,000. 

"  Peacock,"  eighteen  guns,  Captain  Warrington.  April  29,  1814,  thif 
sloop  attacked,  off  Florida,  the  British  brig,  "  ISpervier,"  eighteen  guns. 
The  battle  lasted  forty  minutes,  resulting  in  the  capture  of  the  "  %>ervier  " 


488  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

and  the  killing  and  wounding  of  twenty-two  of  its  men.  It  had  aboard 
$118,000  in  specie,  and  proved  a  very  valuable  prize.  On  June  30,  1815,  the 
"Peacock"  attacked  and  captured  the  "Nautilus,"  fourteen  guns.  This 
took  place  after  the  treaty  of  peace.  Next  day,  on  ascertaining  this  fact, 
Captain  Warrington  gave  up  the  "  Nautilus  "  and  returned  home. 

"  Peacock,"  brig.     (See  "  Hornet") 

Peale,  Charles  Wilson  (1741-1727),  of  Pennsylvania,  was  prominent  as  a 
portrait  painter.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Pennsylvania  Legislature  in 
1779.  He  painted  likenesses  of  nearly  all  the  prominent  officers  in  the  Con- 
tinental army.  He  painted  the  first  portrait  of  Washington  in  1772. 

Pearce,  James  A.  (1805-1862),  represented  Maryland  in  the  U.  S.  Con- 
gress as  a  Democrat  from  1835  to  1839  and  from  1841  to  1843.  He  was  a 
U.  S.  Senator  from  1843  to  1862. 

Peary  Expedition.  In  1891  Lieutenant  R.  E.  Peary  conducted  a  scientific 
Arctic  exploration  to  Greenland  under  the  auspices  of  the  Academy  of 
Natural  Sciences  of  Philadelphia.  He  sailed  in  June  and  reached  McCormick 
Bay  the  following  month.  From  this  place  Peary  and  his  wife  and  party 
made  a  number  of  exploring  tours,  reaching  as  far  north  as  82°.  A  journey  of 
1300  miles  was  accomplished  in  sleds,  and  much  valuable  geographical  and 
geological  research  was  made.  A  relief  party  was  dispatched  to  McCormick 
Bay  in  1892. 

Peck,  John  J.  (1821-1878),  of  New  York,  served  in  every  battle  except 
one  during  the  Mexican  War.  He  commanded  a  brigade  at  Williamsburg 
and  Fair  Oaks  and  was  in  command  at  Suffolk  against  Longstreet  in  1863. 

Peculiar  Institution,  a  phrase  applied  to  negro  slavery  about  1852  by  the 
South  Carolina  Gazette  and  afterward  in  general  use. 

Pedro  II.  (1825-1891),  was  Emperor  of  Brazil  from  1841  to  1889.  He 
opened  the  Amazon  to  the  commerce  of  all  nations  in  1867.  He  visited  the 
United  States  in  1876  and  aided  President  Grant  in  opening  the  Centennial 
Exhibition.  He  was  deposed  in  1889. 

Pegram,  Robert  B.,  of  Virginia,  born  in  1811,  resigned  from  the  U.  S. 
navy  in  1861  and  entered  the  Confederate  service.  He  commanded  the 
"  Nashville  "  in  1861  and  the  "  Virginia  "  ("  Merrimac  ").  Died  1894. 

Peirce,  Benjamin  (1809-1880),  won  distinction  for  his  original  and  exten- 
sive work  in  pure  and  in  applied  mathematics.  He  was  a  professor  at 
Harvard  from  1833  to  1867.  He  published  many  mathematical  works. 

"  Pelican,"  the  ship  in  which  Sir  Francis  Drake  made  his  famous  voyage 
around  the  world,  leaving  England  November  15,  1577,  and  returning  to 
that  country  September  26,  1580. 

"  Pelican,"  sloop.     (See  "  Argus.") 

Pemaquid,  the  first  permanent  settlement  made  in  Maine.  It  was  estab- 
lished by  John  Brown,  of  New  Harbor,  who  bought  lands  from  the  Indians 
July  15,  1625.  It  was  also  the  name  originally  given  to  the  Kennebec 
River,  near  which  the  settlement  was  located. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  489 

Pemberton,  John  C.  (1814-1881),  was  graduated  from  the  U.  S.  Military 
Academy  in  1837.  He  served  against  the  Seminoles  in  Florida  from  1837 
to  1839.  He  was  an  aide  on  General  Worth's  staff  during  the  Mexican 
War,  and  was  promoted  major  for  services  at  Monterey  and  Molino  del  Rey. 
He  joined  the  Confederates  in  1861  as  staff  officer  to  General  Johnston.  In 
1862  he  was  assigned  command  of  South  Carolina,  Georgia  and  Florida  and 
constructed  Fort  Wagner  and  Battery  B.  He  received  command  in  Missis- 
sippi, and  in  1863  was  defeated  at  Champion  Hills  and  Vicksburg  by  General 
Grant,  after  commanding  Vicksburg  during  its  siege. 

Pendergrast,  Garrett  J.  (1802-1862),  in  command  of  the  "Cumberland" 
protected  Hampton  Roads  at  the  beginning  of  the  Civil  War  and  prevented 
the  U.  S.  vessels  from  falling  into  the  hands  of  the  Confederates. 

Pendleton,  Edmund  (1721-1803),  one  of  the  principal  Virginian  patriots 
and  orators,  served  in  the  House  of  Burgesses  and  as  a  member  of  a  Committee 
of  Correspondence,  and  was  a  delegate  to  the  first  Continental  Congress. 
As  president  of  the  Virginia  Convention,  he  was  the  head  of  the  State  Gov- 
ernment 1775-1776,  and  afterward  president  of  the  Committee  of  Safety. 
He  drew  up  the  resolutions  instructing  the  State  representatives  in  Congress 
to  agitate  for  independence.  He  was  also  Speaker  of  the  Legislature  and 
President  of  the  Court  of  Appeals.  His  most  important  service  was  in  1788, 
when  he  was  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  Federalist  phalanx  in  the  convention 
called  to  ratify  the  Federal  Constitution. 

Pendleton,  George  Hunt  (1825-1889),  was  a  member  of  the  Ohio  Senate, 
and  frohi  1857  to  1865  was  a  Democratic  Congressman  and  sat  in  important 
committees.  When  McClellan  was  nominated  for  President  in  1864,  Pendle- 
ton received  the  second  place  on  the  ticket.  In  1869  he  was  defeated  for 
Governor  of  Ohio.  While  U.  S.  Senator,  1879-1885,  he  was  chairman  of 
the  Committee  on  Civil  Service  Reform,  and  nis  name  is  attached  to  an  act 
in  furtherance  of  that  measure.  President  Cleveland  in  1885  appointed 
Senator  Pendleton  Minister  to  Gennany,  where  he  remained  until  1889. 

Pendleton  Act,  an  act  for  the  reformation  of  the  national  civil  service, 
introduced  into  the  Senate  by  Pendleton,  of  Ohio  in  1880,  but  which  did 
not  become  a  law  until  January  6,  1883.  It  provides  for  open  competitive 
examinations  for  admission  to  the  public  service  in  Washington,  and  in  all 
custom-houses  and  post-offices  where  the  official  force  is  of  as  many  as  fifty  ; 
for  the  appointment  of  a  Civil  Service  Commission  of  three  persons  and  for 
the  apportionment  of  appointments  according  to  the  population  of  States. 

Pends  d'Oreilles,  or  Kalispels,  a  tribe  of  Selish  Indians,  inhabiting  Mon- 
tana, Idaho,  Washington  and  British  America.  They  have  always  been 
friendly  to  the  whites. 

"  Penguin,"  brig.     (See  "  Hornet.") 

Peninsular  Campaign.  July  21,  1861,  McClellan  was  appointed  to  com- 
mand all  the  Federal  troops  about  Washington.  The  popular  cry  was  at 
that  time:  "  On  to  Richmond  !"  McClellan,  after  months  of  delay,  finally 
landed  his  forces  at  Fort  Monroe,  April  2,  1862,  and  marched  up  between 
the  York  and  James  Rivers  toward  Richmond,  where  Johnston  lay  encamped. 


49o  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

A  month  was  spent  besieging  Yorktown,  and  after  all  the  Confederates 
escaped.  At  the  battle  of  Williainsburg,  May  4,  McClellan  was  successful, 
and  again  at  the  battle  of  Fair  Oaks,  May  31.  Then  followed  the  fights  at 
Mechanicsville,  Games'  Mills,  White  Oak  Swamp,  Frayser's  Farm  and  Mal- 
vern  Hill,  on  the  whole  disastrous  to  the  national  cause.  By  the  end  of 
July  the  Peninsular  Campaign  was  ended  and  Richmond  had  not  been 
reached,  though  probably  at  one  time  it  might  have  been.  McClellan 
retreated  through  the  Chickahominy  swamp  to  a  base  on  James  River. 

Penitentiary.  The  first  penitentiary  was  founded,  by  the  influence  of  the 
Friends  of  Pennsylvania,  at  Philadelphia  in  1786.  This  was  followed  soon 
after  by  the  New  York  prisons  at  Sing  Sing  and  Auburn.  In  the  Philadel- 
phia Penitentiary  the  system  of  solitary  confinement  prevailed,  but  the  New 
York  methods  imposed  silence  rather  than  solitude,  and  upon  this  latter  plan 
were  based  the  penitentiaries  of  other  States,  which  soon  began  to  be  estab- 
lished. The  prison  system  throughout  the  country  became  so  noted  for  its 
perfect  and  humane  discipline  that  in  1831  De  Tocqueville  and  Beaumont 
came  to  the  United  States  on  their  noted  tour  of  inspection. 

Penn,  John  (1741-1788),  represented  North  Carolina  in  the  Continental 
Congress  from  1775  to  1776  and  from  1778  to  1780.  He  signed  the  Decla- 
ration of  Independence.  During  the  invasion  of  North  Carolina  by  Lord 
Cornwallis  he  was  placed  at  the  head  of  public  affairs  in  the  State  with 
almost  dictatorial  powers. 

Penn,  John  (1729—1795),  born  in  England,  was  Proprietary  Governor  of 
Pennsylvania  from  1763  to  1771  and  from  1773  to  1775.  He  attempted  to 
be  neutral  during  the  Revolution. 

Penn,  Richard  (1735-1811),  came  to  America  from  England  in  1763.  He 
was  Lieutenant-Governor  of  Pennsylvania  from  1771  to  1773.  His  rule  was 
marked  by  unprecedented  prosperity. 

Penn,  William  (October  14,  i644~July  30,  1718),  the  founder  of  Penn- 
sylvania, was  born  in  London,  the  son  of  Admiral  Penn.  While  at  Oxford 
he  joined  the  new  sect  of  Quakers,  and  was  expelled  from  the  university. 
For  a  few  years  he  traveled  in  France  and  Italy,  and  became  a  court  favorite 
in  England.  From  this  life  he  turned  to  become  a  minister  of  the  Friends. 
This  step  led  to  a  break  with  his  father,  to  imprisonment  in  the  Tower,  in 
Newgate  and  to  other  persecutions.  He  was  aided,  however,  by  his  friend- 
ship with  the  Duke  of  York.  Penn  wrote  numerous  tracts  and  theological 
works,  "  No  Cross,  no  Crown,"  among  others.  He  had  already  sent  many 
emigrants  to  America,  when  Charles  II.  gave  him  in  1681  an  extensive 
grant.  He  sailed  to  his  new  possession  in  1682,  laid  out  the  city  of  Phila- 
delphia and  negotiated  the  famous  treaty  with  the  Indians  under  the  elm 
tree.  He  returned  to  England  in  1684,  and  had  considerable  influence  at 
court  after  his  friend  came  to  the  throne  as  James  II.  He  was  deprived  of 
his  government  in  1692,  but  it  was  restored  two  years  later.  A  visit  to  his 
colony  in  1699  resulted  in  improving  the  condition  of  affairs.  The  new 
commonwealth  had  from  the  first  a  more  tolerant  basis  than  its  neighbors. 
Penn  returned  to  England  after  a  few  years.  In  the  latter  part  of  his  life 


DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  491 

he  became  involve^  in  difficulties  and  passed  some  time  in  the  Fleet  Prison. 
Life  by  Ellis,  by  Janney,  and  oy  W.  H.  Dixon.  Macaulay's  insinuations  in 
his  history  have  been  refuted. 

Penn  vs.  Baltimore,  a  case  involving  the  boundaries  between  Penn's  and 
Lord  Baltimore's  land  grants  from  the  crown.  Charles  Calvert,  the  third  Lord 
Baltimore,  met  Penn's  deputy  in  1682,  Penn  in  1683,  but  nothing  was 
decided,  though  Penn  obtained  a  new  grant  from  the  Duke  of  York  reach- 
ing into  Delaware  and  even  into  Maryland;  also  a  letter  from  the  king 
requesting  Baltimore  to  hasten  the  adjustment  of  the  boundary.  The  case 
was  taken  to  London  and  decided  in  Penn's  favor.  A  compromise  was 
arranged  in  1732,  and  enforced  by  the  Court  of  Chancery  in  1760,  in  accord- 
ance with  which  a  line  was  run  by  Mason  and  Dixon,  fixing  the  boundary 
in  1767  as  now.  (See  art.  Mason  and  Dixon's  Line.) 

Pennamite  "War,  a  name  sometimes  employed  to  designate  the  Wyoming 
controversy  between  Pennsylvania  and  Connecticut.  (See  Wyoming  Con- 
troversy.) 

Pennington,  William  (1796-1862),  was  Governor  of  New  Jersey  from  1837 
to  1842.  In  1839  occurred  the  Broad  Seal  War,  arising  from  his  issuing 
commissions  under  the  great  seal  of  the  State  to  five  Democratic  Congress- 
men whose  election  was  contested  by  the  Whigs  and  whose  votes  would 
determine  the  Speakership  of  the  U.  S.  Congress.  He  was  a  Republican 
U.  S.  Congressman  from  1859  to  1861  and  Speaker. 

Permsbury  Manor,  the  name  of  William  Penn's  country  house  in  Bucks 
County,  four  miles  above  Bristol,  on  the  Delaware,  built  during  Penn's  first 
visit  on  land  purchased  from  the  Indians  in  1681. 

Pennsylvania,  commonly  called  the  "  Keystone  State,"  was  one  of  the 
original  thirteen  colonies.  William  Penn  obtained  (1681)  a  grant  of  land  of 
40,000  square  miles  from  Charles  II.  as  payment  of  a  debt  of  ^16,000  due  to 
Penn's  father,  an  admiral  in  the  English  navy.  Penn  proposed  to  found  a 
colony  for  the  benefit  of  the  Quakers.  The  king  gave  it  its  name  in  honor 
of  Penn.  To  encourage  emigration  Penn  offered  a  popular  government,  with 
toleration  for  all  religious  beliefs.  His  penal  code  was  reformatory.  The 
Dutch  and  Swedes  already  had  settlements  within  his  grant,  but  they  were 
incorporated  in  the  new  colony.  In  1682  Philadelphia  was  founded  from 
plans  drawn  in  England.  Penn  established  a  proprietary  government  and 
his  wise  administration  and  humane  treatment  of  the  Indians  caused  the 
colony  to  flourish.  His  rights  passed  to  his  heirs,  of  whom  they  were  pur- 
chased in  1776  by  the  State.  Pennsylvania  had  difficulty  with  Connecticut 
over  the  territory  north  of  latitude  41°,  which  by  previous  grant  had  been 
given  to  the  latter  State.  In  1776  this  region  was  organized  as  the  county 
of  Westmoreland  and  was  represented  in  the  Connecticut  Legislature.  This 
quarrel  at  one  time  threatened  to  cause  war  between  the  two  States,  but  in 
1782  the  territory  in  dispute  was  given  to  Pennsylvania  by  the  decision  of  a 
Federal  court  sitting  at  Trenton.  Indian  massacres  occurred  in  this  region 
in  the  years  1755,  1763  and  1778.  The  southern  boundary  line  was  surveyed 
by  two  English  surveyors,  Mason  and  Dixon  (1763-67).  Delaware,  which 
was  included  in  Penn's  grant,  was  erected  into  a  colony  by  itself  (1703)  with 


4^2  DICTIONARY  OK  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

a  legislature  of  its  own,  but  under  the  same  governor  as,  Pennsylvania.  In 
1756  stage  coaches  were  established  between  Philadelphia  and  New  York. 
The  first  Continental  Congress  met  in  Philadelphia  September  5,  1774.  The 
Declaration  of  Independence  (1776),  the  Battle  of  Germantown  (October  4, 
1777)  and  Valley  Forge  (1777-1778)  identify  the  State  with  the  Revolution. 
The  State  included  many  Tories.  A  constitution  for  the  State  was  made 
in  1776.  The  Federal  Constitutional  Convention  of  1787  met  in  Phila- 
delphia. The  constitution  was  ratified  by  a  State  Convention  (December 
12,  1787).  A  new  State  constitution  was  made  in  1790,  another  in  1838, 
the  present  in  1873.  The  "Whiskey"  Rebellion  (1794)  was  a  protest 
against  an  Act  of  Congress  of  1790  which  increased  the  tax  on  distilled 
spirits,  largely  manufactured  in  Western  Pennsylvania.  In  national  poli- 
tics the  State  was  for  many  years  the  Keystone  State.  From  1825  to  1884 
the  electoral  votes  were  never  cast  for  an  unsuccessful  candidate.  Before 
1825  the  State  was  divided  by  the  difference  in  the  occupations  and  nation- 
ality of  the  people  of  the  eastern  and  western  sections.  The  discovery  of 
coal  and  the  use  of  anthracite  in  the  production  of  iron  (1839)  led  Pennsyl- 
vania to  support  a  protective  tariff.  In  1835  the  Anti-Masons  elected  a 
Governor.  Since  the  formation  of  the  Republican  party,  Pennsylvania  has 
been  a  steadily  Republican  State.  From  1856  to  1887  the  machinery  of  the 
party  was  under  the  control  of  Simon  Cameron.  In  1882  and  1890  the 
Democrats  elected  the  Governor.  Pennsylvania  was  loyal  in  the  support  of 
the  Union  cause  and  furnished  362,284  men  for  the  army.  The  greatest 
battle  of  the  war,  Gettysburg,  was  fought  on  her  soil  (July  1-3,  1863).  The 
population  of  the  State  in  1790  was  434,373;  in  1890  it  had  increased  to 
5,258,014.  History  by  Proud. 

Pennsylvania,  The  Historical  Society  of,  founded  in  1824,  nas  issued 
fourteen  volumes  of  "  Memoirs,"  and  supported  the  "  Pennsylvania  Magazine 
of  History  and  Biography." 

Pennsylvania,  University  of,  Philadelphia.  This  institution  was  founded 
as  an  academy  in  1749,  and  incorporated  in  1755.  In  1779  it  became  a 
university,  finally  completing  its  organization  in  1791.  The  medical  depart- 
ment was  founded  in  1765,  and  the  law  department  in  1789.  Marked  prog- 
ress has  been  made  in  recent  years  since  the  removal  of  the  university  to 
its  present  site.  The  college  was  at  the  first  befriended  by  Franklin. 

"  Pennsylvania  Gazette,"  a  semi-weekly  newspaper  established  at  Phila- 
delphia December  24,  1728,  by  Samuel  Keimer.  The  full  title  was  The  Uni- 
versal Instructor  in  all  Arts  and  Sciences  and  Pennsylvania  Gazette.  Keimer 
soon  turned  it  over  to  the  management  of  his  apprentice,  Benjamin  Franklin, 
who  quickly  made  it  the  most  valuable  newspaper  property  in  this  country. 
The  semi-weekly  publication  was,  however,  changed  to  a  weekly,  owing  to 
lack  of  subscription.  Franklin  retired  from  the  management  of  the  Gazette 
in  1766.  The  Gazette  did  good  service  to  the  Revolutionary  cause  until  the 
British  occupation  of  Philadelphia.  Publication  was  suspended  until  after 
evacuation.  It  was  then  renewed  and  survived  another  brief  suspension 
in  1815.  The  first  part  of  the  title  was  dropped  when  Franklin  assumed 
the  management.  In  1845  tne  Gazette  was  merged  in  the  Daily  North 
American,  which  is  still  published. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  493 

"  Pennsylvania  Journal  and  Weekly  Advertiser,"  founded  in  Philadel- 
phia December  2,  1742,  by  William  Bradford  3d.  This  journal  divided  the 
field  with  the  Pennsylvania  Gazette  until  the  British  occupation  of  Philadel- 
phia, when  it  was  suspended  for  a  period,  but  was  afterward  revived.  The 
Journal  made  a  successful  venture  as  a  semi-weekly  in  1788.  It  was  dis- 
continued in  1797,  and  gave  place  to  the  Daily  American,  a  daily  newspaper. 

"  Pennsylvania  Packet,  or  the  General  Advertiser,"  was  founded  in 
November,  1771,  by  John  Dunlapat  Philadelphia.  During  the  British  occu- 
pation of  Philadelphia  it  was  removed  to  Lancaster.  After  the  evacuation 
it  was  brought  back  and  published  tri-weekly.  It  was  afterward  changed  to 
a  daily,  and  appeared  under  the  title  Pennsylvania  Packet  and  Daily  Adver- 
tiser in  1784. 

Penny  (Maryland),  a  copper  coin  of  the  value  of  two  cents,  coined  in 
England  by  Lord  Baltimore  in  1659,  and  issued  in  Maryland  the  same  year. 
The  obverse  or  face  of  this  penny  was  stamped  with  a  profile  bust  of  Lord 
Baltimore.  The  reverse  contained  a  ducal  coronet  upon  which  were  erected 
two  masts,  each  bearing  a  flying  pennant  with  the  legend  Denarium:  Terrse- 
Mariae.  This  coin  was  issued  simultaneously  with  the  Maryland  shilling. 

Penobscot  Expedition,  1779.  About  900  men  were  sent  out  from  Boston 
against  a  British  post  on  the  Penobscot.  A  combined  land  and  naval  attack 
was  planned.  The  land  force  debarked  and  gallantly  assaulted  the  fort. 
Owing  to  disagreement  between  the  commanders,  the  marines  did  not  sup- 
port them,  and  a  British  fleet  now  appearing  on  the  scene  forced  all  assailants 
to  retire.  It  was  an  unfortunate  affair.  The  commander,  Saltonstall,  and 
the  generals,  Lowell  and  Wadsworth,  were  publicly  censured. 

Pensacola,  Fla.,  was  first  settled  by  French  colonists  about  1696  and 
came  into  the  possession  of  the  Spaniards  in  1699.  It  fell  alternately  into 
the  hands  of  the  French,  Spaniards  and  British  until  finally  captured  by  the 
Spaniards  in  1781.  This  Spanish  post,  though  neutral,  allowed  the  British 
to  enlist  there  Indians  against  the  United  States  in  the  War  of  1812  and  to 
make  the  town  a  rendezvous  for  British  forces.  General  Jackson  with  4000 
men  advanced  from  Fort  Montgomery,  and  on  November  6,  1814,  demanded 
from  the  Spanish  Governor  possession  of  the  forts.  This  was  refused  and 
early  next  day  Jackson  stormed  the  town.  The  forts  were  at  once  sur- 
rendered and  the  British  driven  from  the  harbor.  This  prompt  action  on 
Jackson's  part  prevented  another  Indian  war,  drove  the  British  from  an 
important  point,  and  punished  the  Spanish  for  their  violation  of  the  laws  of 
neutrality.  Jackson  again  took  possession  of  the  town  in  1818.  In  1819  it 
became  a  part  of  the  United  States.  At  the  beginning  of  the  Civil  War 
the  navy  yard  and  adjacent  forts  were  seized  by  the  Confederates,  and  later 
several  engagements  occurred  with  the  Federal  forces. 

Pensions.  The  germ  of  the  United  States  pension  system  lay  in  the  pro- 
vision by  Congress  near  the  beginning  of  the  Revolutionary  War  that 
officers  who  should  continue  in  the  service  till  the  end  of  the  war  should 
receive  half  pay  during  seven  years  thereafter.  In  1785  Congress  recom- 
mended to  the  States  that  they  should  make  provision  for  invalid  pensioners, 
and  in  1808  the  United  States  assumed  the  pension  obligations  of  the  States. 


494  DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

These  were  only  for  persons  disabled  in  the  service.  In  1818  an  act  was 
passed  granting  pensions  to  all  who  had  served  nine  months  or  more  in  the 
Revolutionary  army,  and  were  in  indigent  circumstances.  More  claimants 
applied  than  could  possibly  have  survived  from  Washington's  army,  and  the 
amount  required  to  be  paid  during  the  first  year  was  eleven  times  what  had 
been  estimated,  and  in  the  second  year  seventeen  times.  Subsequent  acts 
provided  for  wars  subsequent  to  the  Revolution.  Acts  of  1836,  1848  and 
1853  provided  pensions  for  all  widows  of  Revolutionary  soldiers  whenever 
married.  A  curious  result  has  been  that  in  1868,  when  all  Revolutionary 
pensioners  were  dead,  there  remained  888  widows  of  such  soldiers.  In  1893 
thirteen  remained.  Acts  of  July  14,  1862,  and  subsequent  dates,  provided 
pensions  for  soldiers  and  sailors  disabled  in  the  Civil  War,  and  for  the 
dependent  relatives  of  those  who  had  died.  Under  these  acts  expenditures 
for  pensions  reached  a  maximum  ($34,443,895)  in  1871,  and  then  declined 
until,  on  January  25,  1879,  the  Arrears  Act  was  passed,  allowing  "  back-pay  " 
on  all  pensions  to  which  claim  was  then  successfully  laid.  This  act  doubled 
the  total  annual  sum  in  two  years.  Meanwhile  an  act  of  1871  had  pensioned 
all  who  had  served  a  certain  time  in  the  War  of  1812,  and  their  widows,  if 
married  before  the  Treaty  of  Ghent.  (In  1893  there  were  86  such,  but 
5425  widows).  In  1887,  a  service  pension  act  for  the  Mexican  War  was 
passed.  Finally,  the  Act  of  June  27,  1890,  called  the  Dependent  Pension 
Act,  pensioned  all  who  served  ninety  days  in  the  War  of  the  Rebellion  and 
were  honorably  discharged,  and  who  are  incapacitated  for  manual  labor, 
and  the  widows,  children  and  dependent  parents  of  such.  The  effect  has 
been  nearly  to  double  the  number  of  pensioners,  and  to  raise  the  annual 
charge  for  pensions  above  $160,000,000,  nearly  twice  the  ordinary  annual 
expenditure  for  the  German  army.  Thirty  years  from  the  war,  there  are 
now  nearly  a  million  pensioners,  though  probably  only  two  million  individu- 
als served  in  the  Union  army  and  navy.  The  total  expenditure  for  pensions 
since  1861,  has  been  about  $1,700,000,000.  In  1869,  pensions  were  pro- 
vided for  retiring  U.  S.  Judges,  and  widows  of  Presidents  have  been  pen- 
sioned by  special  act. 

Pensions,  Bureau  of.  Down  to  1849,  the  pension  system  of  the  United 
States  was  administered  by  the  War  and  Navy  Departments.  In  that  year 
it  was  given  over  to  the  Department  of  the  Interior,  then  created. 

People's  Party.  Organized  during  the  National  Union  Conference  at 
Cincinnati,  May  19,  1891,  and  formed  chiefly  from  the  various  Farmers' 
Alliances.  A  national  committee  was  appointed  to  look  after  the  interests 
of  the  new  organization,  and  the  platform  of  the  Farmers'  Alliance  was 
indorsed  advocating  free  silver;  the  sub-treasury  plan;  equal  taxation;  reve- 
nues limited  to  the  necessity  of  the  Government;  a  graduated  income  tax; 
the  election  of  President,  Vice-President  and  Senate  by  a  direct  vote  of 
the  people;  and  prohibition  of  alien  ownership  of  land.  The  National 
Convention  at  Omaha,  Neb.,  July  2,  1892,  nominated  James  B.  Weaver,  of 
Iowa,  for  President,  and  James  G.  Field,  of  Virginia,  for  Vice-President. 
Weaver  obtained  a  popular  vote  of  1,030,128  and  an  electoral  vote  of 
twenty-three. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITKD  STATES  HISTORY.  495 

Pepperrell,  Sir  William  (1696-1 759)^  was  a  member  of  the  Massachusetts 
Legislature  in  1726,  and  in  1727  became  a  member  of  the  council.  He  was 
Chief  Justice  of  the  Court  of  Common  Pleas  from  1730  to  1759.  In  1745 
he  was  active  in  procuring  men  and  supplies  for  an  expedition  against  the 
French  in  Canada.  He  commanded  the  force  that  captured  Louisbourg  and 
was  made  a  baronet.  He  was  active  in  raising  and  equipping  troops  during 
the  French  War  of  1755,  and  commanded  the  forces  on  the  frontier  of  Maine 
and  New  Hampshire. 

Pequots,  a  tribe  of  New  England  Indians,  entered  into  a  treaty  with  the 
colonists  at  Boston  in  1634,  But  soon  became  hostile.  Expeditions  were 
sent  against  them  and  they  in  turn  attacked  Wethersfield  and  killed  many 
settlers.  In  1637,  an  expedition  under  Mason  surprised  the  Indians  at  a  fort 
near  the  present  Groton,  Conn.  A  desperate  struggle  followed  in  which  the 
Indians  were  overcome  with  great  loss.  The  remnant  was  nearly  annihi- 
lated in  a  subsequent  battle  at  Fairfield  swamp.  Many  of  the  Pequots  were 
sold  as  slaves,  and  the  remainder  of  the  tribe  separated  and  later  became 
widely  scattered. 

Percival,  James  G.  (1795-1856),  of  Connecticut,  was  a  popular  poet,  and 
composed  several  remarkable  lyrics.  He  was  a  man  of  varied  and  extensive 
knowledge  and  a'  fluent  writer. 

Percy,  George  (1586-1632),  came  to  Virginia  from  England  about  1607. 
He  succeeded  Lord  Delaware  as  Governor,  temporarily,  in  1611.  He  wrote 
"  A  Discourse  of  the  Plantations  of  the  South  erne  Colonie  in  Virginia." 

Percy,  Hugh,  Duke  of  Northumberland  (1742-1817),  in  1775  (being  then 
known  as  Earl  Percy)  led  a  brigade  to  reinforce  the  British  at  Lexington, 
and  allowed  wanton  plundering  by  his  troops  during  the  retreat.  Several 
citizens  were  murdered.  In  1776  he  led  a  column  at  the  reduction  of  Fort 
Washington  and  was  the  first  to  enter  the  American  lines.  He  returned  to 
England  in  1776. 

Perfectionists.     (See  Oneida  Community.) 

Perry,  Arthur  L.,  born  in  1830,  has  been  professor  of  history  and  political 
economy  at  Williams  College  since  1853.  ^e  *s  an  ar^ent  advocate  of  free 
trade.  He  has  written  "  Foes  of  the  Fanners  "  and  two  books  on  "  Political 
Economy." 

Perry,  Matthew  Calbraith  (1794-1858),  brother  of  the  victor  of  Lake 
Erie,  served  as  a  boy  in  the  War  of  1812,  and  later  against  the  pirates.  He 
rendered  important  services  while  in  command  of  the  Brooklyn  Navy  Yard, 
and  was  promoted  to  be  commodore  in  1841.  His  aid  in  the  capture  of  Vera 
Cruz  in  1847  was  valuable,  as  was  his  blockade  of  the  coast.  Commodore 
Perry  is  best  remembered  for  his  connection  with  Japan.  He  organized  and 
commanded  the  expedition  to  that  country — then  outside  the  list  of  friendly 
nations — in  1853,  and  signed  a  treaty  with  its  government  in  1854,  thus 
opening  the  "  Mikado's  Empire  "  to  western  influences. 

Perry,  Oliver  Hazard  (1785-1819),  an  American  naval  hero,  was  a  native 
of  Rhode  Island,  and  entered  the  navy  as  midshipman  in  1799.  He  was  in 
the  Tripolitan  War,  and  afterward  devoted  his  attention  to  ordnance.  In 


496  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

1813  he  was  appointed  to  command  .on  Lake  Erie.  With  great  efforts  and 
extraordinary  rapidity  he  built  a  fleet  on  the  lake  and  drilled  his  men.  His 
preparations  being  completed,  he  sailed  from  Put-in  Bay  in  command  of  a 
squadron  of  nine  vessels,  of  which  the  "  Lawrence  "  and  "  Niagara  "  were  the 
chief.  The  British  commander,  Barclay,  had  six.  Their  battle  of  Septem- 
ber 15,  1813,  in  which  Perry  showed  great  ability,  resulted  in  the  capture  of 
the  entire  British  squadron,  and  was  immortalized  in  the  laconic  dispatch, 
"We  have  met  the  enemy  and  they  are  ours."  Perry  co-operated  in  the 
victory  of  the  Thames,  was  made  captain,  and  served  in  the  defence  of 
Baltimore.  • 

Perryville,  Term.,  the  chief  battle  in  Bragg's  invasion  of  Kentucky. 
On  October  8,  1862,  General  Bragg,  leading  40,000  Confederate  troops,  was 
retreating  from  Kentucky  into  East  Tennessee,  when  at  Perryville  he  was 
overtaken  by  General  Buell,  with  58,000  Federals.  Bragg  was  forced  to 
turn  and  give  battle.  The  fight  lasted  nearly  all  day,  and  was  at  times  hand 
to  hand.  The  National  left,  being  composed  of  raw  recruits,  was  destroyed, 
but  the  rest  of  the  line,  under  General  Philip  H.  Sheridan,  held  out  bravely 
and  repelled  every  attack  of  the  Confederates,  following  them  up  with 
counter  attacks.  Buell's  loss  was  3700,  including  Generals  James  S.  Jackson 
and  William  T.  Terrill.  Bragg's  casualties  were  about  3200.  Bragg  was 
compelled  to  retire.  Buell  did  not  follow  him. 

Persia.  The  United  States  concluded  a  treaty  of  friendship  and  com- 
merce with  Persia  in  1856. 

Personal  Liberty  Laws,  statutes  passed  by  the  Northern  States  to  pro- 
tect the  negroes  within  their  borders.  The  first  acts  were  passed  about  1840, 
though  Indiana  and  Connecticut  had  previously  provided  that  fugitives 
might  have  a  trial  by  jury.  After  the  Prigg  decision,  many  of  the  States 
passed  Acts  prohibiting  the  use  of  State  jails  in  fugitive  slave  cases.  The 
Fugitive  Slave  Law  of  1850  aroused  the  most  violent  opposition  in  the 
North,  and  before  1856  many  of  the  States  had  passed  personal  liberty 
acts.  Beside  prohibiting  the  use  of  State  jails,  these  laws  forbade  State 
judges  and  officers  to  assist  claimants  or  issue  writs.  Trial  was  to  be  given 
all  alleged  fugitives.  Heavy  penalties  were  provided  for  the  violation  of 
these  laws.  Such  acts  were  passed  in  Vermont,  Connecticut,  Rhode  Island, 
Massachusetts,  Michigan,  Maine,  Wisconsin,  Kansas,  Ohio  and  Pennsylvania. 
Of  the  Northern  States,  New  Jersey  and  California  alone  sanctioned  the 
rendition  of  fugitives. 

Peru.  The  United  States  concluded  a  treaty  of  peace  and  commerce  with 
the  Peru-Bolivian  Confederation  in  1836.  A  claims  convention  was  con- 
cluded in  1841  with  Peru,  by  which  Peru  agreed  to  pay  $300,000  indemnity  to 
United  States  citizens.  A  commercial  treaty  was  concluded  in  1851.  A  con- 
vention relative  to  the  rights  of  neutrals  at  sea  was  concluded  in  1856.  Claims 
conventions  were  concluded  in  1862,  1863  and  1868.  A  commercial  treaty 
was  concluded  in  1870,  and  an  extradition  treaty  the  same  year.  A  com- 
mercial treaty  was  concluded  in  1887. 

Pet  Banks,  the  name  applied  to  certain  State  banks  selected  by  the 
Treasury  Department  as  places  of  deposit  for  Federal  funds  withdrawn  from 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  497 

the  Bank  of  the  United  States.  This  practice  was  in  vogue  during  the 
period  between  1833  and  1836.  The  banks  were  chosen,  it  was  said,  not 
because  of  fitness,  but  on  the  principle  of  the  accepted  system  of  granting 
bank  charters,  namely,  of  party  fidelity.  This  gave  rise  to  competition 
among  the  Democratic  banks  and  a  wholesale  granting  of  charters,  which 
was  followed  by  speculation  and  inflation  of  the  currency. 

Peters,  Hugh  (1599-1660),  came  to  America  from  England  in  1635.  In 
1636,  he  succeeded  Roger  Williams  as  pastor  of  the  first  church  in  Salem, 
and  excommunicated  Williams'  adherents.  He  took  an  active  part  in  public 
affairs.  In  1638,  he  was  appointed  to  collect  and  revise  the  Massachusetts 
Colonial  Laws.  In  1641,  he  was  a  commissioner  to  England  and  influenced 
the  removal  of  imposts  on  New  England  commerce.  He  afterward  played 
an  important  part  in  the  English  Civil  War. 

Peters,  Richard  (1744-1828),  was  secretary  of  the  Continental  Board  of 
War  from  1776  to  1781,  represented  Pennsylvania  in  the  Continental  Con- 
gress from  1782  to  1783,  and  was  a  U.  S.  district  judge  from  1789  to  1828. 

Peters,  Samuel  (1735-1826),  became  a  Church-of-England  minister  in  the 
churches  of  Hartford  and  Hebron,  Conn.,  in  1762.  He  was  suspected  of 
being  a  Tory,  and  in  1774  was  required  to  make  a  written  declaration  that 
he  had  not  communicated  with  England  concerning  the  controversies  with 
the  colonies  and  would  not  do  so.  Soon  afterward  he  fled  to  England.  He 
wrote  a  satirical  "  History  of  Connecticut "  of  little  historical  value. 

Peters,  United  States  vs.,  a  Supreme  Court  case  of  the  year  1809. 
Judge  Peters,  of  the  U.  S.  District  Court  for  Pennsylvania,  decided  for  the 
plaintiffs  in  the  case  of  Olmstead  and  others  vs.  Rittenhouse's  Executrixes, 
but  refrained  from  carrying  his  judgment  into  execution  because  of  a  statute 
passed  by  Pennsylvania  forbidding  this.  A  mandamus  was  then  asked  for 
against  Peters.  The  Supreme  Court  (Judge  Marshall),  declaring  that  the 
Legislature  of  a  State  cannot  annul  the  judgment  or  determine  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  a  U.  S.  Court,  granted  the  mandamus,  and  the  decree  was  executed, 
against  the  opposition  of  the  Pennsylvania  authorities  and  even  of  the  Penn- 
sylvania militia.  (See  Olmstead  et  als.  vs  Rittenhouse's  Executrixes.) 

Peters'  Reports,  sixteen  volumes  of  law  reports  by  Richard  Peters,  Jr., 
containing  cases  from  the  United  States  Supreme  Courts,  1828-1842. 

Petersburg,  Va.  About  this  town  and  Richmond,  from  June,  1864,  to 
April,  1865,  there  was  the  most  celebrated  campaign  of  the  Civil  War. 
Gradually  Grant  had  forced  Lee's  Army  of  Northern  Virginia  southward 
until  the  Confederates  lay  posted  about  Petersburg  and  Richmond.  Grant's 
army,  including  drivers,  camp  followers,  etc.,  numbered  nearly  120,000 
men,  while  Lee  was  at  the  head  of  about  70,000.  By  June  10,  1864,  the 
Confederates  were  strongly  posted,  Lee,  with  the  main  command,  at  Peters- 
burg, and  Longstreet  on  the  left  at  Chapin's  Bluff,  the  line  extending  along 
the  Boydton  Road  and  Hatcher's  Run  eastward.  The  campaign  was  opened 
by  Butler,  then  commanding  the  Army  of  the  James  at  Bermuda  Hundred. 
June  10,  a  Federal  force  was  sent  by  him  under  Gillmore  and  Kautz  to 
destroy  the  Appomattox  bridges  and  attempt  the  capture  of  Petersburg. 
32 


498  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

This  expedition  failed  signally.  June  14,  Grant  sent  Smith  with  a  large 
force  upon  a  similar  expedition.  Smith  delayed,  thus  giving  the  Confederates 
time  to  assault  and  defeat  him.  Grant  lost  9000  men  in  these  two  expedi- 
tions. The  siege  of  Petersburg  practically  commenced  June  18.  Butler 
had  affected  a  valuable  lodgment  at  Deep  Bottom,  and,  on  the  twenty-first, 
forces  under  Hancock  and  Wright  endeavored  to  destroy  the  Weldon  Road, 
but  this  was  frustrated  by  Hill,  who  attacked  and  defeated  the  Federals  dis- 
astrously. Then  followed  Sheridan's  victory  at  Yellow  Tavern  and  Wilson's 
and  Kautz's  raid.  June  25,  Burnside  proposed  and  began  the  construction 
of  a  mine  to  blow  up  the  Confederate  lines  about  Petersburg.  This  mine 
was  in  process  of  construction  until  July  23,  and  was  sprung  July  30.  It 
consisted  of  a  shaft  520  feet  long  with  lateral  terminations  forty  feet  in  each 
direction  and  was  charged  with  8000  pounds  of  powder.  Burnside  was  to 
rush  into  the  breach  and  seize  Cemetery  Hill,  commanding  the  town.  A 
crater  200  feet  long  by  sixty  wide  was  formed  by  the  explosion,  and  one 
Confederate  regiment  was  blown  up,  but  the  rest  poured  such  a  murderous  fire 
upon  the  advancing  Federals  that  4000  men  were  lost,  and  the  attempt  failed. 
After  this  things  remained  comparatively  quiet  around  Petersburg  until 
February,  1865.  Then  Lee,  having  been  appointed  commander-in-chief  of 
the  entire  Confederate  force,  perceiving  that  his  situation  was  becoming 
desperate,  determined  to  evacuate  Richmond  and  Petersburg  and  join  Johns- 
ton in  the  south.  To  cover  his  retreat,  he  sent  a  strong  force  on  the  night 
of  March  24,  1865,  to  assault  Fort  Steedman.  The  fort  was  carried  at  the 
first  assault,  but  reinforcements  failed  to  come,  and  the  Federals  under  Parke 
quickly  repelled  the  assault.  Of  5000  Confederates,  3000  were  killed,  and 
Lee's  retreat  was  prevented.  The  National  line  then  extended  without  a 
break  from  the  Appomattox  to  Dinwiddie  Court  House.  April  I,  the  fatal 
battle  of  Five  Forks  occurred,  Sheridan  defeating  the  Confederates  after  a 
desperate  fight.  They  were  also  defeated  at  Quaker  and  Boydton  Roads. 
April  2,  Grant  ordered  a  united  attack  along  the  Confederate  line  from 
Appomattox  to  Hatcher's  Run.  Everywhere  the  Confederates  met  defeat 
after  fearful  losses.  On  April  3,  Lee  evacuated  Richmond  and  Petersburg 
simultaneously. 

Petigru,  James  L.  (1789—1863),  was  Attorney-General  of  South  Carolina 
from  1822  to  1830.  He  ardently  opposed  the  nullification  and  secession 
movements.  He  codified  the  Laws  of  South  Carolina. 

Petition.  The  Constitution  prohibits  Congress  from  making  any  law  to 
abridge  "  the  right  of  the  people  peaceably  to  assemble  and  to  petition  the 
Government  for  a  redress  of  grievances."  February  n,  1790,  a  petition 
signed  by  Franklin  was  offered  to  Congress  praying  the  abolition  of  slavery, 
but  it  was  unnoticed.  Between  1830  and  1844  numerous  petitions  from 
abolitionists  poured  in.  February  8,  1835,  Henry  L.  Pinckney,  of  South 
Carolina,  suggested  that  resolutions  be  adopted  to  the  effect  that  Congress 
cannot  constitutionally  interfere  with  slavery  in  any  of  the  States.  The 
committee  on  these  resolutions  reported  favorably  and  suggested  that  there- 
after abolition  petitions  be  laid  on  the  table.  These  were  adopted.  John 
Quincy  Adams  opposed  these  "  gag  rules  "  during  ten  years,  finally  accom- 
plishing their  abolition  in  1844. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  499 

Petroleum.  Its  existence  was  known  to  the  Indians  of  Western  New 
York,  and  it  was  collected  in  small  quantities  by  them  and  by  the  early 
settlers  of  New  York  and  Pennsylvania,  amounting  sometimes  to  as  much 
as  twenty  barrels  in  a  year.  The  first  organized  and  successful  effort  to  bore 
for  petroleum  was  made  in  1854  by  a  New  York  company  along  Oil  Creek, 
N.  Y.  Oil  was  struck  at  seventy-one  feet,  and  as  much  as  a  thousand  barrels 
per  day  was  obtained.  Oil  fields  were  quickly  located  elsewhere  in  New 
York  and  in  Pennsylvania,  Ohio  and  West  Virginia,  those  of  Pennsylvania 
proving  the  richest.  The  latter  yielded  3,000,000  barrels  in  1862.  Gaso- 
lene, naphtha,  kerosene,  paraffine  and  other  products  soon  began  to  be  manu- 
factured from  the  petroleum. 

Pettaquamscut  Purchasers,  a  company  formed  by  John  Hull,  of  Pine 
Tree  Shilling  fame,  in  1660,  which  bought  lands  from  the  Indians  about 
Pettaquamscut  Rock,  in  the  Narragansett  country.  This  company  was  in 
constant  collision  with  Atherton's  company  at  Wickford.  (See  Narragansett 
Country.) 

Pettit,  Charles  (1736-1806),  was  secretary  of  New  Jersey  from  1773  to 
1778.  He  was  assistant  quartermaster-general  of  the  Continental  army  from 
1778  to  1783.  He  represented  Pennsylvania  in  the  Continental  Congress 
from  1785  to  1787. 

Pewter  Muggers,  a  New  York  faction  of  the  Democratic  party  which  was 
opposed  to  the  Tammany  candidates  in  1828.  Their  meetings  being  held  in 
a  Frankfort  Street  resort  over  pewter  mugs,  the  name  was  affixed  by  their 
opponents. 

"  Phebe,"  brig.     (See  "  Essex.") 

Phelps,  Edward  J.,  born  in  1822,  was  second  comptroller  of  the  Treasury 
from  1851  to  1853.  After  the  breaking  up  of  the  Whig  party  he  became  a 
Democrat.  He  became  professor  of  law  at  Yale  in  1881.  He  was  Minister 
Plenipotentiary  to  England  from  1885  to  1889. 

Phelps,  Elizabeth  Stuart,  born  in  Massachusetts  in  1844,  has  been 
prominent  in  temperance  reform  and  efforts  for  the  advancement  of  woman. 
She  wrote  "The  Gates  Ajar,"  "  Hedged  In,"  and  many  stories. 

Phelps,  John  W.  (1813-1885),  of  Vermont,  served  during  the  Mexican 
War.  In  the  Civil  War  he  commanded  a  brigade  at  Newport  News,  reduced 
Ship  Island,  and  fought  at  New  Orleans.  He  was  candidate  of  the  Ameri- 
can party  for  President  in  1880. 

Phelps,  William  Walter,  born  in  1839,  represented  New  Jersey  in  the 
U.  S.  Congress  as  a  Republican  from  1873  to  1875.  He  was  Minister  to 
Austria  from  1881  to  1882.  He  was  a  U.  S.  Congressman  from  1883  to 
1889,  when  he  became  Minister  to  Germanv  and  served  until  1893.  He  is 
known  as  a  staunch  supporter  of  a  protective  tariff.  Died  June  17,  1894. 

Philadelphia,  Pa.,  was  founded  by  commissioners  appointed  by  William 
Penn  in  1681.  The  site  of  the  present  city  was  originally  settled  by  Swedes. 
In  1683  Philadelphia  was  chosen  as  the  capital  of  the  colony,  and  continued 


^oo  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

to  be  such  for  117  years.  During  the  earlier  part  of  the  Revolution  the  city 
was  the  virtual  capital  of  the  colonies.  Here  the  first  Continental  Congress 
convened  in  1774;  on  July  4,  1776,  the  Declaration  of  Independence  was 
adopted;  on  July  9,  1778,  the  Articles  of  Confederation  were  signed;  and  in 
1787  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States  prepared.  Here  also,  in  1786, 
the  "  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  of  North  America  "  was  organized.  In 
December,  1790,  Congress  convened  here,  and  continued  to  hold  its  sessions 
in  the  city  for  ten  years.  The  first  American  bank  was  established  here  in 
1781,  and  the  first  United  States  Mint  in  1792.  In  1876  the  centennial  cele- 
bration of  the  independence  of  the  colonies  was  held  in  Philadelphia,  and 
in  1882  the  bi-centennial  of  the  landing  of  William  Penn  was  observed. 
The  University  of  Pennsylvania  was  incorporated  here  in  1779.  The  city 
was  from  the  first  noted  for  philanthropic  institutions. 

Philip,  King,  chief  of  the  Wampanoags,  died  in  1676.  He  was  the  son 
of  Massasoit,  and  succeeded  to  the  chieftainship  in  1662.  He  was  for  many 
years  friendly  to  the  whites,  but  realized  the  decline  of  the  Indian  race,  and 
was  led  to  hostilities  by  the  encroachments  of  the  colonists,  which  rendered 
his  tribe  restless  and  discontented.  In  1675  he  inaugurated  "  King  Philip's 
War,"  and  enlisted  in  his  service  nearly  all  the  New  England  tribes.  Thir- 
teen towns  were  destroyed,  and  600  colonists  lost  their  lives.  He  was  killed 
at  Mount  Hope,  R.  I.,  and  his  tribe  was  almost  annihilated. 

Philippa,  or  Philippi,  W.  Va.,  the  first  engagement  during  McClellan's 
West  Virginia  campaign.  Here  Colonel  Porterfield,  commanding  1000  Con- 
federate  troops,  was  surprised  and  routed  June  3,  1861,  by  Colonels  Kelly 
and  Dumont,  with  two  regiments  of  McClellan's  army.  This  occurred 
subsequently  to  West  Virginia's  rejection  of  the  secession  ordinance.  Porter- 
field  was  engaged  in  burning  bridges  along  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  Railroad. 

Philipse,  Frederick  (1626-1702),  came  to  New  Amsterdam  from  Holland 
about  1640.  In  1693  part  of  his  vast  estate  was  erected  by  royal  charter 
into  the  "  Manor  of  Philipseborough."  For  over  fifty  years  he  was  very 
prominent  in  colonial  affairs. 

Philippine  Commission.  J.  G.  Schurman,  Dean  C.  Worcester,  Col.  Charles 
Denby,  Gen.  Otis  and  Admiral  Dewey  were  appointed  by  McKinley  in  1899 
to  report  on  the  question  arising  in  the  Philippines. 

Philippine  Islands.  Twelve  hundred  islands  (of  which  408  are  inhabited) 
in  the  Malay  Archipelago,  discovered  by  Magellan  in  1521.  Area,  115,528 
square  miles.  Population,  7,000,000.  Luzon  is  the  chief  island,  on  which 
is  Manila  (154,000  inhabitants),  the  largest  city  and  capital  of  the  whole 
group.  This  city  was  blockaded  May  I,  1898  (see  Manila,  Battle  of),  was 
taken  August  13.  Spain  has  ceded  the  islands  to  the  United  States.  The 
native  revolt,  begun  against  Spain,  is  continued  against  the  Americans. 
(See  Spanish-American  War.) 

Phillips,  John  (1719-1795),  with  his  brother  Samuel,  founded  Phillips 
Andover  Academy  in  1780,  and  in  1781  founded  Phillips  Exeter  Academy 
with  an  endowment  of  $134,000. 

Phillips,  Wendell  (1811-1884),  one  of  the  greatest  platform  orators  of  the 
country,  was  born  in  Boston  and  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1831.  He  became 
a  lawyer,  but  from  1837  onward  gave  his  chief  energies  to  the  abolitionist 
movement.  He  was  the  lecturer  of  the  cause,  as  Garrison  was  the  writer. 
For  many  years  he  labored  against  a  hostile  sentiment. '  He  succeeded  Gar- 
rison as  president  of  the  anti-slavery  society.  He  was,  moreover,  an  ardent 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  501 

advocate  of  the  temperance  and  woman  suffrage  reforms,  a  champion  of  the 
greenback  party,  and  an  eloquent  and  acceptable  lecturer  on  various  topics, 
such  as  the  "  Lost  Arts,"  etc. 

Phillips,  William  (1731-1781),  was  appointed  a  major-general  in  the  Brit- 
ish army  in  America  in  1776.  He  commanded  at  St.  John  till  1777,  when 
he  became  second  in  command  to  Burgoyne  at  Montreal.  By  his  skill  and 
energy  as  an  artilleryman  he  forced  the  evacuation  of  Ticonderoga  by  General 
St.  Clair.  He  was  prominent  in  the  two  Saratoga  battles,  and  succeeded 
Burgoyne  in  the  command  of  the  surrendered  troops.  He  was  promoted 
lieutenant-general  in  1780.  In  1781  he  joined  General  Benedict  Arnold  with 
2000  men  and  assumed  command.  He  died  of  typhoid  fever  soon  afterward. 

Phips,  Sir  William  (1651-1695),  engaged  in  trade  and  in  1687  recovered 
^300,000  from  a  wrecked  Spanish  vessel.  In  1690  he  commanded  the 
expedition  which  captured  Port  Royal  and  made  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to 
reduce  Quebec  with  a  naval  force  of  thirty-four  vessels  and  about  2000  men. 
While  in  England  in  1692  he  was  appointed  Governor  of  Massachusetts. 
He  was  prominent  in  the  suppression  of  witchcraft.  He  was  a  man  of  great 
industry  and  integrity.  He  died  while  visiting  England  to  answer  charges 
against  him. 

Piatt,  Bonn  (1819-1891),  was  Secretary  of  Legation  at  Paris  from  1853 
to  1857,  and  for  nine  months  was  Charge"  d'Affaires.  He  served  on  the  staff 
of  General  Schenck  during  the  Civil  War. 

Pickens,  Andrew  (1739-1817),  served  in  the  Cherokee  War  in~i76i.  In 
1779  he  defeated  the  British  under  Colonel  Boyd  at  Kettle  Creek  and  was 
active  at  the  battle  of  Stono.  He  commanded  the  militia  at  Cowpens, 
captured  Augusta  and  led  the  Carolina  militia  at  Eutaw  Springs.  He  served 
in  the  South  Carolina  Legislature  from  1783  to  1794,  and  was  a  U.  S.  Con- 
gressman from  1793  to  1795.  He  was  again  in  the  South  Carolina  Legis- 
lature from  1801  to  1812.  He  negotiated  numerous  treaties  with  the  Southern 
Indians. 

Pickens,  Francis  W.  (1805-1869),  represented  South  Carolina  in  the  U.  S. 
Congress  as  a  Nullifier  from  1834  to  1843.  He  was  Governor  of  South 
Carolina  from  1860  to  1862.  He  demanded  the  surrender  of  Fort  Sumter 
and  gave  the  order  to  fire  upon  the  "  Star  of  the  West." 

Pickering,  John  (1777-1846),  of  Massachusetts,  was  celebrated  for  his 
philological  studies,  and  was  one  of  the  founders  of  American  Comparative 
Philology.  He  published  "  A  Vocabulary  of  Americanisms  "  and  "  Remarks 
on  the  Indian  Languages  of  North  America." 

Pickering,  Timothy  (1745—1829),  was  a  Harvard  graduate  and  militia 
officer  in  Massachusetts,  who  entered  actively  into  the  civil  and  military  life 
of  the  Revolution.  He  was  made  adjutant-general  of  the  army  in  1776,  and 
member  of  the  board  of  war,  and  in  1780  he  became  quartermaster-general, 
materially  aiding  Washington's  final  movements.  He  held  this  position  until 
1785,  and  then  settled  in  Pennsylvania.  In  1791  he  negotiated  a  treaty  with 
the  Six  Nations,  and  the  same  year  he  was  called  to  the  office  of  Postmaster- 


502  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

General.  This  position  he,  in  1795,  exchanged  for  that  of  Secretary  of  War, 
and  a  few  months  later  he  took  charge  of  the  State  Department,  which  he 
held  until  1800.  Becoming  again  identified  with  Massachusetts  Pickering 
represented  that  State  in  the  U.  S.  Senate  1805-1811  and  the  House  1813- 
1817.  He  was  a  radical  Federalist  and  a  member  of  the  Essex  Junto.  As 
a  vigorous  opponent  of  the  Embargo  he  was  at  one  time  extremely  unpopular. 
Life  by  Pickering  and  Upham. 

Pickett,  George  E.  (1825-1875),  served  with  distinction  during  the  Mexi- 
can War  at  Vera  Cruz,  Contreras  and  Chapultepec.  He  joined  the  Con- 
federates and  in  1862  commanded  a  brigade  under  General  Johnston.  He 
was  active  at  Richmond  and  Games'  Mills,  and  commanded  a  division  at 
Fredericksburg,  Gettysburg  and  Petersburg.  His  command  was  routed  at 
Five  Forks,  and  he  surrendered  with  General  Lee.  He  was  famous  for  a 
cavalry  charge  at  Gettysburg. 

Pierce,  Franklin  (November  23,  i8o4~October  8,  1869),  fourteenth  Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States,  was  born  at  Hillsborough,  N.  H.,  graduated  at 
Bowdoin  (where  he  was  associated  with  Hawthorne  and  Longfellow),  and 
became  a  lawyer  in  his  native  State.  While  very  young  he  was  Speaker  in 
the  Legislature,  and  Democratic  Congressman  from  1833  to  1837.  He  was  U. 
S.  Senator  1839—1842,  declined  a  Cabinet  offer  from  President  Polk,  and 
volunteered  in  the  Mexican  War.  Appointed  to  a  brigade  he  showed  bravery 
in  the  battles  of  Contreras  and  Churubusco.  This  "  war  record  "  made  him 
President.  He  was  President  of  the  State  Constitutional  Convention  in 
1850,  and  attained  high  rank  at  the  bar.  At  the  Democratic  National  Con- 
vention of  1852  Pierce  was  nominated  on  the  forty-ninth  ballot,  triumphing 
over  the  more  prominent  competitors,  Marcy,  Cass,  Buchanan  and  Douglas. 
In  the  election  the  Whig  party  collapsed  and  Pierce  received  254  electoral 
votes.  The  noted  names  in  his  Cabinet  were  Marcy  in  the  State  Depart- 
ment, Jefferson  Davis  Secretary  of  War,  and  Caleb  Gushing  Attorney-Gen- 
eral. His  administration  was  marked  at  home  by  the  Kansas-Nebraska 
question  and  the  development  of  the  slavery  controversy,  and  abroad  by  the 
Koszta  incident, 'the  Japan  treaty  and  the  Nicaraguan  affairs.  President 
Pierce  was  defeated  for  renomination  in  1856,  and  after  1857  lived  in  retire- 
ment. 

Pierce,  Henry  L.,  born  in  1825,  was  a  member  of  the  Massachusetts  Leg- 
islature from  1860  to  1866.  He  represented  Massachusetts  in  the  U.  S. 
Congress  as  a  Republican  from  1873  to  1877. 

Pierce,  William  (17407-1806),  served  with  distinction  during  the  Revo- 
lution. He  represented  Georgia  in  the  Continental  Congress  from  1786  to 
1787.  A  member  of  the  Constitutional  Convention  of  1787,  he  opposed  the 
plan  adopted. 

Pierpont,  John  (1785-1866),  was  an  ardent  reformer,  in  Massachusetts, 
and  earnestly  supported  the  temperance  and  anti-slavery  movements.  He 
wrote  many  poems,  one  of  the  most  famous  being  "  Warren's  Address  at  the 
Battle  of  Bunker  Hill." 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  503 

Pierre,  capital  of  South  Dakota,  was  founded  in  1829  near  the  site  of 
old  Fort  Pierre. 

Pierrepont,  Edwards  (1817-1892),  was  a  member  of  the  Union  Defence 
Committee  in  New  York.  In  1864  he  was  active  in  organizing  the  War 
Democrats.  He  was  appointed  prosecutor  of  John  H.  Surratt,  one  of  the 
conspirators  against  President  Lincoln.  He  was  active  in  destroying  the 
Tweed  ring.  He  was  Attorney-General  in  Grant's  Cabinet  from  1875  to  I^7^> 
and  Minister  to  England  from  1876  to  1878. 

Pietas  et  Gratulatio,  a  somewhat  famous  series  of  adulatory  poems  in 
Latin  emanating  from  Harvard  College  in  1762  on  the  accession  of  George 

Pigot,  Sir  Robert  (1720-1796),  commanded  the  left  wing  of  the  British  force 
at  Bunker  Hill,  where  he  displayed  great  skill  and  bravery.  He  commanded 
in  Rhode  Island  in  1778. 

Pike,  Albert  (1809-1891),  attained  high  reputation  as  a  lawyer.  He  edited 
the  Arkansas  Revised  Statutes  in  1836.  He  fought  in  the  Mexican  War  and 
organized  a  force  of  Cherokees  for  the  Confederates,  engaging  at  Pea  Ridge 
and  Elkhorn. 

Pike,  Zebulon  M.  (1779-1813),  U.  S.  army,  explored  the  Mississippi  to  its 
source  in  1805.  From  1806  to  1807  he  was  engaged  in  geographical  explora- 
tions iii  Louisiana  territory  and  discovered  Pike's  Peak  in  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains. He  was  seized  by  the  Spanish  Government  for  trespassing  on  Spanish 
territory,  but  was  soon  afterward  released.  In  1813  he  was  assigned  to  the 
principal  army  as  adjutant  and  inspector  general.  He  commanded  the  expe- 
dition against  York,  Upper  Canada,  and  was  killed  by  the  explosion  of  a 
magazine  of  a  captured  fortification. 

Pilgrim  Fathers,  the  first  settlers  in  Massachusetts.  In  1608,  a  party  of 
Puritans,  chiefly  from  the  north  of  England,  weary  of  the  constant  religious 
persecutions,  left  England  and  settled  at  Amsterdam,  whence  they  later 
moved  to  Leyden.  But  they  could  not  conform  to  the  customs  of  Holland. 
Accordingly  in  1617,  Robert  Cushman  and  John  Carver  were  sent  to  Eng- 
land to  treat  with  the  Virginia  Company  for  a  grant  of  settlement  in  its  ter- 
ritory in  America.  This  was  readily  obtained.  Early  in  1620,  the  Pilgrims 
embarked  from  Delfthaven  in  the  "  Speedwell,"  a  vessel  chartered  in  Hol- 
land. Arriving  at  Southampton,  they  found  the  "  Mayflower,"  which 
Cushman  had  brought  from  London,  awaiting  them.  August  5,  1620,  the 
"  Mayflower  "  and  the  "  Speedwell  "  left  Southampton  for  the  New  World. 
Twice  the  "  Speedwell "  put  back  for  repairs,  and  the  second  time  she  was 
left,  the  "Mayflower"  sailing  alone  from  Plymouth  with  102  passengers, 
September  6.  Their  destination  was  to  a  point  near  the  Hudson  River,  but 
the  wind  drove  them  to  the  north.  Skirting  along  Cape  Cod,  November 
ii  (O.  S.),  the  "  Mayflower"  dropped  anchor  off  what  is  now  Provincetown. 
Later  the  Pilgrims  landed  on  Plymouth  Rock,  and  thus  the  colony  of 
Plymouth  was  begun.  The  leaders  of  the  Pilgrims  were  Bradford,  Brew- 
ster,  Cushman,  Miles  Standish,  and  Carver.  The  name  comes  from  a  passage 
in  the  journal  of  William  Bradford. 


504  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Pilgrim  Society,  a  society  founded  at  Plymouth  in  1820.  It  erected  Pil- 
grim Hall  in  1824,  and  has  a  valuable  collection  of  portraits  and  memorials 
of  the  early  settlers. 

Pilgrims,  Landing  of.  Tradition  has  not  entirely  determined  who  landed 
on  Plymouth  Rock;  whether  the  exploring  party  of  ten  men  who  landed 
December  u  (old  style),  or  the  whole  company.  It  is  generally  conceded 
that  the  first  landing  occurred  at  that  place,  that  being  the  most  convenient 
within  sight.  Elder  Thomas  Faunce,  in  1741,  then  ninety-one  years  old, 
declared  he  had  heard  of  it  from  the  oldest  planters. 

Pillow,  Gideon  J.  (1806—1878),  commanded  the  right  wing  of  the  Ameri- 
can army  at  Cerro  Gordo  and  led  a  division  at  Churubusco,  Molino  del  Rey 
and  Chapul tepee.  In  1861  he  was  appointed  brigadier-general  in  the  pro- 
visional Confederate  army.  He  commanded  under  General  Polk  at  Belmont. 
When  the  command  devolved  upon  him  at  Fort  Donelson,  he  gave  it  over 
to  General  Buckner  and  escaped. 

Pillow,  Fort,  Tenn.,  held  by  the  Confederates  with  6000  troops  and  pro- 
tected by  eight  ironclads  under  Commander  Hollins.  This  place  was 
captured  by  the  Union  flag  officer,  Davis,  who  assailed  it  with  a  fleet  of 
gunboats,  and  captured  it  June  4,  1862.  The  Confederate  flotilla  was  utterly 
destroyed  in  less  than  an  hour.  Some  ships  had  their  boilers  shot  through 
and  some  were  butted  and  sunk.  The  fire  was  then  directed  against  the 
fort  itself,  which  was  speedily  reduced,  and  evacuated  by  the  garrison.  The 
Union  troops  did  not  hold  it  long,  however,  abandoning  it  in  consequence  of 
operations  on  the  Tennessee  River.  In  1864,  the  fort  was  held  by  550 
Federals  under  Major  Booth,  260  of  these  soldiers  being  negroes.  The  fort 
was  assaulted  April  13  and  captured  by  the  Confederate  cavalryman,  Forrest, 
leading  4000  soldiers.  The  first  assault  was  unsuccessful,  but  Booth  was 
killed  and  Bradford,  leader  of  the  colored  troops,  took  command.  The 
Federals  were  assisted  by  their  gunboat  "  New  Era,"  but  this  aid  availed 
little,  because  of  the  high  banks  of  the  river.  Forrest  sent  in  a  flag  of  truce 
demanding  a  surrender,  which  was  refused.  Another  assault  was  ordered 
and  this  time  an  entrance  was  gained.  Nearly  the  whole  garrison  were 
killed. 

Pinchback,  Pinckney  B.  S.,  born  in  1837,  of  African  descent,  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Louisiana  Senate  in  1868.  He  was  Governor  during  the  impeach- 
ment of  Governor  Warmoth.  He  was  elected  to  the  U.  S.  Senate  in  1873, 
but  was  disallowed  his  seat. 

Pinckney,  Charles  (1758—1824),  was  a  member  of  the  South  Carolina 
Legislature  from  1779  to  1780.  He  was  a  delegate  to  the  Continental  Con- 
gress from  1777  to  1778  and  from  1784  to  1787.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
Constitutional  Convention  of  1787,  and  drafted  one  of  the  constitutions  pro- 
posed. He  was  Governor  of  South  Carolina  from  1789  to  1792  and  from 
1796  to  1798,  a  U.  S.  Senator  from  1797  to  1801,  Minister  to  Spain  from 
1803  to  1805,  Governor  from  1806  to  1808.  He  was  a  Democratic  U.  S. 
Congressman  from  1819  to  1821.  C.  C  Pinckney  and  Thomas  Pinckney 
were  his  cousins. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  505 

Pinckney,  Charles  Cotesworth  (1746-1825),  an  American  statesman, 
was  Attorney-General  of  his  colony,  South  Carolina,  and  member  of  its 
Provincial  Congress  in  1775.  He  held  the  rank  of  major  in  the  war,  fought 
at  Charleston,  Brandywine  and  Germantown,  and  surrendered  at  Charleston 
in  1780.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Federal  Convention  in  1787,  and  the 
Federalist  leader  in  his  State's  ratifying  convention  in  1788.  Pinckney 
declined  a  Cabinet  position,  but  accepted  in  1796  the  mission  to  France;  the 
Directory,  however,  refused  to  acknowledge  him.  The  French  proposals  to 
bribe  the  American  envoys  called  from  him  the  well-known  phrase:  "  Mil- 
lions for  defence,  but  not  a  cent  for  tribute !  "  He  was  appointed  major- 
general  for  the  expected  war  with  France.  Pinckney  was  the  Federalist 
candidate  for  Vice-President  in  1800,  and  for  President  in  1804  and  1808. 

Pinckney,  Henry  L.  (1794-1863),  was  a  member  of  the  South  Carolina 
Legislature  from  1816  to  1832,  and  represented  South  Carolina  in  the  U.  S. 
Congress  as  a  Democrat  from  1833  to  1837. 

Pinckney,  Thomas  (1750-1828),  brother  of  C.  C.  Pinckney,  was  an  aide  to 
General  Lincoln  and  Count  d'Estaing  in  the  Revolution.  He  fought  at  Stono 
and  was  taken  prisoner  at  Camden.  He  was  Governor  of  South  Carolina 
from  1787  to  1789,  and  Minister  to  Great  Britain  from  1792  to  1796.  He 
negotiated  the  treaty  with  Spain  securing  free  navigation  of  the  Mississippi. 
In  1796  he  was  a  Federalist  candidate  with  Adams.  He  was  a  U.  S.  Con- 
gressman from  1797  to  1801. 

Pinckney  Plan,  a  plan  for  a  Federal  Constitution,  proposed  May  29,  in  the 
Convention  of  1787,  by  Charles  Pinckney,  of  South  Carolina.  It  resembled 
the  Randolph  Plan,  but  no  copy  of  it  has  been  preserved.  Many  years  after- 
ward Pinckney  produced  a  document  which  he  declared  to  be  this,  but  it 
was  not. 

Pine,  Robert  E.  (17307—1788),  came  to  Philadelphia  from  England  in 
1783.  He  was  prominent  as  an  artist  and  painted  portraits  of  many  of  the 
heroes  of  the  Revolution,  including  Washington  and  Robert  Morris. 

Pine  Tree  Shilling,  the  name  given  to  the  largest  of  the  coins  issued  in  1652 
by  the  first  mint  established  in  Boston.  These  coins  had  the  value  of  "  I2d., 
6d.  and  3d.  pieces,"  that  value  being  denoted  by  the  figure  XII,  VI  or  III 
stamped  upon  the  reverse.  The  obverse  contained  the  representation  of 
a  pine  tree  encircled  by  a  grained  ring,  with  the  legend  "  Mathosets  In." 
Weight,  72  grains ;  value,  18^  cents. 

Pinkerton,  Allan  (1819-1884),  fled  from  Scotland  as  a  Chartist  to  America 
in  1842.  He  established  Pinkerton's  Detective  Agency  in  Chicago  in  1850, 
and  organized  the  secret  service  of  the  National  army  in  1861. 

Pinkerton  Law.  The  Sundry  Civil  Appropriation  Act  of  August  5, 
1892,  provides  "  that  no  employe"  of  the  Pinkerton  Detective  Agency,  or 
similar  agency,  shall  be  employed  in  any  Government  service,  or  by  any 
officer  of  the  District  of  Columbia." 

Pinkney,  William  (1764-1822),  orator,  was  a  member  of  the  Maryland 
House  of  Delegates  from  1788  to  1792  and  of  the  Executive  Council  from 


.506  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

1792  to  1795.  Ke  was  a  commissioner  to  London  under  Jay's  treaty  from 
1796  to  1804,  Attorney-General  of  Maryland  in  1805,  commissioner  in  Eng- 
land (jointly  with  James  Monroe)  from  1806  to  1807,  and  Minister  from  1807 
to  1811.  He  was  Attorney-General  in  Madison's  Cabinet  from  1811  to  1814, 
Minister  to  Russia  from  1816  to  1818,  and  represented  Maryland  in  the  U.  S. 
Senate  from  1820  to  1822.  He  was  a  most  eloquent  advocate.  Life  by 
Wheaton. 

Pinzon,  Martin  A.  (1441-1493),  is  reported  by  some  to  have  visited  the 
New  World  in  1488  and  by  others  to  have  seen  charts  of  Norman  explorers. 
He  aided  Columbus  in  fitting  out  his  expedition,  and  was  given  command  of 
"  La  Pinta."  He  parted  from  Columbus  in  the  West  Indies  and  attempted 
to  usurp  the  honors  of  the  discovery  by  arriving  first  at  the  Court,  but  was 
prevented  by  storms. 

Pinzon,  Vicente  Y.  (14607-1524  ?),  commanded  "  La  Nina  "  in  the  expedi- 
tion of  Columbus  in  1492.  In  1499,  he  discovered  Brazil  and  the  Amazon. 
He  made  two  subsequent  voyages  to  South  America  in  1506  and  1508. 

Piracy.  Many  of  the  colonies  were  infested  by  pirates  during  the  latter 
years  of  the  seventeenth  and  the  earlier  portion  of  the  eighteenth  centuries. 
In  North  Carolina  and  South  Carolina  and  in  the  ports  of  the  Spanish  col- 
onies to  the  south,  the  pirate  Teach,  called  "  Black  Beard,"  made  frequent 
ravages  and  was  gladly  received  by  the  inhabitants  of  Charleston  in  the 
matter  of  trade.  Teach's  headquarters  were  in  North  Carolina.  From 
thence  he  preyed  upon  the  Spanish  possessions  in  the  south  and  traded  as 
far  north  as  Philadelphia,  where  prominent  citizens  were  in  league  with 
him  and  with  Evans,  another  pirate.  He  was  finally  driven  away  by  Gov- 
ernor Johnson,  of  North  Carolina.  In  New  York  and  along  the  Eastern 
coast  the  celebrated  Captain  Kidd  terrorized  the  coast  settlers  for  a  number 
of  years.  Piracy  was  made  a  capital  offence  in  the  New  England  colonies. 
During  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century  the  American  Government 
contended  for  an  international  declaration  that  the  slave-trade  should  be 
treated  as  piracy. 

Pitcairn,  John  (17407-1775),  born  in  Scotland,  was  for  several  years  a 
British  officer  (major)  in  Boston.  He  led  the  advance  in  the  expedition  to 
Lexington  and  Concord,  and  is  said  to  have  given  the  order  to  fire  upon  the 
militia  at  Lexington,  although  he  denied  the  charge.  He  was  killed  at 
Bunker  Hill  while  leading  the  final  assault. 

Pitcher,  Moll,  wife  of  a  Revolutionary  soldier,  who  distinguished  herself 
by  her  bravery  at  the  battle  of  Monmouth  in  1778.  Her  husband  was 
killed  while  discharging  a  cannon.  Moll  promptly  took  his  place,  vowing 
to  avenge  his  death.  General  Washington  commended  her  bravery  and  gave 
her  a  commission  as  a  sergeant. 

Pitkin,  Timothy  (1766-1847),  was  Speaker  of  the  Connecticut  Legisla- 
ture for  five  consecutive  sessions.  He  represented  Connecticut  in  the  U.  S. 
Congress  as  a  Federalist  from  1805  to  1819.  He  was  regarded  as  an  author- 
ity on  U.  S.  political  history.  He  wrote  "  Statistical  View  of  the  Commerce 


OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 


507 


of  the  United  States  of  America  "  and  "A  Political  and  Civil  History  of  the 
United  States  from  1763  to  1797." 

Pitt,  William  (1759-1806),  second  son  of  the  Earl  of  Chatham,  became 
Prime  Minister  of  England  in  1783.  He  inforced  the  English  navigation 
acts  against  the  United  States  with  great  severity,  yet  his  policy  was  liberal 
in  the  main.  He  resigned  office  in  1801. 

Pitt,  Fort,  a  large  fortification  erected  in  1759  by  the  British  upon  the 
site  of  Fort  Duquesne  at  the  junction  of  the  Monongahela  and  Allegheny 
Rivers.  Duquesne  had  been  destroyed  and  abandoned  by  the  French  the 
previous  year.  Fort  Pitt  was  so  called  in  honor  of  the  British  minister.  Its 
site  is  now  in  Pittsburgh,  Pa.  See  Duquesne,  Fort,  and  Pittsburgh. 

Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  dates  its  history-  as  a  town  from  1764,  when  its  first 
streets  were  laid  out.  Previous  to  this  time  it  had  been  a  military  station 
under  the  name  of  Fort  Pitt,  and  still  earlier  (1755-1758)  was  the  scene  of  a 
struggle  between  England  and  France  for  its  possession,  the  French  having 
founded  Fort  Duquesne  here  in  1754.  Pittsburgh  was  incorporated  as  a  city 
in  1816.  In  1845  it  was  visited  by  a  disastrous  conflagration  in  which 
$5,000,000  worth  of  property  was  consumed. 

Pittsburgh  Landing.     (See  Shiloh.) 

Plaisted,  Harris  M.,  born  in  1828,  commanded  a  brigade  at  Charleston 
and  served  in  Grant's  Richmond  campaign.  He  represented  Maine  in  the 
U.  S.  Congress  as  a  Republican  from  1875  to  1877,  and  was  Governor  of 
Maine  from  1881  to  1883.  Died  1898. 

Plater,  George  (1736-1792),  represented  Maryland  in  the  Continental 
Congress  from  1778  to  1781.  He  was  president  of  the  Maryland  Convention 
that  ratified  the  Federal  Constitution,  and  was  Governor  of  Maryland  in 
1792. 

Platforms.  The  "  first  platform  ever  adopted  by  a  national  convention  " 
was  that  of  a  "  national  assembly  of  young  men,"  held  at  Washington  in 
May,  1832,  to  indorse  the  nomination  of  Clay  by  the  National  Republican 
party.  In  1844  both  the  Whigs  and  the  Democrats  drew  up  a  "platform," 
but  in  1848  the  Whigs  refused  to  commit  themselves  by  a  platform.  After 
this  the  adoption  of  party  platforms  by  national  conventions  became  general. 

Platt,  Orville  H.,  born  in  1827,  was  a  member  of  the  Connecticut  Senate 
from  1 86 1  to  1862,  and  of  the  Legislature  from  1864  to  1869.  He  was 
elected  to  the  U.  S.  Senate  as  a  Republican,  and  served  from  1879  to  the 
present  time  (1897).  Re-elected  for  term  beginning  March  4,  1897. 

Platt,  Thomas  C.,  born  in  1833,  represented  New  York  in  the  Congress 
of  the  United  States  as  a  Republican  from  1873  to  I%77-  He  was  chosen 
a  member  of  the  U.  S.  Senate  in  1881,  but  resigned  soon  afterward  with 
Roscoe  Conkling  on  account  of  a  disagreement  with  President  Garfield  con- 
cerning the  appointment  to  the  collectorship  of  the  port  of  New  York.  He 
was  elected  in  Jan.,  1897,  to  U.  S.  Senate  for  term  beginning  March  4,  1897. 


5o8  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Platte  Country,  the  name,  previous  to  1854,  given  to  that  territory  stretch- 
ing west  from  Missouri  to  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  which  now  comprises 
the  States  of  Kansas  and  Nebraska.  A  bill  was  introduced  into  Congress  in 
1854  by  Douglas,  of  Illinois,  for  the  organization  of  the  territory,  the  slavery 
question  to  be  determined  by  the  inhabitants,  in  direct  violation  of  the  Mis- 
souri Compromise.  (See  Kansas-Nebraska  Bill.) 

Plattsburgh  (Lake  Champlain).  In  August,  1814,  General  Prevost  with 
14,000  men  and  a  flotilla  of  sixteen  vessels  advanced  from  the  St.  Lawrence 
to  attack  the  American  land  force  entrenched  at  Plattsburgh  and  the  fleet  on 
Lake  Champlain.  The  American  land  force  consisted  of  3500  troops  and 
about  4000  militia,  under  General  Macomb.  The  naval  force  was  made  up 
of  fourteen  vessels,  commanded  by  Captain  Macdonough.  The  British  army 
on  September  5  was  eight  miles  away.  The  next  day  it  advanced  in  two 
columns,  but  was  held  partly  in  check  by  the  American  militia.  On  reaching 
the  north  bank  of  the  Saranac  General  Prevost  constructed  works  and  on 
the  eleventh  tried  to  force  his  way  across  in  two  places.  At  the  same  time 
the  two  fleets  fought  desperately  for  over  two  hours  in  Plattsburgh  Bay.  This 
ended  with  the  defeat  of  the  British,  who  lost  about  200  men  and  the  com- 
modore of  the  fleet.  The  news  of  this  victory  came  to  the  fighting  armies 
at  the  critical  part  of  the  battle  and  turned  the  tide  in  favor  of  the  Americans. 
The  British  fled  to  Champlain,  leaving  behind  the  sick  and  wounded  and  a 
vast  amount  of  stores.  On  September  24  they  returned  to  Canada,  having 
lost  in  all,  killed,  wounded,  missing  and  deserters,  nearly  2000  men.  The 
American  loss  in  the  land  battle  was  150. 

Pleasant  Hill,  La.,  a  brief  but  fierce  engagement  of  the  Civil  War,  April 
9,  1864.  After  the  battle  of  Sabine  Cross  Roads,  in  which  Banks  had  been 
defeated,  he  fell  back  to  Pleasant  Hill  with  his  army,  now  reduced  to  about 
8000  men.  Kirby  Smith,  leading  nearly  20,000  Confederates,  followed  in 
hot  pursuit.  During  the  morning  there  was  some  sharp  skirmishing,  and 
about  five  o'clock  a  fierce  fight  took  place.  Banks'  troops,  greatly  outnum- 
bered and  in  a  woful  condition,  nevertheless  fought  valiantly.  Smith  was 
finally  obliged  to  leave  the  field,  having  lost  several  guns  he  had  captured 
the  day  before.  Banks  marched  on  to  Grand  Ecore. 

Pleasonton,  Alfred,  born  in  1824,  served  with  distinction  in  the  Mexican 
War.  He  served  throughout  the  Virginia  peninsular  campaign,  and  com- 
manded a  brigade  at  Boonesborough,  South  Mountain,  Antietam,  Fred- 
ericksburg  and  Chancellorsville,  where  his  brilliant  action  saved  the  national 
army  from  serious  disaster.  He  was  commander-in-chief  of  cavalry  at 
Gettysburg.  He  retired  in  1888  with  the  rank  of  colonel  in  the  regular 
army.  Died  1897. 

Plowden,  Sir  Edmund,  was  a  patentee  of  a  grant  by  Charles  I.  in  1634, 
embracing  New  Jersey,  Maryland,  Delaware  and  Pennsylvania.  A  county 
palatinate  was  erected,  called  "  New  Albion,"  of  which  he  was  Governor. 
He  visited  the  colony  in  1641,  but  remained  mostly  in  Virginia  till  his 
return  in  1648.  The  Swedes  disputed  his  jurisdiction,  and  the  colony  pros- 
pered only  in  the  alluring  accounts  published  in  its  interests. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITKD  STATES  HISTORY.  509 

Plowden,  Francis,  son  and  heir  of  Sir  Bdraund  Plowden,  succeeded  in 
1634,  with  his  brothers  George  and  Thomas  Plowden,  to  the  shares  of  four 
patentees  of  New  Albion,  but  obtained  no  profit  therefrom. 

Plumb,  Preston  B.  (1837-1891),  attained  the  rank  of  lieutenant-colonel 
during  the  Civil  War.  He  represented  Kansas  in  the  U.  S.  Senate  as  a 
Republican  from  1877  to  1891. 

Plumed  Knights,  certain  Republican  campaign  clubs  formed  during  the 
Presidential  campaign  of  1884  in  honor  of  Mr.  Elaine.  The  name  is  derived 
from  a  speech  of  Colonel  Robert  Ingersoll,  in  which  he  gave  that  designation 
to  Elaine. 

Plymouth,  N.  C.,  wrested  from  the  Federals,  April  17,  20,  1864,  while  occu- 
pied by  Wessells,  commanding  a  garrison  of  2400  men,  by  Hoke  leading  7000 
Confederates.  Hoke  came  upon  the  town  in  the  night,  thus  surprising  Wes- 
sells. The  Confederate  ram  "  Albemarle "  took  part  in  the  fight,  driving 
away  the  Union  gunboats  "  Southfield,"  "Miami"  and  "Bombshell,"  while 
Hoke  took  the  town.  Forts  Wessells  and  Warren  were  also  taken  by  Hoke. 
Fort  Warren  was  valiantly  defended  against  numerous  assaults,  but  it  was 
lightly  garrisoned,  and  was  finally  forced  to  surrender.  Fort  Wessells  also 
held  out  bravely,  but  having  lost  the  protection  of  the  gunboats,  it  too 
succumbed. 

Plymouth  Brethren.  This  sect  was  formed  in  England  and  Ireland 
about  1830  with  John  Darby  as  its  principal  founder.  They  reject  organiza- 
tions and  creeds,  but  retain  the  ordinances.  Their  number  in  the  United 

States  is  small. 

• 

Plymouth  Colony,  the  first  settlement  in  Massachusetts,  founded  by  a 
party  of  Puritans  from  the  north  of  England,  November  n,  1620  (O.  S.). 
These  first  settlers,  called  the  Pilgrim  Fathers,  after  having  spent  a  number 
of  years  at  Amsterdam  and  Leyden  in  search  of  religious  liberty,  secured  a 
grant  from  the  Virginia  Company  and  embarked  from  Plymouth,  England, 
September  6,  1620,  on  the  "  Mayflower."  They  were  108  in  number.  (See 
art.  "  Pilgrim  Fathers.")  During  the  first  winter  they  endured  great  suffer- 
ing and  many  died.  John  Carver  was  chosen  as  the  first  Governor  of  the 
colony.  No  royal  charter  was  ever  granted,  though  the  colony  was  in  exist- 
ence nearly  seventy  years.  The  colonists  bound  themselves  to  obey  certain 
laws,  which  they  should  frame  themselves  on  principles  of  justice  and  mode- 
ration. In  1622-23,  the  number  of  the  colonists  was  increased  by  new 
arrivals  in  the  "  Fortune,"  "  Ann"  and  "  Little  James."  Plymouth  colony 
became  a  member  of  the  New  England  Confederation  (see  United  Colonies 
of  New  Egland)  in  1643.  By  the  Massachusetts  charter  of  1691,  it  was 
united  with  the  colony  of  Massachusetts  Bay. 

Plymouth  Company,  a  company  formed  of  Plymouth  and  Bristol  mer- 
chants, and  also  called  the  North  Virginia  Company.  It  was  incorporated 
in  1606,  and  obtained  a  charter  from  James  I.,  with  grant  of  land  between 
Long  Island  and  Passamaquoddy  Bay.  This  company  was  the  rival  of  the 
London  company.  In  May,  1607,  two  ships  were  despatched  to  America 


5to  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

bearing  a  company  of  colonists  commanded  by  George  Popham.  An  abor- 
tive attempt  at  permanent  settlement  was  made  on  the  Kennebec  River,  but 
Popham  died  and  the  remaining  colonists  returned  home.  The  company 
still  continued  to  exist  till  its  reorganization  in  1620  as  the  New  England 
Company,  or  Council  for  New  England. 

Plymouth  Rock,  in  Plymouth  harbor,  the  landing  place  of  the  "  May- 
flower's" Pilgrims  on  December  n,  1620  (O.  S.).  John  Alden  and  Mary 
Chilton  were  supposed  to  have  been  the  first  persons  to  step  upon  the  famous 
rock.  (See  Pilgrims,  Landing  of.) 

Pocahontas  (1597  ?-i6i6),  daughter  of  Powhatan,  was  reported  by  Captain 
John  Smith  to  have  saved  his  life  in  1607,  when  he  was  about  to  be  slain  by 
her  father's  tribe.  In  1609  she  informed  the  colonists  of  an  intended  Indian 
attack.  She  was  baptized  in  1613  and  christened  Rebecca.  In  1614  she 
married  John  Rolfe,  and  in  1616  went  to  England.  She  was  presented  at 
the  Court  of  King  James  as  "  Lady  Rebecca."  She  was  graciously  received, 
and  was  an  object  of  much  interest.  She  died  in  England.  From  her 
descended  many  of  the  illustrious  families  of  Virginia. 

Pocket  Veto.     (See  Veto.) 

Pocotaligo,  S.  C.  At  this  place  on  October  22,  1862,  General  Brannan, 
who  had  been  assigned  to  destroy  railroad  connection  between  Charleston 
and  Savannah,  commanding  4448  Federal  troops,  encountered  some  5000 
Confederates  under  Walker.  A  brisk  fight  followed.  Brannan's  supply  of 
cartridges  gave  out,  and  he  was  getting  decidedly  the  worst  of  the  fight. 
He  therefore  retreated  precipitately.  On  January  14,  1865,  just  previous  to 
Sherman's  march  from  Savannah  through  the  Carolinas,  Howard  was  ordered 
to  seize  this  place  and  establish  there  a  depot  of  supplies  for  the  Federal  army. 
The  seizure  was  effected  after  a  sharp  engagement  with  5000  Confederates 
under  Beauregard. 

Poe,  Edgar  A.  (1809—1849),  was  one  of  the  most  remarkable  of  American 
poets  and  writers  of  stories.  He  was  connected  with  numerous  periodicals 
in  which  appeared  some  of  his  best  works.  He  led  a  very  varied  life  and 
developed  a  gloomy  and  weird  style  and  a  sarcastic  criticism  which  were 
peculiarly  his  own.  Among  his  works  are  "  The  Raven,"  "  The  Gold 
Bug  "and  "Eureka." 

Poindexter,  George  (1779-1853),  represented  Mississippi  in  the  U.  S. 
Congress  as  a  Democrat  from  1807  to  1813.  He  served  on  General  Jackson's 
staff  in  the  War  of  1812,  was  again  a  delegate  in  Congress  from  1817  to 
1819,  and  was  Governor  of  Mississippi  from  1819  to  1821.  He  prepared  a 
revised  code  of  the  laws  of  Mississippi  in  1822.  He  was  a  U.  S.  Senator 
from  1830  to  1835. 

Poinsett,  Joel  R.  (1779-1851),  was  sent  to  South  America  in  1809  by 
Madison  to  ascertain  the  prospects  of  the  revolutionists.  He  represented 
South  Carolina  in  the  U.  S.  Congress  as  a  Republican  from  1821  to  1825. 
He  was  sent  to  Mexico  as  Commissioner  in  1822,  and  was  Minister  there 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  511 

from  1825  to  1829.     He  was  an  ardent  opponent  of  nullification.     He  was 
Secretary  of  War  in  Van  Buren's  Cabinet  from  1837  to  1841. 

Point  Pleasant,  Va.  Here  occurred  October  10,  1774,  a  fierce  battle 
between  the  Virginia  troops  of  Lord  Dunmore,  under  General  Andrew  Lewis, 
and  a  strong  Indian  army  led  by  the  Shawnee  chief,  Cornstalk.  The 
Indians  crossed  the  Ohio  River  at  night  and  fell  upon  Lewis'  encampment 
about  sunrise.  Colonel  Charles  Lewis  and  Colonel  Fleming  were  killed, 
besides  many  others.  But  General  Lewis  managed  to  save  his  camp  and 
rout  the  savages  with  heavy  losses. 

Poland,  Luke  P.  (1815-1887),  was  a  Judge  of  the  Vermont  Supreme 
Court  from  1848  to  1860  and  Chief  Justice  from  1860  to  1865.  He  repre- 
sented Vermont  in  the  U.  S.  Senate  as  a  Republican  from  1865  to  1867 
and  in  the  House  from  1867  to  1875.  He  was  chairman  of  the  commit- 
tees to  investigate  the  Ku-Klux  Klan  outrages  and  the  Credit  Mobilier 
transactions. 

Polk,  James  Knox  (November  2,  i795~June  15,  1849),  eleventh  President 
of  the  United  States,  was  born  in  Mecklenburg  County,  N.  C.  Having 
graduated  at  the  University  of  North  Carolina,  he  became  a  lawyer  in  Ten- 
nessee, and  represented  that  State  as  a  Democratic  Congressman,  1825—1839. 
He  became  chairman  of  the  Ways  and  Means  Committee,  and  in  1835-1839 
he  was  Speaker  of  the  House.  From  1839  to  1841  he  was  Governor  of 
Tennessee,  and  failed  of  re-election  in  1841  and  1843.  The  Democratic 
National  Convention  selected  Polk  in  184435  a  "safe"  compromise  candi- 
date. He  was  elected  over  Clay  after  a  hard  struggle,  having  175  electoral 
votes.  Being  inaugurated  March  4,  1845,  ne  selected  Buchanan  for  the  State 
Department,  R.  J.  Walker  for  the  Treasury,  Marcy  for  War,  and  the  historian 
Bancroft  for  the  Navy.  The  Mexican  War,  which  President  Polk  favored, 
was  prosecuted  successfully  during  his  administration,  and  the  Oregon 
controversy  with  England  was  peacefully  settled  in  1846.  The  revenue 
"  Walker  Tariff"  received  his  approval.  He  vetoed  river  and  harbor  bills 
in  1846  and  1847.  ^ne  California  gold  discoveries  occurred  near  the  end 
of  his  term.  He  died  in  Nashville  a  few  months  after  his  retirement  from 
office. 

Polk,  Leonidas  (1806-1864),  was  engaged  in  the  service  of  the  Episcopal 
Church  after  1831,  and  was  Bishop  of  Louisiana  from  1841  to  1861.  He 
strongly  sympathized  with  the  secession  movement,  and,  being  a  West- 
Pointer,  was  appointed  major-general,  and  superintended  the  construction 
of  fortifications  at  New  Madrid,  Fort  Pillow,  Island  No.  10  and  Memphis. 
He  commanded  at  Belmont,  and  led  a  corps  at  Shiloh  and  Corinth.  He 
commanded  the  right  wing  at  Chickamauga,  where  it  was  asserted  that  his 
disobedience  of  orders  saved  the  National  army  from  annihilation.  He 
served  with  General  Johnston  in  opposing  General  Sherman  at  Atlanta,  and 
was  killed  near  Kenesaw  Mountain  in  June,  1864. 

Polk,  Sarah  C.  (1803-1891),  of  Tennessee,  married  James  K.  Polk  in 
1824.  She  was  a  great  favorite  in  Washington  society,  and  although  she 


5*2 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 


introduced   numerous  reforms  and  innovations  in  the  White  House,  main- 
tained her  popularity. 

Polk,  William  (1758-1834),  served  as  major  of  a  North  Carolina  regiment 
at  Brandy  wine  and  Germantown,  and  fought  at  Camden  and  Eutaw  Springs. 
He  was  a  Tennessee  Congressman  from  1787  to  1794. 

Poll  Tax,  a  tax  levied  upon  each  poll  or  head  of  population.  The 
Federal  Government  has  the  power  to  levy  such  a  tax  in  proportion  to  the 
enumeration  or  census,  but  has  never  exercised  the  power.  In  1641  a  poll 
tax  was  levied  in  Maryland,  each  person  being  made  to  pay  forty  pounds  of 
tobacco  yearly  for  the  support  of  the  parish  minister  and  the  building  of 
churches.  Similar  laws  were  passed  in  other  colonies  at  various  times.  In 
1860,  according  to  a  report  made  to  the  New  York  Legislature,  twenty-seven 
States  and  Territories  employed  the  poll  tax.  Some  States,  as  South  Caro- 
lina, have  constitutional  provisions  for  levying  the  poll  tax.  In  others,  as 
in  Massachusetts,  its  payment  is  made  a  qualification  for  voting. 

Pollard,  Edward  A.  (1828-1872),  edited  the  Richmond  Examiner  from 
1 86 1  to  1867.  He  ardently  advocated  the  Confederate  cause  and  severely 
criticised  Jefferson  Davis.  From  1867  to  1869  he  published  "  Southern 
Opinion."  He  wrote  a  "  Southern  History  of  the  War,"  "  The  Lost  Cause," 
"  Lee  and  His  Lieutenants,"  "  The  Lost  Cause  Regained  "  and  "  Life  of  Jef- 
ferson Davis  with  the  Secret  History  of  the  Southern  Confederacy." 

Pollock,  James  (1810-1890),  represented  Pennsylvania  in  the  U.  S.  Con- 
gress as  a  Whig  from  1844.  He  was  Governor  of  Pennsylvania  from  1855 
to  1858.  He  was  director  of  the  U.  S.  mint  from  1861  to  1866  and  from 
1869  to  1879. 

Polygamy,  instituted  and  practiced  by  the  Mormons  under  the  leader- 
ship of  Joseph  Smith  in  1830,  in  New  York.  In  1838,  the  Mormons  emi- 
grated to  Missouri,  and  in  1839  t°  Illinois.  Their  polygamous  institutions 
could  not  be  tolerated  in  either  of  these,  so  they  gradually  emigrated  to 
Utah,  where,  from  1848  to  1882,  they  practiced  polygamy  unrestricted. 
Polygamists  controlled  and  held  all  local  offices,  with  a  few  exceptions.  In 
1882,  Senator  Edmunds  submitted  a  bill  to  restrict  and  eventually  abolish 
polygamy.  Under  its  provisions  polygamists  have  been  excluded  as  office- 
holders. A  great  number  of  persons  have  been  convicted  and  sentenced  for 
polygamy,  and  the  Supreme  Court  has  upheld  the  law. 

Pomeroy,  Samuel  C.  (1816-1891),  was  an  organizer  of  the  New  England 
Emigrant  Aid  Society,  and  founded  a  colony  at  Lawrence,  Kan.,  in  1854. 
He  represented  Kansas  in  the  U.  S.  Senate  as  a  Republican  from  1861 
to  1873. 

Pomeroy,  Seth  (1706-1777),  engaged  in  the  capture  of  Louisbourg  in 
1745.  He  served  in  the  Massachusetts  Legislature  in  1774  and  1775.  He 
fought  at  Bunker  Hill,  and  was  appointed  brigadier-general,  but  declined. 

Poncas,  a  tribe  of  Dakota  Indians,  have  suffered  greatly  from  the  attacks 
of  the  Sioux,  who  drove  them  beyond  the  Missouri.  In  1858  they  sold 


'  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  513 

lands  to  the  Government  and  went  on  a  reservation   near   the  Yanktons. 
In  1865  they  were  assigned  a  reservation  on  the  Missouri. 

Ponce  de  Leon,  Juan  (1460-1521),  a  Spanish  explorer,  was  according  to 
some  accounts  an  associate  of  Columbus  on  his  second  voyage.  He  became 
Governor  of  the  eastern  part  of  the  island  of  Hayti,  was  led  to  attempt  the 
colonization  of  Porto  Rico,  and  effected  the  conquest  of  that  island.  It  was 
in  1512  that,  searching  for  a  fountain 'of  perpetual  youth,  he  discovered  the 
coast  of  Florida  near  St.  Augustine.  He  returned  to  Spain,  and  in  1521 
sailed  to  the  Florida  coast;  landing  not  far  from  his  former  point  of  discovery, 
he  lost  the  greater  part  of  his  force,  returned  disappointed  to  Cuba,  and  soon 
died.  The  Spanish  claims  to  the  regions  were  based  on  his  voyages. 

Pond  Law.  After  1875  the  regulation  of  the  liquor  traffic  in  Ohio 
became  a  leading  question  in  State  politics.  In  1882  the  Republicans 
adopted  the  so-called  "  Pond  Law  "  for  the  taxation  of  liquor  selling.  It  was 
declared  unconstitutional  by  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  State.  It  required 
of  dealers  to  take  out  a  high  license  and  also  to  give  a  bond. 

Pontiac  (born  about  1720,  died  1769),  one  of  the  Indian  chiefs  most  dan- 
gerous to  the  English,  was  a  leader  of  the  Ojibways,  Ottawas  and  Pottawa- 
tomies.  He  acquired  great  influence,  and  is  said  to  have  contributed  to 
Braddock's  defeat.  Though  he  consented  to  the  surrender  of  Detroit  to  the 
British  at  the  end  of  the  French  and  Indian  War,  he  forthwith  organized  a 
wide-spread  conspiracy  in  1762.  Assembling  a  large  force  near  Detroit,  he 
fired  the  warriors  in  a  remarkable  oration,  but  the  plot  was  disclosed,  and 
Pontiac's  siege  from  May  to  October,  1763,  was  fruitless.  He  fought  during 
the  siege  the  battle  of  the  Bloody  Bridge.  Although  Detroit  was  saved,  many 
other  English  posts,  Sandusky,  Mackinaw,  Presque  Isle,  etc.,  fell  before 
Pontiac's  allies.  The  great  chief  signed  a  treaty  in  1766,  and  three  years 
later  was  murdered.  See  Parkman's  "  Conspiracy  of  Pontiac." 

Pontiac  War,  a  war  in  1763  between  the  English  and  American  settlers 
along  the  Pennsylvania  and  Virginia  frontier,  and  a  confederacy  of  Dela- 
ware, Shawanese  and  Seneca  Indians,  led  by  Pontiac,  a  Shawanese  chief. 
These  Indians  had  been  dishonorably  treated  by  the  settlers  arriving  after 
the  capture  of  Fort  Duquesne.  They  were,  besides,  incited  to  the  attack  by 
the  French  fur  traders.  In  June  of  1763  a  simultaneous  attack  was  made 
along  the  whole  frontier;  the  trading  posts  between  the  Ohio  and  Lake  Erie 
were  taken  and  the  settlers  and  English  traders  were  scalped.  The  settlers 
retaliated  by  slaughtering  the  inhabitants  of  Conestoga,  a  body  of  Christian- 
ized Indians  on  the  Susquehanna.  General  Bouquet  invaded  the  Indian 
country  by  way  of  Pittsburgh,  Bradstreet  along  the  lakes.  The  war  was 
thus  brought  to  an  end  (1764).  It  was  an  afterpiece  to  the  French  and 
Indian  War. 

Poole,  William  F.  (1821-1894),  librarian,  devoted  much  attention  to 
American  history.  He  published  "  Cotton  Mather  and  Salem  Witchcraft," 
"The  Popham  Colony,"  "The  Ordinance  of  1787"  and  "Anti-Slavery 
Opinions  Before  1800." 

33 


5!4  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATUS  HISTORY. 

Poor,  Enoch  (1736-1780),  accompanied  Schuyler's  expedition  to  Canada 
in  1776.  He  commanded  a  brigade  at  Stillwater  and  led  the  attack  at  Sara- 
toga. He  served  under  Lafayette  at  Monmouth,  and  led  a  brigade  against 
the  Six  Nations  in  1779. 

"Poor  Richard,"  a  fictitious  name  assumed  by  Benjamin  Franklin,  in 
connection  with  the  almanac,  commonly  called  "  Poor  Richard's  Almanac," 
which  he  began  to  publish  in  1732,  under  the  name  of  Richard  Saunders,  or 
Poor  Richard. 

Poore,  Benjamin  Perley  (1820-1887),  newspaper  correspondent,  made  a 
valuable  collection  of  French  historical  documents  for  Massachusetts  from 
1844  to  1848.  He  wrote  "  Life  of  General  Taylor,"  "  The  Conspiracy  Trials 
in  1865,"  "  Life  of  Burnside  "  and  "  Reminiscences." 

Pope,  John  (1770-1845),  represented  Kentucky  in  the  U.  S.  Senate  as  a 
Democrat  from  1807  to  1813.  He  was  Territorial  Governor  of  Arkansas 
from  1829  to  1835.  He  represented  Kentucky  in  the  U.  S.  Congress  from 
1837  to  1843. 

Pope,  John  (1823—1892),  an  American  general,  was  graduated  at  West  Point 
in  1842,  and  fought  at  Monterey  and  Buena  Vista.  He  was  engaged  in  the 
exploration  of  Minnesota  and  the  survey  of  the  Pacific  Railroad,  and  in 
1 86 1  received  a  command  in  Missouri.  He  captured  a  Confederate  force  at 
Blackwater  in  December,  1861,  New  Madrid  and  Island  No.  10  in  the  Mis- 
sissippi in  the  spring  of  the  following  year.  These  successes  led  to  his  pro- 
motion to  be  major-general  of  volunteers,  brigadier-general  in  the  regular 
army,  and  to  his  appointment  to  the  Army  of  Virginia,  formed  in  the  sum- 
mer by  the  union  of  various  corps.  Pope  took  command,  with  "head- 
quarters in  the  saddle,"  and  conducted  an  unfortunate  and  much  criticized 
campaign  against  Lee,  culminating  in  the  reverses  of  Second  Bull  Run  and 
Chantilly  at  the  end  of  August  and  first  of  September,  1862.  He  was 
relieved  of  the  command  in  Virginia,  and  was  employed  in  bringing  the 
Minnesota  Indians  to  terms.  After  the  war  Pope  was  a  department  com- 
mander until  his  retirement  in  1886.  He  attained  the  grade  of  major- 
general  in  1882. 

Popham,  George  (1550-1608),  came  to  America  from  England  in  1607 
with  two  ships  and  100  men,  and  founded  the  first  New  England  settlement 
at  Fort  George,  Me. 

Popham  Colony.  In  1607  two  ships,  the  "  Mary  and  John,"  commanded 
by  George  Popham,  and  the  "  Gift  of  God,"  commanded  by  Raleigh  Gilbert, 
were  sent  out  by  Sir  Ferdinando  Gorges.  They  reached  the  mouth  of  the 
Kennebec  River  in  Maine  on  August  19.  Popham  was  left  to  establish  a 
colony  at  Sabino,  and  Gilbert  returned.  Popham  died  during  the  winter, 
and  when  a  ship  arrived  the  next  year  the  colony  was  broken  up. 

Poplar  Spring,  Va.,  wrested  from  the  Confederates  and  occupied  by  Grant 
October  i,  1864,  during  the  campaign  in  the  vicinities  of  Richmond  and 
Petersburg. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 


Popular  Sovereignty.  This  term  originated  about  the  time  of  the 
acquisition  of  additional  territory  from  Mexico  in  1848.  A  suggestion  was 
made  of  a  middle  course  between  the  Wilmot  Proviso,  which  prohibited  the 
introduction  of  slavery  into  newly  acquired  or  organized  territories,  and  the 
positive  permission  of  slavery  under  federal  legislative  enactment ;  namely, 
the  question  was  to  be  settled  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  territories.  The 
Kansas-Nebraska  bill  of  1854  purported  to  enforce  the  popular  sovereignty 
idea.  The  Dred  Scott  decision  of  1857  decided  against  it.  The  Demo- 
cratic National  Convention  of  1856  approved  of  non-interference  by  Congress 
with  slavery  in  the  Territories.  Douglas,  of  Illinois,  was  an  ardent  advocate 
of  this  policy,  and  he  vainly  defended  it  against  the  Dred  Scott  decision. 
The  popular  sovereignty  idea  disappeared  with  the  outbreak  of  the  rebel- 
'lion.  It  was  called  in  derision  "squatter  sovereignty." 

Population.  Careful  estimates  place  the  population  of  New  Hampshire 
in  1700  at  about  5000;  Massachusetts  and  Maine,  70,000;  Rhode  Island, 
6000;  Connecticut,  25,000  ;  New  York,  25,000  ;  New  Jersey,  14,000  ;  Penn- 
sylvania and  Delaware,  20,000  ;  Maryland,  30,000  ;  Virginia,  80,000,  and  the 
Carolinas,  perhaps  15,000.  Population  grew  very  fast  in  the  colonial 
period.  In  1754  the  total  population  of  the  thirteen  colonies  is  supposed  to 
have  been  1,425,000,  of  whom  Virginia  contained  284,000  (three-fifths 
white);  Massachusetts  and  Maine,  211,000;  Pennsylvania  and  Delaware, 
206,000;  Maryland,  148,000;  Connecticut,  137,000;  New  York,  96,000. 
In  1775  the  colonies  probably  contained  fewer  than  3,000,000.  The  popula- 
tion of  New  England  was  almost  purely  English,  that  of  New  York  largely 
Dutch,  tha  of  Pennsylvania  largely  German  and  Scotch-Irish,  while  colonies 
to  the  southward  contained  many  of  these  last  two  races  and  some  Hugue- 
nots. The  first  census  was  taken  in  1790.  The  following  tables  show  the 
results  of  the  successive  censuses  (exclusive  of  Alaska  and  Indian  Territory): 

The  following  table  gives  the  total  population  of  the  United  States  at 
each  census,  and  the  number  of  inhabitants  per  square  mile  of  settled  area  : 


Census. 

Total. 

Settled 
area. 

Census. 

Total. 

Settled 
area. 

16  4 

jgco  . 

2"\  191  876 

2^  7 

1800 

c  708  A8i 

!86o              

•II  AA-i  -121 

26  -; 

1810 

7  2^Q  88l 

1870           .    .    . 

1$  SS8  VTi 

V  •; 

1820 

18  Q 

1880              .    . 

CQ  !«;<;  78^ 

t2  O 

1830 

l8qo 

62  622  250 

1840    .    .           .... 

17  060  45^ 

21.  1 

5i6 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 


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DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  517 

Population,  Centre  of.  The  centre  of  the  population  of  the  United 
States  at  the  time  of  the  census  of  1790,  lay  some  twenty-three  mile1?  to  the 
east  of  Baltimore.  In  1800,  it  was  about  the  same  distance  west  of  Balti- 
more; in  1810,  about  forty  miles  west-northwest  of  Washington;  in  1820, 
sixteen  miles  north  of  Woodstock,  Va.;  in  1830,  nineteen  miles  west-south- 
west of  Moorefield,  W.  Va.;  in  1840,  sixteen  miles  south  of  Clarksburg,  W. 
Va.;  in  1850,  twenty-three  miles  southeast  of  Parkersburg,  W.  Va.;  in  1860, 
twenty  miles  south  of  Chillicothe,  O.;  in  1870,  forty-eight  miles  east  by 
north  of  Cincinnati;  in  1880,  in  Kentucky,  eight  miles  west  by  south  of 
Cincinnati;  in  1890,  in  Southern  Indiana. 

"  Porcupine,  Peter,"  pseudonym  of  William  Cobbett.     (See  art.) 

Port  Gibson,  Miss.,  a  battle  of  the  Civil  War,  taking  place  May  I,  1863, 
during  Grant's  campaign  along  the  Mississippi  River.  Grant  was  pursuing 
with  some  25,000  Federals  the  Confederate  Pemberton,  who  was  retreating 
toward  Vicksburg  with  a  large  army.  Near  Port  Gibson,  Grant's  advance, 
under  that  general  himself,  overtook  Pemberton's  rear,  about  12,000  men 
under  Bo  wen.  A  battle  immediately  took  place.  Bo  wen,  though  greatly 
outnumbered,  defended  himself  stoutly.  Bowen  held  a  strong  position 
along  both  branches  of  the  Port  Gibson  road,  and  consequently  divided  the 
forces  of  the  Federals  as  he  slowly  fell  back.  He  was  defeated,  but  man- 
aged to  retire  in  good  order. 

Port  Hudson,  La.,  in  possession  of  Confederate  troops,  6000  strong,  under 
Gardner  in  1863.  It  was  assailed  on  three  separate  occasions  by  the  Feder- 
als, as  being  a  desirable  position  from  which  to  command  the  Mississippi 
from  New  Orleans  to  Vicksburg.  The  fort  surrendered  to  General  Banks 
after  the  fall  of  Vicksburg.  The  first  attempt  to  reduce  it  was  made  March 
8,  by  Banks  and  Farragut,  the  Federal  admiral.  Farragut  essayed  to  pass 
the  batteries  of  the  fort  with  his  fleet,  while  Banks,  with  a  land  force  of 
12,000,  diverted  the  attention  of  the  garrison.  Farragut's  fleet  consisted  of 
the  "  Hartford,"  the  "  Mississippi,"  the  gunboats  "Albatross,"  "Essex"  and 
"Sabine,"  and  several  mortar-boats.  This  attempt  was  an  utter  failure. 
Farragut's  fleet  had  to  return  to  Prophet's  Island  badly  disabled  by  the  fort's 
batteries.  On  May  23  of  the  same  year,  Banks  again  invested  the  fort  with 
15,000  men,  Augur  coming  to  his  aid  with  3500  more.  May  24,  Augur 
defeated  a  body  of  Confederates  under  Miles,  driving  them  back  within  their 
works.  Being  informed  on  May  24  that  the  Confederates  were  endeavoring 
to  escape,  Banks  determined  on  a  general  assault,  the  Federal  naval  force 
under  Farragut  having  come  to  his  assistance.  The  struggle  was  a  severe 
one,  but  the  Confederates  resisted  every  attack.  So  the  siege  went  on. 
Each  day  Farragut's  guns  riddled  the  Confederate  works,  and  many  Federals 
were  killed  by  the  Confederate  sharpshooters.  Gardner  held  out  gallantly 
until  he  heard  that  Vicksburg  had  been  captured.  Then  he  surrendered 
July  9,  1863. 

Port  Republic,  Va.  Here,  June  13, 1862,  Jackson,  with  8000  Confederates, 
defeated  and  pursued  3000  Federals  under  Carroll  and  Tyler,  of  Shields' 
command.  The  latter  had  attempted  to  capture  a  cattle  train  which  they 
supposed  to  be  guarded  only  by  some  300  cavalry.  Instead  they  found 


5i8  DicnoNARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Jackson  with  two  strong  brigades  and  three  batteries.  The  Federals  fought 
with  spirit,  Colonel  Candy  recapturing  by  an  impetuous  charge  a  Federal 
battery  which  had  been  taken  by  the  enemy.  However,  on  Taylor's  appear- 
ance with  a  fresh  brigade  the  Unionists  retired.  Jackson  pursued  them  five 
miles,  capturing  450  prisoners  and  800  muskets. 

Port  Royal  in  Acadia,  now  Annapolis,  Nova  Scotia,  was  founded  in  1605 
by  the  Sieur  De  Monts,  and  in  1607  more  permanently  by  Poutrincourt.  In 
1614  the  settlement  was  ravaged  by  Samuel  Argall,  from  Virginia.  In  1628 
it  was  captured  by  the  English,  but  restored  in  1632;  again  captured  in  1690, 
but  retaken  in  1691;  finally  taken  in  1710,  and  named  Annapolis. 

Port  Royal,  S.  C.,  was  first  settled  in  1562  by  a  band  of  Huguenots  under 
Jean  Ribault.  The  colony  was  soon  reinforced  by  Rene"  Laudonniere,  but  it 
was  not  wholly  successful,  even  at  the  first.  Then  Pedro  de  Menendez, 
appointed  Spanish  Governor  of  Florida,  after  founding  St.  Augustine  in  1565, 
marched  along  the  coast  and  destroyed  the  French  settlement,  while  Ribault 
was  sailing  unsuccessfully  against  St.  Augustine.  In  revenge  for  this  a  French 
gentleman,  Dominic  de  Gourgues,  in  1567  destroyed  the  Spanish  settlement 
at  St.  Augustine  by  a  private  expedition. — During  the  late  Civil  War,  to 
complete  the  Federal  blockade  of  the  Southern  coast,  Commodore  Dupont, 
commanding  the  Federal  frigate,  "  Wabash,"  fourteen  gunboats,  thirty-four 
steamers  and  twenty-six  sailing  vessels,  attacked  the  fort,  November  7,  1861. 
The  works  were  garrisoned  by  1700  South  Carolina  troops  under  Generals 
Drayton  and  Ripley  and  were  protected  by  Commodore  Tattnall  with  six 
Confederate  gunboats.  The  expedition  started  from  Fort  Monroe  late  in 
October.  The  fleet  entered  the  harbor  between  the  two  forts,  firing  upon 
them  simultaneously.  Then  sailing  in  an  elliptical  track  the  ships  concen- 
trated their  fire  upon  Fort  Walker,  which  surrendered  after  three  hours. 
Fort  Beauregard  was  also  speedily  reduced.  The  Confederate  fleet  had  been 
prevented  from  rendering  assistance  by  a  few  gunboats. 

Port  Royal  Island,  Battle  of,  February  3,  1779.  During  the  Southern 
campaign  of  the  Revolution  General  Prevost  sent  Major  Gardiner  with  200 
men  to  seize  Port  Royal  Island.  General  Moultrie  with  about  an  equal 
number  attacked  and  defeated  Gardiner.  The  American  loss  was  trifling. 
The  British  lost  most  of  their  officers  and  many  privates. 

Porter,  Albert  G.,  born  in  1824,  represented  Indiana  in  the  U.  S.  Con- 
gress as  a  Republican  from  1859  to  1863.  He  was  first  Comptroller  of  the 
U.  S.  Treasury  from  1878  to  1880,  Governor  of  Indiana  from  1880  to  1884, 
and  Minister  to  Italy  from  1889  to  1892.  Died  1897. 

Porter,  Andrew  (1743-1813),  fought  in  the  battles  of 'Trenton,  Princeton, 
Brandywine  and  Germantown,  and  received  the  personal  commendation  of 
Washington.  He  accompanied  General  Sullivan  in  the  expedition  against 
the  Six  Nations  in  1779. 

Porter,  David  (1780-1843),  an  American  naval  hero,  came  of  a  seafaring 
family,  and  fought  in  the  wars  with  France  and  Tripoli.  In  1812  he  was 
appointed  a  captain,  and  with  the  "  Essex  "  captured  a  number  of  British 
prizes  and  the  man-of-war  "Alert."  In  1813  he  started  on  a  cruise  in  the 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  519 

Pacific  with  the  "  Essex,"  in  the  course  of  which  he  nearly  destroyed  the 
British  whale-fishery  in  that  ocean.  In  the  harbor  of  Valparaiso  on  March 
28,  1814,  the  "Essex "and  the  "Phoebe"  fought  a  desperate  battle,  in 
which  the  former,  completely  disabled,  was  compelled  to  surrender.  Porter 
fought  against  the  West  India  pirates  in  1824,  and  from  1826  to  1829  directed 
the  Mexican  navy.  He  was  then  U.  S.  Consul  to  the  Barbary  States,  and 
from  1831  until  his  death  he  was  U.  S.  Minister  resident  to  Turkey. 

Porter,  David  Dixon  (June  8,  i8i3~February  13,  1891),  son  of  David 
Porter,  and  one  of  the  most  distinguished  American  naval' officers,  accom- 
panied his  father  in  his  voyages,  and  became  a  midshipman  in  1829.  He 
had  served  in  the  Mexican  War,  and  had  commanded  California  mail  steam- 
ers, when  the  Civil  War  called  out  his  powers.  With  the  control  of  the 
mortar  fleet  he,  in  April,  1862,  bombarded  Forts  Jackson  and  St.  Philip,  aid- 
ing Farragut  in  the  great  feat  of  taking  New  Orleans.  He  was  continuously 
active  in  the  operations  near  Vicksburg  that  year,  commanded  the  Missis- 
sippi squadron,  and  captured  Arkansas  Post  in  January,  1863.  Promoted  to 
be  rear-admiral  Porter,  in  May,  1863,  took  Grand  Gulf  near  Vicksburg  and 
cooperated  with  Grant  in  the  reduction  of  that  stronghold.  The  following 
year  he  aided  Banks  in  the  Red  River  expedition.  Transferred  the  same  year 
to  the  North  Atlantic  squadron  Admiral  Porter  commanded  the  powerful  naval 
contingents  in  the  two  assaults  on  Fort  Fisher,  December,  1864,  and  January, 
1865;  in  the  latter,  Porter  and  General  Terry  succeeded  in  reducing  this  last 
of  the  important  sea  fortresses  left  to  the  Confederates.  He  was  promoted 
to  be  vice-admiral  in  1866  and  admiral  in  1870.  Until  1869  he  was  super- 
intendent of  the  naval  academy.  Besides  writing  a  life  of  his  father  and 
other  naval  works  Admiral  Porter  was  also  a  successful  novelist. 

Porter,  Fitz-John,  born  in  1822,  was  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1845,  and 
almost  immediately  took  part  in  the  Mexican  War.  Assigned  to  the  Army  of 
the  Potomac  in  the  Rebellion,  he  was  soon  in  command  of  a  corps,  and 
distinguished  himself  in  the  Seven  Days'  battles,  especially  at  Games'  Mill 
and  Malvern  Hill.  He  was  now  promoted  to  be  major-general  of  volunteers. 
Shortly  afterward  part  of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac  was  transferred  to 
Pope's  command.  Porter  and  his  corps  were  present  at  the  second  battle  of 
Bull  Run,  August  29  and  30,  1862,  and  his  conduct  became  the  subject  of 
warm  controversy.  He  remained  inactive  on  the  first  day,  and  took  a  leading 
part  on  the  day  following  ;  for  this  he  was  deprived  of  command,  but  restored, 
and  served  in  the  Antietam  campaign.  In  November,  however,  he  was 
.court-martialed,  and  cashiered  in  January.  Many  efforts  to  reverse  the 
decision  were  unavailing  until  1886,  when  an  act  of  Congress  restored  him 
to  the  army  with  the  rank  of  colonel. 

Porter,  Horace,  born  in  1837,  was  chief  of  artillery  at  the  capture  of 
Fort  Pulaski,  in  1861.  He  fought  at  Antietam,  was  chief  of  ordnance  at 
Chickamauga,  and  was  an  aide  to  General  Grant  from  1864  to  J865.  Became 
Ambassador  to  France  May,  1897. 

Porter,  James  M.  (1793-1862),  was  appointed  Secretary  of  War  in  1843 
by  President  Tyler,  and  served  till  1844.  He  was  a  prominent  Pennsylvania 
jurist, 


520 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 


Porter,  Noah  (1811-1892),  was  president  of  Yale  College  *from  1871  to 
1886.  He  was  principal  editor  of  revised  editions  of  "  Webster's  Unabridged 
Dictionary,"  and  was  one  of  the  most  scholarly  metaphysicians  in  America. 

Porter,  Peter  B.  (1773-1844),  represented  New  York  in  the  U.  S.  Con- 
gress as  a  Democrat  from  1809  to  1813.  He  served  on  the  Canadian  fron- 
tier. He  was  Secretary  of  War  in  J.  Q.  Adams'  Cabinet  from  1828  to  1829. 

"  Portfolio,"  the  first  American  periodical  which  reached  an  age  of  over 
ten  years.  It  was  established  in  Philadelphia  by  Dennie  in  1801,  and  was  pub- 
lished monthly  until  1825.  It  had  many  distinguished  contributors. 

Portland,  Me.,  settled  in  1632,  was  bombarded  by  the  British  in  1775, 
rebuilt  in  1783  and  incorporated  in  1786.  From  1820  until  1832  it  was  the 
capital  of  the  State.  A  city  charter  was  obtained  in  1832.  It  was  the  scene 
of  a  disastrous  fire  in  1866. 

Porto,  or  Puerto,  Rico,  an  island  of  the  Antilles  group,  discovered  by 
Columbus  in  1493.  Population,  807,000.  San  Juan,  the  largest  and  only 
fortified  city,  is  the  capital.  The  U.  S.  army,  under  Gen.  Nelson  A.  Miles, 
landed  July  28, 1898,  began  the  conquest  of  the  island,  and  met  with  only  slight 
resistance.  Spain's  acceptance  of  peace  protocol,  Aug.  12,  1898,  put  an  end  to 
American  aggressions  before  the  taking  of  San  Juan.  Spanish  sovereignty 
yielded  and  formal  possession  taken  by  the  United  States,  Oct.  18,  1898. 

Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  was  settled  in  1623,  incorporated  as  a  town  in  1633, 
and  as  a  city  in  1849.  I*  was  the  State  capital  until  1807.  In  1694  the 
town  was  attacked  by  Indians,  and  several  persons  killed.  In  1774  the 
inhabitants  refused  to  receive  a  cargo  of  British  tea. 

Portsmouth,  R.  I.,  one  of  the  original  settlements  in  Rhode  Island,  was 
founded  in  1637  by  William  Coddington  and  other  followers  of  Anne  Hutch- 
inson,  from  Massachusetts.  At  first  an  independent  community,  it  was  united 
with  Newport  in  1640  to  form  the  colony  of  Rhode  Island.  Providence 
was  joined  with  them  in  1644.  •• 

Portugal.  A  commercial  treaty  was  concluded  between  the  United  States 
and  Portugal  in  1840.  By  the  treaty  of  1851  provision  was  made  for  the 
payment  of  certain  claims  of  American  citizens  against  Portugal. 

Post  Office.  In  the  colonies,  especially  the  more  thickly-settled  colonies 
of  the  North,  some  slight  arrangements  for  postal  communication  were  made 
before  1692.  On  February  17  of  that  year  King  William  and  Queen  Mary 
granted  to  Thomas  Neale  a  patent  making  him  postmaster-general  for  the 
colonies.  At  once  several  colonies  passed  acts  establishing  and  regulating  a 
postal  system.  In  1710,  under  Queen  Anne,  an  act  of  Parliament  established 
a  uniform  system  for  all  the  colonies.  Of  the  postmasters-general  for  America 
in  the  colonial  period  the  most  famous  was  Franklin,  who  in  1774  was 
deprived  of  his  office  for  his  attitude  in  the  American  conflict.  William 
Goddard  thereupon  planned  a  "Constitutional  Post  Office,"  upon  a  plan 
which  Congress  adopted  July  26,  1775,  on  that  date  establishing  a  system, 
with  Franklin  as  postmaster-general.  The  Articles  of  Confederation  and 
the  Constitution  gave  Congress  power  over  the  matter.  Congress,  in  1790, 


DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  521 

continued  the  post  office  with  little  substantial  change.  The  plan  to  conduct 
the  post  office  system  simply  on  an  expense-paying  basis  originated  about 
1840.  At  the  International  Postal  Conference  held  at  Berne  in  1874  the 
Universal  Postal  Union  was  formed  with  rates  of  five  cents  per  half-ounce 
on  all  letters  passing  between  the  countries  composing  the  Union.  In  1790 
there  were  seventy-five  post  offices  in  the  United  States;  in  1820,  4500;  in 
1860,  28,000;  in  1884,  70,000;  in  1898,  72,000. 

Post  Office  Department.  This  department  existed  already  before  1789. 
(See  art.  Post  Office.)  Congress  continued  it  by  several  temporary  enact- 
ments, and  on  May  8,  1794,  gave  it  a  permanent  establishment.  The  post- 
master-general was  not  a  member  of  the  President's  Cabinet  until  General 
Jackson's  administration  (1829),  tne  exigencies  of  the  spoils  system  then 
requiring  it.  In  1820  a  four  years'  term  for  postmasters  was  instituted. 
(See  art.  Star-route  Frauds.) 

Postage.  Letter  postage  is  now  two  cents  for  any  distance  in  the  United 
States.  From  1792  to  1845  letter  postage  ranged  from  six  to  twenty-five 
cents,  according  to  the  distance.  In  1845  the  rate  was  reduced  to  five  cents 
for  300  miles  and  under,  and  ten  cents  for  greater  distances.  In  1851  it  was 
made  three  cents  for  3000  miles,  prepaid,  otherwise  five  cents,  and  was 
doubled  for  greater  distances.  In  1863  there  was  established  a  uniform  rate 
of  three  cents,  which  was  changed  to  two  cents  per  ounce  in  1883.  Mailable 
matter  is  now  divided  into  four  classes:  first,  letters;  second,  regular  publi- 
cations; third,  books;  fourth,  merchandise.  Until  1845  letters  were  single 
or  double  according  as  there  was  one  piece  of  paper  or  two.  Postage  stamps 
were  introduced  in  1847,  but  did  not  become  general  till  1855,  when  letters 
were  required  to  be  prepaid.  Stamped  envelopes  were  first  furnished  in  1852 
and  postal  cards  in  1872.  Registration  was  established  in  1855;  postal 
money  orders  in  1864;  the  free-delivery  system  in  1865  in  places  containing 
a  population  of  50,000.  In  1892  the  free-delivery  system  was  extended. 

Postal  Currency,  a  substitute  for  fractional  currency  during  the  Civil  War, 
owing  to  the  scarcity  of  silver.  This  was  invented  by  General  Spinner, 
United  States  Treasurer  under  Lincoln.  Postage  stamps  were  pasted  upon 
the  paper  used  for  government  securities  and  representing  different  sums. 
These  bits  of  paper  were  circulated  among  the  clerks  of  the  department,  and 
became  for  a  while  the  medium  of  small  exchange. 

Potomac  Company,  was  chartered  in  1784,  with  General  Washington  as 
president,  for  the  purpose  of  connecting  the  Potomac  valley  with  the  West 
by  means  of  a  canal,  and  for  general  land  improvement.  The  Chesapeake 
and  Ohio  Canal  Company  succeeded  it  in  1828. 

Pottawatomies,  a  tribe  of  Algonquin  Indians,  early  occupied  what  is  now 
lower  Michigan  and  upper  Illinois  and  Indiana.  Joining  Pontiac,  they 
surprised  Fort  St.  Joseph  in  1763.  During  the  Revolution  they  were  hostile 
to  the  Americans,  but  joined  in  the  treaty  of  1795.  The  tribe  was  then 
composed  of  settled  bands  and  the  wandering  Prairie  band.  In  1812  they 
aided  England,  but  by  treaties  in  1815  and  subsequently,  ceded  nearly  all 
their  territory.  A  large  tract  was  assigned  to  them  on  the  Missouri.  In 
1867,  1400  became  citizens,  but  the  Prairie  band  continued  under  the  Indian 
Department. 


522  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Potter,  Alonzo  (1800-1865),  became  Episcopal  Bishop  of  Pennsylvania  in 
1845.  He  founded  the  Episcopal  Hospital  and  the  Divinity  School  at 
Philadelphia.  He  possessed  remarkable  executive  ability. 

Potter,  Clarkson  N.  (1825-1882),  represented  New  York  in  the  U.  S. 
Congress  as  a  Democrat  from  1869  to  1875  and  from  1877  to  1881.  He  was 
prominent  in  the  election  controversies  of  1876. 

Potter,  Henry  C.,  born  in  1835,  son  of  Bishop  Alonzo  Potter,  was  rector 
of  Grace  Church,  New  York,  from  1858  to  1883.  In  1883  he  became  assistant 
bishop  to  his  uncle,  Horatio  Potter.  In  1887,  on  the  latter's  death,  he 
became  Bishop  of  New  York. 

Potter,  Horatio  (1802-1887),  became  rector  of  St.  Peter's,  Albany,  N. 
Y.,  in  1833,  provisional  bishop  in  1854,  and  Bishop  of  New  York  in  1861. 
His  able  administration  brought  great  prosperity  to  his  diocese. 

Potter,  James  (1729-1789),  came  to  Pennsylvania  from  Ireland  in  1741. 
He  was  made  brigadier-general  of  Pennsylvania  troops  in  1777  and  served 
with  distinction  throughout  the  war  under  General  Washington. 

Potter,  Robert  B.  (1829-1887),  led  the  assault  at  Roanoke  Island,  com- 
manded a  regiment  at  Cedar  Mountain  and  Chantilly,  and  carried  the  bridge 
at  Antietam.  He  led  a  division  at  Vicksburg,  the  Wilderness  and  Peters- 
burg. 

Powell,  John  W.,  born  in  1824,  was  a  lieutenant-colonel  of  Illinois  artil- 
lery during  the  Civil  War.  He  secured  the  establishment  of  the  U.  S. 
Geological  Survey  and  the  Bureau  of  Ethnography  at  the  Smithsonian 
Institution,  and  is  director  of  the  former. 

Powers,  Hiram  (1805-1873),  sculptor,  went  from  Ohio  to  Florence,  Italy, 
in  1837,  where  he  afterward  resided.  Among  his  most  popular  statues  are 
"Eve  Tempted,"  "The  Greek  Slave"  and  "The  Fisher-Boy."  He  is  emi- 
nent for  his  busts  of  distinguished  men,  including  Adams,  Jackson,  Webster, 
Marshall,  Longfellow  and  Sheridan.  He  executed  statues  of  Washington, 
Webster,  Calhoun,  Franklin  and  Jefferson. 

Powhatan  (15507-1618),  was  the  chief  of  thirty  tribes  of  Indians,  num- 
bering about  8000,  occupying  territory  between  the  James  and  York  rivers  in 
Virginia.  He  was  visited  by  Captain  John  Smith  in  1609,  who  made 
negotiations  for  provisions.  A  gilded  crown  was  brought  from  England  and 
Powhatan  was  declared  "emperor  of  the  Indies."  He  never  trusted  the 
whites  and  was  in  constant  collision  with  them.  In  retaliation  for  an  attempt 
of  Captain  Smith  to  capture  him,  he  planned  the  destruction  of  the  James- 
town settlement,  but  was  prevented,  the  colonists  being  warned  by  his 
daughter,  Pocahontas. 

Powhatan  Indians,  a  confederation  of  thirty  Indian  tribes  south  of  the 
Potomac,  in  existence  at  the  time  of  the  settlement  of  Jamestown.  It  was 
conjectured  that  the  entire  federation  numbered  eight  thousand  souls. 

Pownall,  Thomas  (1720-1805),  came  to  America  from  England  in  1753. 
He  immediately  sympathized  with  American  political  tendencies.  He  was 
Governor  of  Massachusetts  from  1756  to  1760.  While  a  member  of  the 


DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  523 

British  Parliament  from  1767  to  1781  he  ardently  opposed  oppressive  meas- 
ures toward  the  colonies.  He  wrote  "  Colonial  Constitutions,"  "  The  Admin- 
istration of  the  Colonies  "  and  "  Description  of  the  Middle  States  of  America." 

Prairie  Grove,  Ark.  At  this  place  the  Union  leaders  Blunt  and  Herrou 
with  12,000  troops  defeated  nearly  twice  as  many  Confederates  under  Hind- 
man  and  Marmaduke,  December  7,  1862.  Hindman  attacked  Herron  while 
that  general  was  separated  from  the  main  command.  Herron  returned  the 
attack,  pushing  his  batteries  across  Illinois  Creek  and  effectually  silencing 
the  Confederates  for  a  time.  Meanwhile  Blunt  arrived  and  attacked  the 
Confederate  flank,  as  it  was  about  to  execute  a  flank  movement  against 
Herron.  This  resulted  in  defeat  for  the  Confederates  though  they  occupied 
a  strong  position. 

Pratt,  Orson  (i  81 1-1881),  became  one  of  the  twelve  Mormon  apostles  in  1835. 
He  was  for  many  years  a  member  and  seven  times  was  Speaker  of  the  Utah 
Legislature.  He  wrote  "  The  Great  First  Cause  "  and  "  Patriarchal  Order." 

Praying  Indians,  a  name  given  to  those  New  England  Indians  who  were 
early  won  to  the  Christian  faith.  During  Philip's  War  they  remained 
friendly  to  the  colonists,  a  company  of  them  enlisting  under  Major  Gookin 
in  July,  1675.  They  acted  as  scouts  and  spies  and  rendered  valuable  ser- 
vice against  Philip.  (See  Eliot,  John,  and  Natick.) 

Preble,  Edward  (1761-1807),  commodore,  joined  a  privateer  in  1777.  In 
1779  he  engaged  in  the  attacks  of  the  "  Protector"  on  the  British  privateer, 
u  Admiral  Duff."  He  served  on  the  "  Winthrop  "  when  that  vessel  captured 
an  armed  brig.  He  was  commissioned  lieutenant  in  1798,  and  in  1799  com- 
manded the  "Essex."  In  1803  he  commanded  the  "Constitution"  and  the 
squadron  against  the  Barbary  States.  His  operations  resulted  in  the  treaty 
of  1805,  by  which  tribute  by  the  United  States  and  the  slavery  of  Christian 
captives  was  abolished. 

Preble,  George  H.  (1816-1885),  rear-admiral,  served  in  the  Mexican  War. 
He  commanded  the  "  Macedonian  "  against  Chinese  pirates  in  1854.  He 
commanded  the  "  Katahdin  "  and  the  "  St.  Louis "  during  the  Rebellion, 
and  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  United  States  Flag." 

Pre-emption  Law.  The  first  pre-emption  act  was  passed  March  3,  1801. 
It  was  a  special  act  affecting  the  Symmes  colonization  scheme  on  the 
Miami  River.  Between  that  time  and  1841  about  eighteen  pre-emption  acts 
were  passed,  all  of  a  more  or  less  special  nature.  The  first  general  law  was 
passed  in  1830.  That  of  1841,  which  is  now  in  force,  grants,  upon  consid- 
erations of  residence  and  improvement,  freedom  of  entry  upon  160  acres  of 
public  lands  to  any  person  over  twenty-one  years  of  age.  Twelve  to  thirty- 
three  months  are  allowed  for  payment,  and  the  amount  varies  with  the  value 
and  situation  of  the  tract  pre-empted. 

Prentice,  George  D.  (1802-1870),  edited  the  Louisville,  Ky.,  Journal 
from  1831  to  1870.  He  was  the  principal  advocate  of  the  Whig  party  in  Ken- 
tucky, and  vigorously  opposed  secession.  He  wrote  a  "  Life  of  Henry  Clay." 

Prentiss,  Benjamin  M.,  born  in  1819,  was  a  captain  during  the  Mexican 
War.  In  1861  he  was  made  colonel  of  Illinois  volunteers,  and  placed  in 


524  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

command  at  Cairo.  He  defeated  the  Confederates  at  Mount  Zion,  served 
under  General  Grant  at  Shiloh  and  was  taken  prisoner.  He  was  made 
major-general,  and  defeated  Generals  Holmes  and  Price  at  Helena,  Ark. 

Prentiss,  Sergeant  S.  (1808-1850),  orator,  was  a  member  of  the  Missis- 
sippi Legislature  in  1835.  He  represented  Mississippi  in  the  U.  S.  Congress 
as  a  Whig  from  1838  to  1839.  He  made  eloquent  speeches  against  the 
repudiation  of  the  Mississippi  State  debts. 

Presbyterian  Church  in  the  United  States.  This  sect  owes  its  origin  to 
the  numerous  members  of  the  Presbyterian  Churches  of  Scotland  and  Ireland 
who  moved  to  the  American  colonies  for  greater  freedom.  The  first  Presby- 
tery was  formed  at  Philadelphia  about  the  year  1705,  largely  through  the 
labors  of  Francis  Makemie.  In  1716  the  first  Synod  was  held,  with  about 
twenty-five  churches  represented.  In  1729  the  Westminster  Confession  and 
Catechisms  were  formally  adopted.  In  1741  a  schism  on  educational  ques- 
tions took  place,  but  was  healed  in  1758.  The  first  General  Assembly  met 
in  1789,  and  the  Confession  and  Catechisms  were  again  adopted,  with  some 
slight  changes.  In  1811  the  Cumberland  Presbyterian  Church  was  formed 
by  members  who  had  seceded  from  the  parent  church.  A  still  greater  schism 
arose  in  1838  between  the  conservative  and  the  progressive  wings  of  the 
denomination.  These  reunited  in  1871,  at  which  time  the  total  raembership 
was  about  435,000.  From  both  these  bodies  the  Southern  members  with- 
drew, and  formed  separate  organizations,  which,  however,  united  in  1864. 
The  parent  church,  since  the  reunion  of  1871,  has  made  rapid  progress,  and 
by  its  devotion  to  education  and  missions  has  raised  a  high  standard  for  its 
clergy  and  membership.  In  recent  years  much  controversy  has  been  aroused 
by  the  trial  of  Dr.  Briggs  for  heresy.  Number  of  members  in  1890, 
788,000. 

Presbyterian  Church  South.  This  body  was  organized  December  4, 
1861,  when  the  Southern  Presbyterians  seceded  and  organized  a  new  General 
Assembly.  The  power  and  educational  institutions  of  this  body  were  greatly 
weakened  by  the  losses  of  the  war.  In  1890  there  were  180,000  members. 

Prescott,  Richard  (1725-1788),  British  soldier,  came  to  Canada  from  Eng- 
land in  1773.  He  surrendered  in  1775  on  the  reduction  of  Montreal  by  the 
Americans.  He  commanded  in  Rhode  Island  from  1776  to  1777. 

Prescott,  William  (1726-1795),  served  as  a  captain  in  the  Provincial  army 
under  General  Winslow  in  the  expedition  against  Nova  Scotia  in  1755.  In 
1774  he  commanded  a  regiment  of  minute-men.  In  1775  with  a  brigade  of 
1000  men  he  constructed  entrenchments  at  Bunker  Hill.  In  the  ensuing 
battle  he  displayed  great  skill  and  bravery,  and  was  one  of  the  last  to  leave 
the  entrenchments  when  it  was  found  necessary  to  retreat.  In  1777  he  served 
under  General  Gates  at  Saratoga.  He  afterward  served  several  years  in  the 
Massachusetts  Legislature. 

Prescott,  William  Hickling  (1796-1859),  grandson  of  the  commander  at 
Bunker  Hill,  was  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1814.  Abundant  means  enabled  him 
to  carry  out  his  purposes  of  prolonged  historical  research,  though  his  partial 
blindness  was  a  great  hindrance.  Prescott's  works  nearly  cover  the  period 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 


525 


of  Spanish  greatness.  They  appeared  in  this  order:  "Ferdinand  and 
Isabella  "  (1838),  "  Conquest  of  Mexico  "  (1843),  "  Conquest  of  Peru  "  (1847), 
"  Philip  the  Second  "  (1855-58),  to  which  should  be  added  the  continuation 
of  Robertson's  "  Charles  V."  Prescott  had  access  to  many  valuable  original 
sources,  including  the  Spanish  archives  at  Simancas,  and. his  histories  are 
permanently  attractive  for  their  charm  of  style.  L,ife  by  Ticknor. 

President.  Penn,  in  1696,  in  his  scheme  for  a  general  government  for 
the  colonies,  gave  its  executive  the  title  of  president;  the  Albany  Convention 
proposed  that  of  president-general.  The  Continental  Congress  had  its  presi- 
dent. In  the  Convention  of  1787,  it  was  decided  on  June  4  that  there 
should  be  a  single  executive,  to  whom  on  August  6  the  style  of  President 
was  given.  Beside  executive  functions,  he  was  invested  with  the  veto  power. 
The  First  Congress  debated  titles  for  him,  but  without  finding  any  better 
than  Mr.  President.  The  first  two  Presidents  read  their  speeches  to  Con- 
gress, Jefferson  began  the  practice  of  sending  messages  instead.  Up  to  the 
ratification  of  the  Twelfth  Amendment  (1804)  the  President  and  Vice-Presi- 
dent were  not  separately  voted  for.  He  who  obtained  the  largest  number  of 
electoral  votes  was  President,  he  who  stood  next  Vice-President.  Jefferson 
and  J.  Q.  Adams  were  elected  by  the  House  of  Representatives.  Tyler, 
Fillmore,  Johnson  and  Arthur  were  originally  elected  Vice- Presidents.  The 
following  have  been  the  Presidents  of  the  United  States: 


Name. 

State. 

Political  party. 

Qualified. 

George  Washington  .... 
George  Washington  .    .    . 

Virginia         .    .    . 
Virginia        .    .    . 
Massachus  tts  .    . 
Virginia         .    .    . 
Virginia         .    .    . 
Virginia         .    .    . 
Virginia        .    .    . 
Virginia         .    .    . 
Virginia         .    .    . 
Massachusetts  .    . 
Tennessee     .    .    . 
Tennessee     .    .    . 
New  York     .    .    . 
Ohio   
Virginia         .    .    . 
Tennessee     ...    . 
Louisiana      .    .    . 
New  York     .    .    . 
New  Hampshire  . 
Pennsylvania   .    . 
Illinois  
Illinois  

Federalist  
Federalist  .... 

April              30,  1789 
March             4,  1793 
March             4?  1797 
March             4,  1801 
March             4,  1805 
March             4,  1809 
March             4,  1813 
March             4,  1817 
March             5,  1821 
March             4,  1825 
March             4,  1829 
March             4,  1833. 
March             4,  1837 
March          --4,  1841 
April                6,  1841  •- 
March             4,  1845 
March             5,  1849  - 
July                 9,  1850 
March             4,  1853  - 
March             4,  1857 
March             4,  1861  _ 
March              4,  1865 
April              15,  1865  - 
March             4,  1869 
March             4,  1873 
March             5,  1877 
March      4,  iSSi  r 
September    20,  iSSi* 
March             4,  1885 
March             4,  1889 
March             4,  1893' 
March            4,  1897 

Federalist 

Thomas  Jefferson  .    .    . 

Dem.-Republican   .    .    . 
Dem.-Republican    .    .    . 
Dem.-Republican   .        . 
Dem.-Republican  .    .    . 
Dem.-Republican  .    .    . 
Dem.-Republican   .    .    . 
National  Republican  .    . 
Democratic  
Democratic  

Thomas  Jefferson  
James  Madison  

James  Madison  
James  Monroe   
James  Monroe   
John  Quincy  Adams    .    .    . 
Andrew  Jackson     
Andrew  Jackson     
Martin  Van  Buren     .... 
William  H.  Harrison~N    .    . 
John  Tyler  .\  .    . 
James  K.  Polk  
Zachary  Taylor  
Millard  Fillmore   .... 
Franklin  Pierce     .    . 
James  Buchanan   
Abraham  Lincoln  
Abraham  Lincoln  
Andrew  Johnson    .    .^-^^.. 
Ulysses  S.  Grant    
Ulysses  S.  Grant    .    . 
Rutherford  B.  Hayes        .    . 
James  A.  Garfield     .       .    . 
Chester  A.  Arthur     .       .    . 
Grover  Cleveland  .    . 
Benjamin  Harrison   .        .    . 
Grover  Cleveland  

Whig  
Elected  by  Whigs  .    .    . 
Democratic  .... 

Whig  
Whi^      ... 

Democratic   .    . 
Democratic  .... 
Republican   .... 
Republican  
Republican  
Republican  
Republican  

Tennessee.    .  v_^ 
Illinois  . 

Illinois  
Ohio  
Ohio  .       .    . 

Republican  
Republican  
Democratic  

New  York     .    .    . 
New  York  \.-r- 
Indiana  ..... 
New  York     .    .    . 
Ohio   

Democratic  
Republican   

William  McKinley  .... 

526  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

President  (of  a  State).  The  first  constitutions  of  Pennsylvania  and  New 
Hampshire  (1776)  provided,  not  for  a  single  executive  head,  but  for  an 
executive  council,  of  which  one  member  was  president.  Delaware,  South 
Carolina,  and  the  New  Hampshire  Constitution  of  1784  provided  for  a  single 
head,  but  called  him  president.  South  Carolina  in  1778,  Pennsylvania  in 
1790,  Delaware  and  New  Hampshire  in  1792,  altered  the  title  to  Governor. 

"President"  and  "Little  Belt."  During  1811,  and  [for  some  time  pre- 
vious, British  cruisers  hovering  about  our  coast  had  captured  many  Ameri- 
can vessels  bound  for  France,  and  had  made  a  number  of  impressments.  In 
May,  1811,  Commodore  John  Rodgers,  commanding  the  American  frigate 
"President,"  was  ordered  to  put  to  sea  from  Chesapeake  Bay  and  protect 
our  commerce.  When  thirty  miles  off  Cape  Charles,  May  16,  Rodgers  des- 
cried a  vessel,  which  he  supposed  to  be  the  British  man-of-war  "Guerriere." 
He  decided  to  approach  her  and  make  inquiries  regarding  impressment. 
This  vessel  was  the  "  Little  Belt,"  a  small  British  frigate.  She  showed  no 
colors  and  sailed  away,  the  "  President "  pursuing.  Overhauling  her  about 
eight  o'clock,  Rodgers  declared  she  ran  up  colors  which  could  not  be  recog- 
nized for  the  darkness,  and  fired  upon  the  "  President."  The  fire  was  imme- 
diately returned  and  the  "  Little  Belt "  was  disabled  in  about  eighteen 
minutes.  The  dispute  as  to  which  was  in  fault  was  never  settled.  When 
Foster,  the  British  Minister  arrived,  however,  it  was  mutually  agreed  to 
drop  the  affair  of  the  "  Little  Belt "  and  the  "  Constitution  "  outrage. — In 
September,  1814,  the  "  President,"  under  Decatur,  was  captured  by  the 
"  Endymion  "  and  other  British  vessels. 

Presidential  Succession.  The  Constitution  provides  for  the  succession 
of  the  Vice-President  in  case  of  the  death,  removal,  resignation  or  disability 
of  the  President,  and  gives  Congress  power  to  provide  what  officer  shall  suc- 
ceed in  case  of  the  death,  removal,  etc.,  of  the  Vice-President.  In  -1793, 
Congress  provided  that  in  such  case  the  president  of  the  Senate  should  suc- 
ceed, and  then  the  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Representatives.  This  was  of 
doubtful  constitutionality,  and  attended  with,  some  inconveniences  and  dan- 
gers. Hence  Congress  in  1886  provided  that  in  such  case  the  succession 
should  next  pass  to  the  Secretary  of  State,  then  to  the  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury,  then  successively  to  the  Secretary  of  War,  the  Attorney-General) 
the  Postmaster-General,  the  Secretary  of  Navy,  the  Secretary  of  Interior* 
and  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture. 

"  President's  March,"  a  popular  national  air  composed  in  1789  by  Pfyles, 
leader  of  the  orchestra  at  the  John  Street  Theatre,  New  York.  It  was 
played  for  the  first  time  on  Trenton  Bridge  as  Washington  rode  over  on  his 
way  to  be  inaugurated.  Later  Judge  Hopkinson  set  the  words  of  "  Hail 
Columbia  "  to  the  air,  and  it  became  immensely  popular  under  that  name. 

Presidio,  the  military  settlements  made  by  the  Spanish  in  California. 
They  were  massive  forts,  the  chief  being  at  Los  Angeles,  Santa  Barbara, 
Monterey  and  San  Diego.  That  of  Los  Angeles  was  the  first  established, 
it  being  begun  some  time  before  1795,  but  the  later  forts  were  of  more 
importance.  Regular  armed  forces  were  placed  in  these  fortresses,  and  vil- 
lages grew  up  around,  them,  They  were  primarily  intended  to  protect  the 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  527 

religious  missions,  but  the  soldiers  and  friars  were  in  constant  collision. 
The  commander  of  a  presidio  exercised  no  little  influence  in  the  manage- 
ment of  the  province. 

Press,  Freedom  of  the.  In  the  original  Constitution  of  the  United 
States  there  was  no  provision  regarding  the  freedom  of  the  press,  it  being 
left  to  be  regulated  by  the  States  in  accordance  with  the  established  opinion 
of  the  people.  But  the  first  Congress  passed  an  amendment  to  the  Consti- 
tution securing  the  freedom  of  the  press  against  the  Federal  Government 
Previous  to  this  the  States  had  nearly  all  inserted  in  their  constitutions 
clauses  permitting  freedom  of  speech  and  publication  to  every  citizen.  Citi- 
zens were  of  course  held  responsible  for  abuses  of  this  liberty.  In  States,  as 
New  York  and  New  Jersey,  where  no  such  provision  was  made  in  the  origi- 
nal Constitution,  the  freedom  of  the  press  was  considered  as  established 
under  the  common  law,  but  provisions  to  that  effect  were  embodied  in  later 
constitutions.  During  British  rule  of  the  colonies  this  freedom  was  much 
restricted  by  the  Star  Chamber  Press-censorship  regulation  of  1637,  which 
was  confirmed  by  Parliament  in  1643. 

Preston,  John  S.  (1809—1881),  was  an  able  orator,  and  when  Commissioner 
from  South  Carolina  to  Virginia  in  1861,  made  a  most  elaborate  plea  in 
favor  of  secession.  He  served  on  the  staff  of  General  Beauregard  from  1861 
to  1862. 

Preston,  William  B.  (1805-1862),  represented  Virginia  in  the  U.  S.  Con- 
gress as  a  Whig  from  1847  to  1849.  He  was  Secretary  of  the  Navy  in 
Taylor's  Cabinet  from  1849  to  1850,  and  was  a  Confederate  Senator  in  1862. 

Preston,  William  C.  (1794-1860),  was  a  member  of  the  South  Carolina 
Legislature  from  1828  to  1832,  and  a  leader  of  the  nullification  party.  He 
was  a  Democratic  member  of  the  U.  S.  Senate  from  1833  to  1842. 

Previous  Question.  The  previous  question,  said  to  have  been  invented 
in  the  House  of  Commons  by  Sir  Harry  Vane,  was  not  used  in  the  practice 
of  the  House  of  Representatives  in  its  first  twenty-two  years,  to  prevent 
further  debate.  Its  use  in  its  present  manner  originated  on  February  28, 
•1811,  in  a  decision  by  the  House  upon  appeal  taken  on  a  point  of  order. 

Prevost,  Augustine  (1725-1786),  British  soldier,  was  captain  of  the  Royal 
Americans  under  Wolfe  at  Quebec.  He  was  brevetted  major-general  for  the 
capture  of  the  fort  at  Sunbury,  Georgia,  in  1778.  He  defeated  General 
John  Ashe  at  Brier  Creek  in  1779,  and  made  an  unsuccessful  attack  upon 
Charleston.  He  successfully  defended  Savannah  against  the  Americans  in 
1779. 

Price,  Sterling  (1809-1867),  a  Confederate  general,  was  Speaker  of  the 
Missouri  Lower  House,  and  Congressman  from  that  State  in  1845-1846.  In 
the  Mexican  War  he  commanded  a  regiment  under  Kearny  and  gained 
success  in  New  Mexico  and  Chihuahua.  He  was  Governor  of  Missouri  in 
1853-1857.  He  was  one  of  the  commanders  in  the  defeat  of  Lyon  at 
Wilson's  Creek  in  1861.  The  same  year  he  captured  Lexington  in  Missouri. 
He  was  defeated  at  luka,  the  next  year,  fought  at  Corinth,  made  in  1863  a,$ 


528  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

unsuccessful  attempt  on  Helena,  and  in  1864  resisted  General  Steele's 
.advance  on  the  Red  River  region. 

Prideaux,  John  (1718-1759),  served  in  the  British  army  against  the  French 
in  America.  In  1759  he  commanded  an  expedition  against  Fort  Niagara 
which  was  successful. 

Priestley,  Joseph  (1733—1804),  an  English  Unitarian  clergyman,  made 
many  discoveries  in  chemistry  and  discovered  oxygen  in  1774.  His  theo- 
logical views  were  obnoxious,  and  in  1791  his  church  and  property  were 
destroyed  by  a  mob.  In  1794  he  came  to  the  United  States  from  London 
and  continued  his  investigations  in  science  and  philosophy  at  Northumber- 
land, Pa. 

Prigg  vs.  Pennsylvania.  In  1837  Edward  Prigg  caused  a  fugitive  Mary- 
land slave- woman  to  be  returned  to  her  mistress,  in  violation  of  a  Penn- 
sylvania statute  forbidding  the  carrying  of  any  negro  ou^of  the  State  in  order 
to  enslave  him.  The  case  was  finally  brought  before  the  Supreme  Court  of 
the  United  States,  where  it  was  contended  that  the  statute  was  unconstitu- 
tional since  it  conflicted  with  the  National  Fugitive  Slave  Act  of  1793. 
The  opinion  was  handed  down  that  the  national  law  must  be  carried  out 
by  national  authorities  alone. 

Prime,  Benjamin  Y.  (1733-1791),  of  New  York,  composed  many  popular 
songs  and  ballads  during  the  Revolution.  lie  was  an  able  physician  and  a 
celebrated  linguist.  He  wrote  "Columbia's  Glory,"  a  poem,  and  "The 
Patriotic  Muse." 

Prince,  Thomas  (1687-1758),  was  connected  with  the  Old  South  Church 
in  Boston,  from  1718  to  1758.  He  collected  many  valuable  manuscripts  and 
documents  relating  to  New  England  history,  many  of  which  were  destroyed 
by  the  British  in  1776.  He  wrote  an  accurate  and  scholarly  "  Chronological 
History  of  New  England." 

Prince  Society,  an  organization  established  in  Boston  for  publishing  only. 
It  has  issued  a  series  of  valuable  annotated  volumes  relating  to  the  early 
history  of  Massachusetts. 

"  Princeton."  February  28, 1844,  President  Tyler  and  a  large  party  sailed 
down  the  Potomac  on  the  man-of-war  "  Princeton,"  to  see  Commodore  Stock- 
ton's "  Peacemaker  "  throw  its  aoopound  balls.  The  "  Peacemaker  "  exploded 
and  many  people  were  killed,  among  them  two  members  of  the  Cabinet, 
Abel  P.  Upshur,  Secretary  of  State,  and  Thomas  W.  Gilmer,  Secretary  of 
the  Navy.  The  President  narrowly  escaped. 

Princeton,  Battle  of,  January  3,  1777.  After  his  bold  stroke  at  Trenton, 
Washington  found  himself  confronted  by  Cornwallis.  Being  unable  to  cope 
with  his  superior  force,  he  resorted  to  strategy.  Leaving  his  camp-fires 
burning  and  a  few  men  working  in  the  trenches,  he  passed  around  the  British 
left  and  encountered  their  reinforcements  at  Princeton.  These  he  routed, 
thus  cutting  the  British  line,  forcing  Cornwallis  to  retreat  upon  New  York, 
and  making  himself  master  of  communication  between  New  York  and  Phila- 
delphia. The  British  lost  200  killed  and  300  taken  prisoners,  besides  a, 
of  cannon.  The  Amer^n  loss,  was  100. 


DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  529 

r 

Princeton  College  (properly  the  College  of  New  Jersey),  was  founded 
under  the  auspices  of  the  Presbyterian  Synod  of  New  York  and  chartered  in 
1746  and  again  in  1748.  It  suffered  greatly  during  the  Revolution  and  its 
main  building  was  used  as  a  hospital  and  as  barracks.  The  college  continued 
weak  till  the  presidency  of  Dr.  Jas.  McCosh,  who  assumed  charge  in  1868. 
His  administration  was  marked  by  great  energy  and  activity.  New  buildings 
were  erected,  the  endowment  largely  increased  and  the  curriculum  improved 
and  enlarged.  Its  theological  seminary  was  founded  in  1812  and  is  now  well 
endowed  and  equipped.  James  Madison  was  graduated  here  in  1771. 

Printing,  First.  The  first  printing  press  in  the  American  colonies  was 
established  by  Stephen  Day  at  Cambridge,  Mass.,  in  1638.  Its  first  produc- 
tions were  the  Freeman's  Oath,  a  calendar,  and  the  Bay  Psalm-book.  In 
1685,  William  Bradford  established  his  printing  press  in  Philadelphia.  Its 
first  issue  was  the  Kalendarium  PennSilvaniense. 

f* 

Printing  Presses.     Previous  to  the  Revolution  all  presses  were  built  on 

the  same  plan — a  flat  platen,  impressing  against  type  arranged  on  a  flat  bed. 
Impressions  were  obtained  with  a  screw,  and  fifty  an  hour  was  the  maxi- 
mum capacity.  In  1810,  Kcenig  substituted  the  revolving  cylinder  for  the 
platen,  and  obtained  1000  per  hour  in  the  London  Times  office.  Steam 
printing  presses  were  first  used  by  the  New  York  Sun  in  1835.  Hoe's  press 
inventions  of  1828  and  1847  made  possible  20,000  per  hour,  and  Craske's 
discoveries  in  1861  in  papier  mache  stereotyping  increased  the  rapidity  of 
the  presses.  Improvements  were  continually  made  in  the  Hoe,  Walter  and 
Bullock  presses,  and  the  first  perfecting  Hoe  press  was  erected  for  the  New 
York  Commercial  Advertiser  in  1880;  capacity  20,000  per  hour. 

Printz,  Johan  (1600-1663),  came  to  America  from  Sweden,  and  was  Gov- 
ernor of  the  Swedish  colony  on  the  Delaware  from  1641  to  1654.  His  rule 
was  marked  by  great  military  and  commercial  advancement. 

Prisons.  The  prisons  of  the  United  States  down  to  the  year  1786,  and 
in  most  States  later,  shared  the  evil  arrangements  common  in  the  prisons  of 
Europe.  (For  an  instance,  see  Simsbury.)  In  1786  the  first  penitentiary 
was  established,  that  of  Philadelphia,  and  before  long  the  Pennsylvania 
system  became  famous  as  the  best  in  the  world. 

Privateers.  In  the  "colonial  wars  Great  Britain  derived  great  advantage 
from  the  colonial  privateers.  Upward  of  400  privateers,  which  were  fitted 
out  in  the  ports  of  the  British  colonies,  did  great  damage  to  French  prop- 
erty, ravaging  the  West  India  Islands  belonging  to  France,  and  making 
numerous  captures  along  the  coast  of  France  herself.  After  the  breaking 
out  of  the  Revolution,  the  Continental  Congress  decided  in  March,  1776, 
that  permission  be  accorded  to  citizens  to  fit  out  privateers  against  the 
British.  Privateers  were  therefore  fitted  out  at  Salem,  Cape  Ann,  Newbury- 
port,  Bristol  and  other  seaport  towns,  and  greatly  aided  by  their  ravagings 
the  revolutionary  cause.  During  the  year  1776  American  privateers  cap- 
tured 342  British  vessels,  and  these  privateer  adventures  became  so  lucrative 
that  the  sailors  could  scarcely  be  induced  to  enter  the  national  service- 
January  28,  1778,  an  American  privateer  assailed  in,  the  night  the  British 

34 


530  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

fort  of  New  Providence,  in  the  Bahamas,  capturing  the  fort  and  a  sixteen- 
gun  man-of-war.  Hardly  had  the  War  of  1812  been  declared  when  priva- 
teers began  to  be  fitted  out,  small  vessels  most  of  them,  which  chiefly 
infested  the  West  Indies,  capturing  British  craft  of  every  description.  The 
privateers  were  usually  schooners  or  brigs  of  200  or  300  tons,  carrying  from 
80  to  loo  men.  Twenty-six  were  fitted  out  in  New  York  in  the  summer 
of  1812.  The  list  of  all  private  armed  vessels  during  the  entire  War  of  ^812 
numbers  more  than  500.  In  1813,  of  400  British  vessels  captured,  four- 
fifths  were  taken  by  privateers.  The  "  Reindeer,"  "  Avon  "  and  "  Blakeley," 
built  near  Boston  in  1814  in  an  incredibly  short  time,  were  fair  samples 
of  the  privateers  of  the  later  years  of  the  war.  They  were  larger  and 
better  equipped  than  the  earlier  privateers.  They  did  not  confine  their  cap- 
tures to  merchant  vessels,  but  boldly  attacked  and  often  defeated  British  war 
ships.  They  hung  about  the  coasts ,  of  the  West  Indies  and  the  Canary 
Islands  and  even  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  doing  immense  damage  to 
the  British  cause. 

Privy  Council.  This  body,  the  constitutional  advisers  of  the  British 
king,  was  from  1700  superseded  for  the  most  important  business  by  the  cabi- 
net. But  it  still  retained  one  important  function  with  respect  to  the  colonies. 
One  of  its  four  committees  had  cognizance,  as  a  judicial  court,  of  appeals 
from  the  highest  colonial  courts.  It  is  not  known  that  appeals  to  the 
King  in  Council  were  taken  from  colonial  courts  before  1675.  Some  of  the 
colonies  refused  to  concede  such  appeals  until  after  this.  But  later  statutes 
granted  such  appeal  in  all  cases  involving  more  than  a  certain  sum,  usually 
two  hundred  or  three  hundred  pounds. 

Prize  Causes,  Court  of  Appeal  in.  (See  Court  of  Appeal  in  Cases  of 
Capture.) 

Prize  Courts.  During  the  colonial  wars,  cases  of  prize  were  adjudged  by 
the  admiralty  courts  held  by  the  colonial  governors  as  vice-admirals,  or  by 
judges  whom  they  appointed,  with  appeal  to  commissioners  in  England. 
On  the  beginning  of  naval  warfare  and  privateering  in  the  Revolution,  the 
States  erected  admiralty  courts  to  deal  with  this  class  of  cases.  The  Con- 
tinental Congress  established  a  court  of  appeal  for  such  causes  when  in 
dispute  between  States.  Under  the  Judiciary  Act  of  1789,  the  U.  S.  District 
Courts  were  made  prize  courts,  with  appeal  to  the  Supreme  Court. 

Proctor,  Henry  A.  (1787-1859),  came  to  America  in  1812  as  colonel  in 
the  British  army.  He  repulsed  General  Hull  at  Amherstburg,  and  gained 
victories  at  Brownstown  and  at  the  River  Raisin.  He  was  repulsed  from  Fort 
Meigs  by  General  Harrison  and  by  Major  Croghan  from  Fort  Stephenson  in 
1813,  and  totally  defeated  by  General  Harrison  at  the  battle  of  the  Thames. 

Proctor,  Redfield,  born  in  1831,  was  Governor  of  Vermont  in  1878.  He 
was  Secretary  of  War  in  Harrison's  Cabinet  from  1889  to  1891,  when  he 
became  a  U.  S.  Senator. 

Progressive  Labor  Party,  the  radical,  or  socialistic  element  that  withdrew 
from  the  United  Labor  Party  at  Syracuse,  N.  Y.,  August  19,  1886.  They 
advocated  a  common  inheritance  of  land  and  wealth  an4  industries,  and 
upheld  all  the  tenets  of  extreme  socialism. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  531 

Prohibition  appeared  first  as  an  issue  in  purely  State  politics  in  the  Maine 
Legislature  in  1837,  a  prohibitory  bill  being  introduced,  but  defeated.  Later, 
in  1846  (permanently  in  1851),  a  prohibitory  law  was  passed  in  Maine.  Fol- 
lowing the  lead  of  Maine,  prohibitory  laws  were  enacted  between  1850  and 
1856,  in  Rhode  Island,  Massachusetts,  Vermont,  Michigan,  New  York,  Iowa 
and  Connecticut.  Other  States  have  tried  the  experiment  and  local  option 
has  been  established  in  some  of  the  towns  and  counties  of  these  and  many 
other  States.  Prohibition  first  appeared  as  a  national  issue  during  the  session 
of  the  Right  Worthy  Grand  Lodge  of  Good  Templars,  held  in  Oswego,  N.  Y., 
May  25,  1869.  A  committee  was  appointed  to  issue  a  call  for  a  convention. 
This  convention  assembled  at  Chicago,  September  i,  1869,  an(^  formed  the 
National  Prohibition  Reform  party.  The  first  nominating  convention  of  this 
party  was  held  at  Columbus,  O.,  February  22,  1872.  James  Black,  of  Penn- 
sylvania, was  nominated  for  President  and  polled  5608  votes.  Prohibition 
has  largely  entered  into  both  national  and  State  politics  since  that  time,  but 
is  most  influential  in  the  States.  In  1876  Henry  W.  Blair,  of  New  Hamp- 
shire, introduced  into  the  House  a  joint  resolution  to  amend  the  Federal 
Constitution  by  prohibiting  from  and  after  1900  the  manufacture  and  sale  of 
distilled  alcoholic  intoxicating  liquors.  It  was  not  adopted.  In  national 
politics  the  Prohibition  vote  has  steadily  increased.  In  1876  its  Presidential 
candidate,  Green  Clay  Smith,  received  9522  votes;  in  1880  Neal  Dow  received 
10,305;  in  1884  John  P.  St.  John,  150,369;  in  1888  Clinton  B.  Fiske,  250,- 
290;  in  1892  John  Bidwell,  268,361. 

"  Propagation  of  the  Gospel,"  Societies  for.  The  first  of  these  societies 
was  organized  July  27,  1649,  under  the  title  of  "  Corporation  for  Promoting 
and  Propagating  the  Gospel  among  the  Indians  of  New  England."  It  was 
dissolved  in  1661.  Its  chief  publications  were  what  are  known  as  the 
"  Eliot  Tracts,"  John  Eliot  being  one  of  the  moving  spirits  in  American 
mission  work  among  the  Indians  at  that  time.  The  second  society  of  this 
kind  was  organized  April  7,  1662,  and  was  called  "  Corporation  for  the 
Propagation  of  the  Gospel  in  New  England  and  Parts  Adjacent  in  America." 
It  still  exists.  Its  work  was  broken  up  for  a  time  by  the  American  Revo- 
lution, but  was  continued  in  New  Brunswick.  The  third,  the  "  Society  for 
the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel  in  Foreign  Parts,"  was  chartered  June  16, 
1701,  and  long  maintained  a  useful  missionary  activity  in  the  American 
colonies.  The  fourth  and  last  society  of  this  sort  was  incorporated  by  the 
State  of  Massachusetts  in  1778,  and  was  known  as  the  "Society  for  Propa- 
gating the  Gospel  among  the  Indians  and  Others  in  North  America."  The 
influence  of  these  societies  was  widely  felt  and  tended  to  promote  mission- 
ary movements  in  the  different  colonies. 

Proprietaries.  Many  proprietary  governments  were  instituted  in  America 
by  the  crown,  as  in  New  York,  New  Jersey  and  the  Carolinas,  but  only 
Pennsylvania,  Delaware  and  Maryland  remained  such  until  the  time  of  the 
Revolution.  In  proprietary  governments,  the  proprietor  appointed  the  Gov- 
ernor, and  in  general  performed  all  those  acts  of  government  which  in  royal 
governments  were  performed  by  the  crown.  The  laws  of  Pennsylvania  and 
Delaware  were  subject  to  the  supervision  and  control  of  the  crownj  those  of 
Maryland  were  not. 


532  DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Protection.  The  American  Government  has  maintained  the  policy  of 
protection  during  all  its  history,  except  during  the  years  from  the  establish- 
ment of  the  Walker  tariff  of  1846  to  that  of  the  Merrill  tariff  of  1861.  The 
first  tariff,  that  of  1789,  was  one  in  which,  though  the  amount  of  protection 
was  moderate,  the  principle  of  protection  was  distinctly  recognized.  From 
1824  to  1846  tariffs  were  arranged  in  accordance  with  the  American  system, 
i.  e.,  the  combination  of  protection  with  the  policy  of  internal  improvements 
at  national  expense.  (See  art.  Tariff.) 

Protestant  Episcopal  Church.  This  is  the  name  of  what  may  be  called 
the  Church  of  England  in  America.  Its  history  begins  with  the  settlement 
at  Jamestown  (1607),  among  whose  settlers  was,a  clergyman,  Rev.  R.  Hunt, 
who  labored  zealously  in  the  colony  throughout  -his  life.  The  clergy  were 
supported  by  grants  from  the  Legislature,  and  afterward  by  tithes,  and  the 
interests  of  the  church  were  carefully  fostered  by  the  Virginia  Company  and 
by  the  successive  royal  governors.  William  and  Mary  College  was  char- 
tered in  1692  in  order  to  educate  the  clergy  for  the  colonial  churches. 
By  1701  Maryland  for  the  most  part  had  become  Episcopal  and  attempts 
were  soon  made  to  establish  the  church  in  the  more  southern  colonies,  but 
with  poor  success.  In  New  York  City  Trinity  Church  was  founded  1696, 
and  generally  throughout  the  Middle  States  the  church  was  spread  through 
the  agency  of  the  "  Society  for  Propagating  the  Gospel,"  chartered  1701.  By 
the  time  of  the  Revolution  there  had  been  established  in  New  England 
thirty-six  churches.  This  war  greatly  lessened  the  influence  of  the  church, 
which  naturally  was  English  in  sympathy,  but  in  1785  the  first  general  con- 
vention was  held  and  remodeled  the  organization  to  suit  the  new  political 
condition.  Two  years  later  American  bishops  were  consecrated  in  London 
(Seabury  in  Scotland  in  1784),  and  thus  the  formal  organization  of  the 
American  church  was  completed.  During  the  next  twenty  years  the  church 
lost  almost  all  its  power  through  dissension  and  the  withdrawal  of  State  aid, 
but  from  that  time  on  a  steady  growth  has  been  manifest,  and  the  church  in 
1890  numbered  532,000  communicants. 

Protocol.  A  document  serving  as  a  preliminary  to,  or  opening  of,  a  diplo-' 
inatic  transaction.  The  peace  protocol  of  the  Spanish-American  War  was 
signed  August  12,  1898. 

Providence,  R.  I. ,  was  settled  in  1636  by  Roger  Williams  and  his  company, 
who  were  forced  to  leave  Massachusetts  because  of  their  religious  opinions. 
The  town  was  nearly  destroyed  by  the  Indians  in  1676.  Providence  was 
incorporated  as  a  city  in  1832.  Brown  University  was  removed  hither  in  1770. 

Providence  Plantations.  March  14,  1644,  Roger  Williams  obtained  from 
the  Parliamentary  Commissioners  a  patent  which  associated  the  towns  of 
Providence,  Portsmouth  and  Newport  in  one  community,  though  it  pre- 
scribed no  criterion  of  citizenship,  and  no  form  of  organization.  Massa- 
chusetts claimed  these  settlements  in  the  Narragansett  Country,  but  failed 
to  make  good  her  claim.  Plymouth  also  threatened  trouble  concerning  the 
ownership  of  the  territory.  Williams  endeavored  to  institute  a  system  of 
government,  but  the  scheme  proved  a  failure  at  first.  The  Providence  Plan- 
tations remained  distinct  from  the  Rhode  Island  colony  until  they  were 
united  under  the  charter  of  1663. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  533 

Prox,  or  Proxy.  In  old  Rhode  Island  usage,  a  list  of  candidates  at  an 
election,  a  ticket,  or  ballot;  in  Connecticut,  an  election,  or  election-day. 

Prussia.  ^  The  United  States  concluded  with  Prussia  treaties  of  amity  and 
commerce  in  1785  and  1799,  and  a  treaty  of  commerce  and  navigation  in 
1828.  Prussia  joined  with  the  other  German  States  in  an  extradition  con- 
vention in  1852. 

Pruyn,  Robert  H.  (1815-1882),  served  in  the  New  York  Assembly  from 
1848  to  1850  and  in  1854.  He  was  Minister  to  Japan  from  1861  to  1865, 
and  greatly  increased  American  power  in  the  East. 

Pryor,  Roger  A.,  born  in  1828,  was  a  special  commissioner  to  Greece  in 
1855.  He  represented  Virginia  in  the  U.  S.  Congress  as  a  Democrat  from 
1859  to  1861.  He  became  a  brigadier-general  in  the  Confederate  service, 
and  since  the  war  has  been  a  prominent  lawyer  in  New  York. 

Public  Land.     (See  No  Man's  Land.) 

"  Publick  Occurrences,  both  Foreign  and  Domestick,"  the  first  news- 
paper published  in  America,  though  it  can  hardly  be  called  a  newspaper,  as 
no  second  number  appeared.  It  was  issued  at  Boston  in  1690  by  Benjamin 
Harris  and  printed  by  Richard  Pierce.  A  year  earlier  there  had  been  pub- 
lished at  Boston,  by  Samuel  Green,  extracts  from  a  letter  of  Dr.  Increase 
Mather,  who  was  then  endeavoring  to  secure  a  new  charter  for  Massachusetts. 
Publick  Occurrences,  four  days  after  its  appearance,  was  spoken  of  in  the 
General  Court  of  Massachusetts  as  a  pamphlet  published  "  contrary  to  law 
and  containing  reflections  of  a  very  high  nature."  It  was  accordingly  sup- 
pressed, though  the  contents  were  innocent  enough,  and  the  court  forbade 
"  anything  in  print  without  license  obtained  from  those  appointed  by  the 
Government  to  grant  the  same."  Publick  Occurrences  was  printed  on  three 
pages  of  a  folded  sheet,  one  page  being  blank,  two  columns  to  a  page,  7x11. 
It  was  designed  for  a  monthly  issue. 

Puebla,  Mexico,  occupied  at  the  close  of  the  Mexican  War  by  500  Ameri- 
can soldiers  under  Colonel  Childs.  General  Santa  Anna,  after  evacuating 
the  city  of  Mexico,  besieged  this  place  from  September  24  to  October  I, 
1847,  hoping  to  take  it  and  thus  cut  off  Scott's  communications  with  Vera 
Cruz.  The  siege  was  ineffectual. 

Pueblo  Indians,  early  inhabited  what  is  now  New  Mexico.  They  have 
always  been  in  a  state  of  semi-civilization  and  by  a  decision  of  the  Supreme 
Court  in  1857  were  declared  citizens  of  the  United  States.  They  have 
invariably  been  peaceful  and  friendly  to  the  whites. 

Pueblos,  the  purely  civic  colonies  established  in  California  by  the  Spanish. 
They  were  so  called  to  distinguish  them  from  the  missiones  and  presidios. 
Pueblo  lands  were  vested,  either  by  proprietary  right  in  the  individual,  or  in 
companies  of  individuals,  reserving  to  them  certain  rights  as  citizens  and 
colonists.  The  first  settlers  were  also  allowed  money  and  supplies  to  start 
on.  The  first  pueblo  settlement  in  Alta  California  was  made  in  1771.  The 
inhabitants  of  pueblos  were  permitted  by  a  decree  of  Philip  II.,  of  Spain,  to 
elect  their  own  magistrates,  of  whom  the  alcalde  was  the  chief.  Lands 


534  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

outside  the  pueblo  grants  were  reserved  to  the  king,  but  might  be  used  as 
a  common  pasturage. 

Pugh,  George  E.  (1822-1876),  was  an  aide  to  General  Lane  in  the  Mexican 
War.  He  represented  Ohio  in  the  U.  S.  Senate  as  a  Democrat  from  1855  to 
1861. 

Pugh,  James  L.,  born  in  1820,  represented  Alabama  in  the  U.  S.  Congress 
as  a  Democrat  from  1859  to  1861.  He  served  in  the  Confederate  Senate 
from  1862  to  1865.  He  has  been  a  member  of  the  U.  S.  Senate  from  1879 
to  the  present  time  (1897). 

Pulaski,  Kazimierz  (1748-1779),  was  outlawed  for  leading  the  insurgents 
in  Poland,  and  came  to  America  in  1777.  He  was  placed  on  Washington's 
staff  and  rendered  valuable  assistance  at  Brandywine  and  Germantown. 
From  1777  to  1778  he  served  under  General  Wayne  as  a  brigadier-general. 
He  was  given  command  of  a  body  of  foreigners,  deserters  and  prisoners 
of  war,  which  became  famous  as  "  Pulaski's  legion."  He  made  a  vigorous 
but  unsuccessful  attack  on  the  British  at  Charleston  in  1779.  He  com- 
manded the  French  and  American  cavalry  in  the  siege  of  Savannah  and  was 
mortally  wounded. 

Pulaski,  Fort,  opposite  Savannah,  Ga.,  captured  after  a  bombardment  of 
fifteen  hours  by  the  Union  commander  Gillmore,  April  10,  1862.  Savannah 
was  thus  cut  off  from  the  outside  world  and  remained  in  possession  of  the 
Federals. 

Puritans.  The  name  Puritans  was  first  used  in  England  to  designate 
those  Protestant  members  of  the  Church  of  England  who,  while  not  desiring 
to  separate  from  or  to  destroy  the  existing  establishment,  desired  to  see  it 
infused  with  a  spirit  of  greater  earnestness  and  purged  of  many  still-remain- 
ing Catholic  ceremonies.  The  settlers  of  Massachusetts  Bay  came  from  this 
set,  which  is  not  to  be  confounded  with  the  Separatists  or  Independents,  from 
whom  the  Pilgrim  Fathers  came.  The  Separatists  were  the  extreme  wing 
of  the  Puritan  party,  we  may  say,  so  extreme  that  they  preferred  to  abandon 
the  Established  Church,  and  would  gladly  have  seen  it  abolished.  As  the 
contest  in  England  went  on,  and  deepened  into  civil  war,  the  Puritans  mostly 
became  either  Presbyterians  or  Independents.  Similarly  in  America  circum- 
stances made  of  the  settlers  at  the  Bay  a  body  of  Independents  whose  ecclesi- 
astical polity  did  not  differ  from  that  of  the  Plymouth  Pilgrims.  The 
Puritan  spirit  was  one  of  severe  moral  earnestness,  united  with  a  Calvinistic 
theology.  Their  opposition  to  amusements  grew  more  and  more  severe,  and 
the  persecuting  spirit  prevailed  among  them.  Toward  the  end  of  the 
century,  Puritanism  in  Massachusetts  began  to  relax.  In  New  Haven  it  was 
more  rigid  than  in  Massachusetts;  in  Connecticut  somewhat  less  so.  Rhode 
Island  was  partly  Puritan  in  sentiment  (using  Puritan  in  the  general,  or 
English  sense),  but  never  under  control  of  the  Puritans.  In  the  other 
colonies  there  were  some  Puritan  settlements,  as  at  Newark  in  New  Jersey, 
at  Providence  (Annapolis)  in  Maryland,  and  at  Dorchester  in  South  Carolina. 

Putnam,  Israel  (1718-1790),  a  Revolutionary  general,  was  born  at  Dan- 
vers,  Mass.,  and  settled  as  a  farmer  in  northeastern  Connecticut,  near  Pomfret 


DICTIONARY?  OF  UNITUD  STATES  HISTORY.  535 

Putnam's  early  life  is  associated  with  many  romantic  episodes,  the  wolf  hunt, 
his  service  in  the  French  and  Indian  War  with  Rogers'  Rangers,  his  rescue 
of  Fort  Edward,  and  his  narrow  escape  from  death  by  burning  while  a 
prisoner  of  the  Indians.  He  was  in  command  of  a  regiment'  with  General 
Amherst  in  the  Canadian  campaign  of  1760.  In  the  stirring  times  following 
he  was  one  of  the  chief  "  Sons  of  Liberty."  How  at  the  news  of  Lexington 
he  dropped  his  plough  and  rode  in  a  day  to  Cambridge  is  a  fireside  story. 
Putnam  was  made  commander  of  the  Connecticut  troops  and  a  brigadier. 
He  commanded  at  Bunker  Hill  conjointly  with  Colonel  Prescott.  Forthwith 
he  was  appointed  one  of  the  major-generals, \and  had  charge  of  the  centre  in 
the  siege  of  Boston.  In  the  defence  of  Long  Island  he  was  entrusted  with 
the  works  on  Brooklyn  Heights,  and  in  the  retreat  from  New  York  his  name 
is  often  mentioned.  For  a  short  time  he  was  Governor  of  Philadelphia,  and 
was  then  in  1777  placed  in  command  of  the  defences  in  the  Highlands  of 
the  Hudson.  He  was  engaged  in  the  repulse  of  Tryon's  troops  in  the  south- 
west of  Connecticut,  in  connection  with  which  is  related  the  somewhat 
apocryphal  story  of  Putnam's  escape  on  horseback  down  a  flight  of  stone 
steps. 

Putnam,  Rufus  (1738-1824),  of  Massachusetts,  was  appointed  lieutenant- 
colonel  in  1775.  He  superintended  the  construction  of  defences  about  New 
York  and  at  West  Point.  He  fought  at  Stillwater  and  served  under  General 
Wayne.  Afterward  he  was  prominent  in  the  settlement  of  Ohio. 

Pynchon,  John  (1621-1703),  came  to  America  from  England  in  1630  and 
became  chief  magistrate  at  Springfield  in  1652.  He  rendered  great  assist- 
ance during  the  Indian  Wars.  He  was  an  assistant  under  the  Massachusetts 
charter  from  1665  to  1686. 

Pynchon,  William  (1590-1662),  came  to  New  England  from  England  in 
1630.  He  founded  a  settlement  at  Springfield,  Mass.,  in  1636.  He  was 
given  the  government  of  the  settlement  in  1640,  and  managed  affairs  very 
successfully.  While  in  England  in  1650,  he  published  "The  Meritorious 
Price  of  Our  Redemption,"  which  caused  great  excitement  as  being  heretical. 


Q. 

Quackenbush,  Stephen  P.  (1823-1890),  U.  S.  Navy,  had  charge  of  the 
"  Delaware,"  the  "  Unadilla,"  the  "  Pequot,"  the  "  Patapsco "  and  the 
"  Mingo."  He  fought  at  Roanoke  Island,  Winton,  Malvern  Hill  and  Harri- 
son's Landing,  and  captured  the  "  Princess  Royal." 

Quaker  Hill,  Battle  of,  August  29,  1778.  On  the  night  of  August  28, 
the  Americans  on  Rhode  Island  fell  back  toward  Butts  Hill  at  the  northern 
end  of  the  island.  Contrary  to  Greene's  advice  the  enemy  were  allowed  to 
occupy  Quaker  and  Turkey  Hills.  From  these  hills  the  British  assailed  the 
Americans,  but  were  repulsed  and  driven  back  to  Turkey  Hill.  The  hottest 
of  the  battle  took  place  on  the  low  ground  between  the  hills.  The  Ameri- 
can loss  in  killed  and  wounded  was  206;  that  of  the  British  222. 


536  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Quaker  Road,  Va.,  among. the  last  of  the  battles  of  the  celebrated  cam- 
paign of  the  Civil  War  about  Richmond  and  Petersburg.  It  occurred 
March  29,  1865,  Grant  having  ordered  a  general  advance  of  his  left  against 
the  Confederate  lines  in  order  to  intercept  Lee's  meditated  withdrawal  to 
North  Carolina.  Warren's  corps,  while  pushing  along  the  Quaker  Road  to 
strike  the  Boydton  Road,  fell  in  with  a  body  of  Confederates.  The  latter 
were  defeated  and  100  prisoners  taken. 

Quakers.     (See  Friends.) 

Quarantine.  In  the  United  States  quarantine  enactments  were  passed  by 
the  colonial  legislatures  and  afterward  for  many  years  by  the  States.  The 
first  national  quarantine  act  was  passed  February  23,  1799,  requiring  Federal 
officers  to  aid  in  the  execution  of  State  or  municipal  quarantine  regulations. 
April  29,  1878,  a  national  quarantine  act  was  passed.  March  3,  1883, 
$100,000  were  appropriated  for  maintaining  quarantine  points  along  the 
coast.  On  September  I,  1892,  owing  to  the  presence  of  cholera,  President 
Harrison  proclaimed  a  twenty-days'  quarantine  of  New  York. 

Quarter  Dollar.  Its  issue  was  authorized  (weight  104  grains)  by  Con- 
gress in  1792,  and  its  coinage  was  begun  in  1796.  It  was  reduced  to  93 
grains  in  1853.  This  coin  is  legal  tender  to  the  amount  of  ten  dollars. 
There  were  no  issues  of  the  quarter  dollar  during  the  years  1798  to  1803 
inclusive,  1808  to  1815  inclusive,  1817,  1824,  1826  and  1830. 

Quarter  Eagle,  a  gold  coin  of  the  value  of  two  and  a  "half  dollars,  author- 
ized in  1792,  coinage  begun  1796.  The  weight  was  slightly  reduced  in 
1834.  The  reverse  of  this  coin  contains  a  figure  of  the  national  bird,  and 
hence  the  name  of  the  coin.  As  a  legal  tender  the  value  of  this  coin  is 
unlimited.  No  coinage  1800,  1801,  1809  to  1821.  • 

Quartering  Acts.  In  1765  Parliament  passed  an  act  compelling  the  col- 
onies to  provide  the  garrisons  in  America  with  fire,  candles,  vinegar,  salt, 
bedding,  cooking  utensils  and  liquors.  It  was  the  first  act  requiring  the 
colonies  to  tax  themselves  for  imperial  objects.  In  1774  an  act  was  passed 
legalizing  the  quartering  of  troops  in  the  town  of  Boston.  Both  acts  were 
most  distasteful  to  the  colonists. 

Quay,  Matthew  S.,  born  in  1833,  attained  the  rank  of  colonel  during  the 
Civil  War.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Pennsylvania  Legislature  from  1864 
to  1866,  Secretary  of  the  State  from  1873  to  1878  and  from  1879  to  1882, 
and  State  Treasurer  in  1885.  He  was  elected  to  the  U.  S.  Senate  as  a 
Republican  in  1887  and  re-elected  in  1893. 

Quebec.  In  June,  1759,  Wolfe  appeared  before  Quebec  with  4000  men  and 
a  fleet.  The  French  under  Montcalm,  numbering  16,000,  held  all  the  heights 
on  the  north  bank  of  the  river.  Wolfe  seized  the  heights  on  the  south,  thus 
commanding  the  basin  and  getting  his  artillery  trained  on  the  town.  The 
French  plan  was  the  defensive.  Wolfe  got  his  ships  past  the  city,  making 
the  line  of  defence  longer.  He  also  entrenched  himself  on  the  French  left 
and  made  a  furious  assault  at  Montmorenci  (q.  v.)  As  the  season  wore  on  he 
was  obliged  to  strike  a  blow  before  winter.  This  he  did  on  September  13, 
and  gained  a  decisive  advantage  on  the  Plains  of  Abraham  (q.  v.)  The 


DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  537 

French  were  disorganized.  Vaudreuil  proved  incompetent  and  ordered  the 
garrison  to  capitulate  when  provision  gave  out.  This  the  gallant  Ramesay 
was  forced  to  do  just  as  aid  came  from  Montreal.  The  citadel  capitulated 
September  17,  1759.  The  English  garrisoned  the  place.  The  French  made 
an  attempt  to  regain  it  the  following  spring,  but  were  driven  back.  The 
fall  of  the  citadel  was  the  death-blow  to  French  power  in  North  America. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  Revolution,  as  a  part  of  the  scheme  for  the  conquest 
of  Canada,  a  force  was  sent  against  Quebec  under  Benedict  Arnold.  After 
numberless  privations,  he  arrived  at  Quebec  on  November  13,  1775,  and 
drew  up  for  battle  the  700  men  who  remained  of  his  force.  December  3 
Montgomery  came  with  500  men,  and  on  December  31  a  furious  attack  was 
made  upon  the  town  from  opposite  sides.  The  repulse  was  due  mainly  to 
the  unfortunate  death  of  General  Montgomery.  Arnold  also  was  severely 
wounded.  The  expedition  was  a  blank  failure. 

Quebec  Act,  an  act  of  the  British  parliament  in  1774,  designed  to  prevent 
that  newly  acquired  province  from  joining  for  freedom  with  the  other 
colonies.  The  property  of  the  Catholic  church  was  guaranteed  to  it,  and  the 
boundaries  of  Quebec  were  extended  to  the  Mississippi  River  on  the  west, 
and  to  the  Ohio  on  the  south,  beside  the  present  Canada.  This  was  the 
territory  now  included  in  the  five  States  northwest  of  the  Ohio. 

Queen  Anne's  War.  In  1702  there  broke  out  in  Europe  the  war  of  the 
Spanish  succession,  which  was  known  in  this-  country  as  Queen  Anne's  War. 
It  was  chiefly  a  series  of  bushranging  skirmishes  between  the  frontiersmen 
of  the  English  and  French  settlements.  In  1704  and  1705  James  Moore, 
of  South  Carolina,  with  50  whites  and  1000  Creek  Indians,  attacked  and 
destroyed  several  Spanish  settlements  in  Florida.  The  French  retaliated  by 
a  water  attack  on  Charleston  in  1706,  but  they  were  easily  defeated  and 
driven  away.  In  1704  a  body  of  350  Canadians  and  Indians  massacred  the 
inhabitants  of  Deerfield,  Mass.  Three  attempts  were  made  by  New  England 
troops,  1704,  1707  and  1710,  to  capture  Acadia,  the  last  proving  successful. 
The  war  was  ended  by  the  Treaty  of  Utrecht  in  1713. 

Queenstown,  Ontario.  General  Van  Rensselaer,  in  command  of  the  Ameri- 
can troops  on  the  Niagara  frontier,  mustered  nearly  6000  men  at  or  near 
Lewiston.  On  the  night  of  October  12,  1812,  he  sent  over  about  1000 
men  to  attack  Queenstown  preparatory  to  a  further  invasion  of  Canada. 
General  Brock,  the  capturer  of  Detroit,  in  person  commanded  the  British 
forces,  but  was  killed  early  in  the  action.  The  rest  of  the  American  troops 
refused  to  cross  the  river,  and  the  attacking  party,  overpowered  by  numbers, 
was  compelled  to  surrender.  The  American  loss  in  killed  and  wounded 
was  190,  in  prisoners  900;  the  British  lost  about  130  killed,  wounded  and 
prisoners. 

Quids.  The  name  applied  to  a  faction  of  the  Republican  party,  led  by 
John  Randolph  from  1805  to  1811.  They  were  opposed  to  the  nomination 
of  Madison,  Jefferson's  choice  for  the  succession.  They  declared  war  on  the 
administration  party  in  1806,  as  governing  Congress  by  backstairs  influence. 
From  that  time  they  were  called  "  quids,"  or  the  tertium  quid,  as  distin- 
guished from  the  two  great  parties.  They  opposed  the  restrictive  system, 


538  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

and  nominated  Monroe  in.  1808.  Their  leading  ground  of  divergence  from 
the  administration  was  that  it  had  moved  away  from  the  ground  occupied 
by  the  party  when  in  opposition,  and  in  the  direction  of  centralization  and 
federal  encroachment. 

Quincy,  Josiah  (1744-1775),  of  Boston,  attained  high  rank  as  a  lawyer.  He 
denounced  the  Stamp  Act  and  other  oppressive  measures  of  Parliament  in  a 
series  of  articles  in  the  Boston  Gazette,  signed  "Hyperion."  In  1770  he 
defended  Captain  Preston  and  the  British  soldiers  implicated  in  the  Boston 
Massacre.  In  1774  he  published  an  able  work  entitled  "  Observations  on 
the  Boston  Port  Bill,"  which  clearly  indicated  war  and  American  independ- 
ence as  the  final  result  of  the  controversies.  In  1774  he  went  to  England 
as  a  confidential  agent  of  the  colonial  patriots,  and  was  active  in  strengthen- 
ing the  American  cause,  but  died  on  his  return. 

Quincy,  Josiah  (1772-1864),  was  the  son  of  the  Revolutionary  patriot  of 
the  same  name,  and  graduated  at  Harvard.  Very  early  in  life  he  began  a 
political  career,  was  a  member  of  the  Massachusetts  Legislature,  and  after  a 
defeat  entered  Congress  in  1805.  He  was  a  Federalist  and  in  sympathy 
with  the  Essex  Junto.  During  his  Congressional  service,  which  lasted  until 
1813,  he  made  many  notable  speeches,  particularly  against  the  Embargo, 
on  the  Louisiana  question,  and  in  support  of  the  navy.  From  1823  to  1828, 
Mr.  Quincy  was  mayor  of  Boston,  and  from  1829  to  1845,  president  of  Har- 
vard College,  where  he  favored  the  elective  system,  introduced  marking 
regulations,  and  acquired  the  great  telescope.  He  wrote  histories  of  Harvard 
College  and  of  Boston. 

Quint,  a  silver  coin  equal  to  about  thirty-five  cents  and  weighing  five 
pennyweights,  fifteen  grains,  presented  to  the  Continental  Congress  in  1783, 
by  Robert  Morris  for  consideration  as  a  national  coin,  but  not  accepted. 
Obverse:  an  eye,  thirteen  points  cross,  equidistant,  a  circle  of  as  many  stars. 
Legend:  Nova  Constellatio.  Reverse:  U.  S.  500.,  a  wreath  surrounding. 
Legend:  Libertas,  Justitia.  .  This  coin,  with  the  mark,  formed  the  Nova 
Constellatio  coinage. 

Quitman,  John  A.  (1799-1858),  was  chancellor  of  the  Mississippi  Superior 
Court  from  1828  to  1831,  and  from  1832  to  1835.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
Mississippi  Senate  in  1835,  and  ex-officio  Governor  for  a  time.  He  com- 
manded a  brigade  at  Monterey,  led  the  assault  at  Vera  Cruz,  commanded  at 
Alvarado,  and  stormed  Chapul tepee.  He  was  appointed  by  General  Scott 
Governor  of  the  City  of  Mexico.  He  was  Governor  of  Mississippi  from  1850 
to  1851,  and  served  in  the  U.  S.  Congress  as  a  Democrat  from  1855  to  1858. 
He  early  maintained  the  right  of  secession,  and  suggested  a  Southern 
Confederacy. 

Quivira,  an  Indian  town  of  the  sixteenth  century,  presumably  situated  in 
what  is  now  the  State  of  Kansas,  and  reputed  to  contain  fabulous  wealth. 
It  was  visited  by  twenty-nine  Spaniards  under  Coronado,  a  Spanish  leader, 
m  1541.  The  exploring  band  traveled  northward  through  Mexico  over  the 
plains  for  several  months,  led  by  wandering  Indian  tribes.  Quivira,  when 
finally  reached,  was  found  to  be  an  ordinary  Indian  village. 


DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  539 

Quorum.  During  the  first  fifty  Congresses  the  rule  requiring  the  presence 
of  a  quorum,  in  order  to  invalidate  the  proceedings,  had  been  interpreted  to 
mean  that  the  constitutional  quorum  (one-half),  was  shpwn  to  be  present  by 
the  count  of  votes.  In  September,  1890,  the  Speaker  (T.  B.  Reed,  of  Maine), 
ruled  that  he  might  decide  a  quorum  to  be  present  when  enough  members 
were  visibly  present,  though  some  did  not  vote. 


R. 

Rafn,  Karl  C.  (1795-1864),  Danish  archaeologist,  made  a  careful  study  of 
the  ancient  Norwegian  and  Icelandic  sagas,  especially  those  concerning  expe- 
ditions to  North  America.  He  held  that  the  Scandinavians  discovered 
America  in  the  tenth  century,  that  the  coast  as  far  as  Massachusetts  and 
Rhode  Island  had  been  partially  colonized,  and  that  the  Vikings  reached 
Florida.  His  best  known  work  is  "  Antiquitates  Americanse." 

Raguet,  Condy  (1784-1842),  of  Philadelphia,  was  U.  S.  Consul  at  Rio 
Janeiro  from  1822  to  1825,  and  charge  d'  affaires  from  1825  to  l8^7-  He 
negotiated  a  treaty  with  Brazil.  He  was  a  prominent  writer  on  free  trade. 

Railroads.  The  first  railroad  constructed  in  America  was  projected  by 
Gridley  Bryant  in  1825,  and  extended  from  Quincy,  Mass.,  to  the  nearest  tide- 
water. It  was  four  miles  long.  The  second  railroad  extended  from  mines  near 
Mauch  Chunk,  Pa.,  to  the  Lehigh  River.  It  was  begun  in  1827.  Stephen- 
son's  locomotive  came  into  use  in  1829,  and  by  1830  there  were  twenty-three 
miles  of  railroad  completed  in  the  United  States.  The  New  York  Central 
road  was  projected  in  '1825;  the  Boston  and  Albany  in  1827;  the  Baltimore 
and  Ohio  in  1828;  the  Pennsylvania  in  1827;  the  Maryland  and  South  Caro- 
lina in  1828.  In  1840  there  were  2200  miles  completed;  in  1850,  7500;  in 
1860,  29,000;  in  1870,  49,000;  in  1880,  93,671,  and  in  1893,  171,805  miles, 
showing  total  assets  of  $11,482,000,000.  The  consolidation  of  railway  com- 
panies began  in  1853,  forming  a  germ  of  the  grand  trunk  system.  Govern- 
ment aid  was  first  extended  to  railroads  in  1850,  in  the  case  of  the  Illinois 
Central,  by  a  large  land  grant.  In  1862  the  Union  Pacific  Company  was 
granted  both  land  and  pecuniary  aid.  To  the  Northern  Pacific  were  granted 
47,000,000  acres;  to  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  42,000,000  acres.  These  roads 
were  begun  in  1864  and  1866  respectively.  In  1869  Vanderbilt  consolidated 
the  Hudson  River  and  New  York  Central  roads,  forming  a  trunk  line  to  the 
West.  The  United  States  now  contains  about  one-half  of  the  railway  mile- 
age of  the  world. 

Rail- Splitter,  a  nickname  for  Abraham  Lincoln,  who  in  his  youth  earned 
money  to  educate  himself  by  splitting  rails  for  a  neighbor. 

Rains,  Gabriel  J.  (1803-1881),  served  during  the  Mexican  War.  He 
joined  the  Confederates  in  1861,  led  a  division  at  Wilson's  Creek,  and  served 
at  Shiloh,  Perryville  and  Seven  Pines. 

Rale.     (See  Rasle.) 


540 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 


Raleigh,  Sir  Walter  (1552-1618),  one  of  the  celebrated  Elizabethan  navi- 
gators, was  a  native  of  Devonshire.  He  served  with  the  French  Huguenots 
under  Coligny,  in  the  Netherlands,  and  in  Ireland.  His  first  scheme  to  col- 
onize America  failed  in  1579.  He  encouraged  the  ill-fated  expedition  of  his 
half-brother,  Gilbert,  and  soon  after,  in  1584,  despatched  Amidas  and  Barlow 
to  make  a  settlement.  This  attempt,  as  well  as  the  subsequent  one  of 
Grenville  and  Lane  in  1585,  and  that  of  White  in  1587,  all  under  Raleigh's 
auspices,  miscarried,  and  the  introduction  of  tobacco  and  potatoes  into 
Europe  were  the  chief  material  results.  Raleigh  led  an  expedition  up  the 
Orinoco,  served  at  Cadiz  and  against  the  Armada,  and  was  a  friend  of  Spen- 
ser, and  himself  an  author.  In  1603  he  was  disgraced  and  put  in  the  Tower, 
where  he  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  World."  Released  after  many  years,  he 
made  an  unfortunate  voyage  to  Guiana,  was  re-arrested  on  his  return  and 
executed. 

Raleigh,  N.  C.,  became  the  State  capital  in  1792.  It  was  founded  at  that 
time  for  that  purpose.  It  was  occupied  by  Sherman's  army  of  85,000 
Federals,  during  his  pursuit  of  Johnston  commanding  45,000  Confederate 
troops.  Sherman  passed  through  this  town  April  13,  1865,  and  encamped  a 
few  miles  beyond.  This  took  place  without  bloodshed,  as  Johnston's  army 
was  in  full  retreat  toward  Charlotte.  Kilpatrick's  cavalry  was  hurried  for- 
ward in  pursuit  of  the  retreating  Confederates. 

Rail,  Johann  G.  (1720  7-1776),  was  one  of  the  Hessians  hired  by  George 
III.  to  serve  in  America.  He  fought  at  White  Plains  and  Fort  Washington, 
and  was  surprised  and  killed  at  the  battle  of  Trenton. 

Rambouillet  Decree,  a  decree  issued  by  Napoleon,  March  23,  1810,  ordering 
the  immediate  seizure  and  sale  of  American  vessels,  whether  in  French  ports 
or  those  of  territories  occupied  by  French  armies.  This  decree  was  not 
known  in  the  United  States  until  July.  The  decree  was  issued  in  retaliation 
for  the  repeal  of  our  non-intercourse  act,  Napoleon  avowing  his  determina- 
tion to  prohibit  any  commercial  intercourse  with  the  allies  of  France  which 
was  not  enjoyed  by  that  country  also. 

Ramsay,  David  (1749-1815),  a  physician,  was  a  member  of  the  South 
Carolina  Legislature  from  1776  to  1783.  He  was  taken  prisoner  at  Charles- 
ton in  1780,  and  confined  eleven  months  as  a  hostage.  He  represented 
South  Carolina  in  the  Continental  Congress  from  1782  to  1786.  He  wrote 
a  "  History  of  the  American  Revolution,"  "  Life  of  George  Washington," 
"  History  of  South  Carolina  "  and  "  History  of  the  United  States." 

Ramsey,  Alexander,  born  in  1815,  represented  Pennsylvania  in  the  U.  S. 
Congress  as  a  Whig  from  1843  to  l847-  He  was  territorial  Governor  of 
Minnesota  from  1849  to  1853,  and  Governor  of  that  State  from  1859  to 
1863.  He  was  a  Republican  member  of  the  U.  S.  Senate  from  1863  to  l875> 
and  Secretary  of  War  in  Hayes'  Cabinet  from  1879  to  1881. 

Randall,  Alexander  W.  (1819-1872),  was  a  member  of  the  Wisconsin 
Assembly  in  1855.  He  was  a  district  judge  in  1856.  He  was  Governor  of 
Wisconsin  from  185710  1861,  and  was  energetic  in  raising  troops  for  the 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  541 

Civil  War.     He  was  Minister  to  Italy  from  1861  to  1862,  Assistant  Post- 
master-General in  Johnson's  Cabinet  from  1866  to  1869. 

Randall,  James  R.,  born  in  1839,  wrote  many  popular  songs  in  support 
of  the  Southern  cause,  among  them  "  Maryland,  My  Maryland  "  and  "  The 
Battle-Cry  of  the  South."  He  became  editor  of  the  Constitutionalist  in  1866. 

'Randall,  Samuel  J.  (1828-1890),  represented  Pennsylvania  in  the  U.  S. 
Congress  as  a  Democrat  from  1863  to  1890.  He  distinguished  himself  by 
speeches  against  the  "Force  Bill"  in  1875.  While  chairman  of  the  Com- 
mittee on  Appropriations,  from  1875  to  1876,  he  curtailed  expenditures  by  a 
systematic  reduction  in  appropriations.  He  was  Speaker  from  1876  to  1881. 
He  was  prominent  as  a  leader  in  opposition  to  the  Morrison  tariff  bill  in 
1884.  He  served  on  Committees  of  Banking,  Rules  and  Elections.  He  was 
prominent  in  tariff  debates  as  a  leader  of  the  protectionist  wing  of  the 
Democratic  party. 

Randolph,  Edmund  Jennings  (1753-1813),  was  a  member  of  one  of  the 
most  noted  Virginian  families.  Soon  after  leaving  William  and  Mary  College 
he  became  prominent  as  a  patriotic  leader,  and  was  active  in  the  Virginia 
Constitutional  Convention  of  1776.  He  was  Attorney-General  of  the  State, 
delegate  to  the  Continental  Congress,  and  member  of  the  Annapolis  Conven- 
tion of  1786.  While  Governor  of  Virginia,  1786-1788,  he  sat  in  the  Federal 
Convention  of  1787,  introduced  the  "Virginia  Plan,"  and  was  a  leading 
debater.  He  refused  to  sign  the  Constitution,  yet  defended  it  the  next  year 
in  the  State  Ratifying  Convention.  He  was  in  Washington's  Cabinet  as 
Attorney-General,  1789-1794,  and  Secretary  of  State  1794-1795.  In  the 
latter  position  he  was  involved  in  some  charges  made  in  connection  with 
the  French  minister,  and  resigned.  Life  by  Conway. 

Randolph,  Edward  (i62O?-after  1694),  came  to  New  England  in  1675 
as  a  commissioner  of  the  British  Government.  He  returned  exaggerated 
accounts  of  the  population  and  wealth  of  the  colonies,  and  urged  measures 
of  taxation  and  oppression.  By  his  efforts  the  charter  of  Massachusetts 
was  conditionally  forfeited.  He  was  secretary  of  New  England  and  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Governor's  council  from  1686  to  1689. 

Randolph,  John,  of  Roanoke  (June  2,  i773~June  24,  1833),  was  a  near 
relative  of  Edmund  Randolph.  He  was  educated  at  Princeton  and  Colum- 
bia, and  in  1799  entered  the  National  House  of  Representatives  from  Vir- 
ginia. Though  very  young,  he  soon  became  a  leader  on  the  Democratic  side. 
His  strict  constructionism,  however,  was  of  the  most  thorough-going  stamp, 
and  he  was  frequently  at  variance  with  Jefferson  and  other  party  chiefs.  Ran- 
dolph was  renowned  for  an  eloquent  satire  of  a  peculiarly  bitter  kind,  whose 
effect  was  enhanced  by  his  personal  eccentricities.  He  was  foremost  in  the 
conflict  against  the  Yazoo  frauds  and  the  Embargo.  He  also  opposed  Madi- 
son and  the  War  of  1812.  His  career  in  the  House  lasted  until  1825,  with 
a  break  from  1813  to  1815.  From  1825  to  1827  he  was  U.  S.  Senator.  He 
invented  the  epithet  "  dough-faces  "  for  Northern  sympathizers  with  slavery, 
and  styled  the  union  of  Adams  and  Clay  a  "  coalition  between  the  black- 
leg and  the  Puritan,"  which  remark  led  to  a  duel  with  Clay.  President 


542  DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTOEY. 

Jackson  sent  him  in  1830  as  U.  S.  Minister  to  Russia,  but  his  stay  abroad 
was  brief.     There  are  lives  of  Randolph  by  Garland  and  by  Henry  Adams. 

Randolph,  Peyton  (1721-1775),  was  appointed  king's  attorney  in  Virginia 
in  1748,  and  held  office  till  1766.  He  was  elected  to  the  Virginia  House  of 
Burgesses  in  1748,  and  was  chairman  of  a  committee  to  revise  the  colonial  laws. 
He  drew  up  the  remonstrance  against  the  Stamp  Act  in  1765,  but  opposed 
Patrick  Henry's  resolutions.  He  was  elected  president  of  the  first  Conti- 
nental Congress  in  1774,  but  soon  afterward  resigned  on  account  of  ill 
health.  He  presided  over  the  Virginia  conventions  of  1774  and  1775.  He 
was  again  a  member  of  the  Continental  Congress  in  1775. 

Randolph,  Theodore  F.  (1816-1883),  was  a  New  Jersey  Senator  from  1861 
to  1865,  Governor  of  New  Jersey  from  1868  to  1872,  and  a  Democratic  U.  S. 
Congressman  from  1875  to  1881. 

Randolph  Plan,  the  scheme  of  a  Federal  constitution  proposed  in  the 
Convention  of  1787  by  Edmund  Randolph  of  Virginia.  It  was  the  first  plan 
submitted,  being  presented  May  29.  It  was  composed  of  fifteen  resolutions 
and  proposed  a  correction  of  the  Articles  of  Confederation;  representation 
by  population  in  two  branches  of  Congress,  the  first  chosen  by  the  people, 
the  second  by  State  Legislatures;  congressional  control  of  taxation  and  com- 
merce; congressional  veto  of  State  enactments;  that  Congress  should  choose 
the  executive;  that  the  executive  with  part  of  the  judiciary  should  have  a 
limited  veto  on  Acts  of  Congress,  and  other  less  important  provisions.  The 
plan  was  favorably  reported  and  many  of  its  suggestions  were  used  in  the 
drafting  of  the  Constitution  as  it  now  exists. 

Ransom,  Matt  W.,  born  in  1826,  was  Attorney-General  of  North  Caro- 
lina from  1852  to  1855,  and  a  member  of  the  State  Legislature  from  1858  to 
1860.  He  attained  the  rank  of  brigadier-general  in  the  Confederate  service 
and  was  engaged  in  all  the  important  battles  of  the  Army  of  Northern  Vir- 
ginia. Since  1872  he  has  served  in  the  U.  S.  Senate  as  a  Democrat  His 
present  term  expires  in  1895. 

Ransom,  Thomas  E.  G.  (1834-1864),  fought  at  Charleston,  Fort  Henry, 
Fort  Donelson  and  Shiloh,  and  served  on  General  Grant's  staff  at  Vicksburg. 
He  commanded  a  division  at  Sabine  Cross-roads  and  a  corps  in  operations 
about  Atlanta.  He  died  in  Georgia. 

Rantoul,  Robert  (1805-1852),  was  a  member  of  the  Massachusetts  Legis- 
lature from  1833  to  1837.  He  made  a  powerful  and  famous  appeal  for  the 
abolition  of  capital  punishment.  He  was  counsel  for  Thomas  Sims  in 
his  celebrated  fugitive  slave  case.  He  was  U.  S.  District  Attorney  for 
Massachusetts  from  1845  to  1849,  and  served  in  the  U.  S.  Senate  as  a  Demo- 
crat from  1851  to  1852.  He  was  an  eloquent  speaker  on  moral,  political  and 
educational  reforms. 

Rapp,  George  (1770-1847),  founded  the  Harmonists,  a  socialistic  religious 
sect.  They  emigrated  to  Pennsylvania  from  Germany  in  1803.  Their 
community  is  prosperous,  and  noteworthy  for  its  morality  and  the  promo- 
tion of  education. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  543 

Rappahannock  Station  and  Kelly's  Ford,  Va.  This  battle  of  the  Civil 
War  took  place  November  7,  1863,  during  Meade's  and  Lee's  operations  in 
Northern  Virginia.  Sedgwick,  advancing  toward  the  Rappahannock  River, 
came  upon  about  2000  Confederates  of  EwelPs  column  of  Lee's  army  under 
Godwin.  Russell's  division  of  the  famous  sixth  corps  was  ordered  to  charge. 
This  they  did  so  successfully  that  Godwin  was  routed  and  1600  prisoners 
were  taken.  An  engagement  took  place  the  same  day  at  Kelly's  Ford  near 
the  station. 

Rasin  River  (Frenchtown,  now  Monroe,  Mich.)  General  James  Winches- 
ter with  about  1000  Kentuckians,  under  orders  of  General  Harrison,  erected 
fortifications  at  the  rapids  of  the  Maumee.  After  this  was  done  he  sent 
ahead  two-thirds  of  his  men  to  drive  the  British  from  Frenchtown  and,  on 
the  success  of  this  movement,  himself  followed  with  the  rest  of  his  forces. 
Here  he  was  attacked  by  General  Proctor  with  1500  British  and  Indians  on 
January  22,  1813.  Taken  by  surprise  the  Americans,  after  a  brief  defence, 
fled  to  the  woods.  A  surrender  was  effected  with  full  assurance  of  safety. 
The  captives  were  hurried  to  Maiden,  leaving  the  sick  and  wounded  Ameri- 
cans behind.  These  were  at  once  massacred  by  the  Indians,  save  a  few  who 
were  taken  to  Detroit  for  ransom.  The  Americans  lost  197  killed  and  miss- 
ing, and  737  prisoners.  The  British  loss  was  24  killed  and  158  wounded. 
"  Remember  the  River  Rasin  "  was  long  a  war  cry  of  Kentuckian  soldiers. 

Rasle,  Sebastien  (1658—1724),  came  to  America  as  a  Catholic  missionary 
from  France  in  1689.  He  assumed  charge  of  the  mission  of  Norridgewock, 
on  the  Kennebec,  about  1695.  The  Indians  were  induced  by  him  to  support 
the  French.  He  was  wrongfully  charged  with  causing  Indian  depredations, 
and  a  price  was  put  on  his  head.  His  church  was  three  times  destroyed, 
and  he  was  finally  surprised  and  shot  by  the  English  colonists. 

Ratification  of  the  Constitution.  The  Constitution  was  by  its  own  terms  to 
become  binding  on  the  States  ratifying  when  it  had  been  ratified  by  conven- 
tions of  nine  States.  Signed  September  17,  1787,  it  was  at  once  transmitted 
to  Congress,  and  by  Congress  to  the  States.  It  was  ratified  by  the  convention 
of  Delaware  on  December  7;  by  Pennsylvania  on  December  12;  by  New  Jersey 
on  December  18;  by  Georgia  on  January  2,  1788;  by  Connecticut  January  9;  by 
Massachusetts  on  February  6,  with  recommendations  of  amendment;  by  Mary- 
land on  April  28 ;  by  South  Carolina  on  May  23,  and  by  New  Hampshire 
on  June  21,  1788,  making  nine.  Virginia  ratified  June  25,  1788  ;  New  York, 
July  26,  1788;  North  Carolina,  November  21,  1789;  Rhode  Island,  May 
29,  1790.  In  the  last  four  the  debate  was  especially  warm,  and  in  general, 
ratification  was  secured  with  difficulty.  Hamilton  and  Madison  had  a  lead- 
ing part  in  bringing  it  about.  The  well-to-do  and  commercial  classes  gener- 
ally supported  it.  For  the  ratification  of  amendments,  see  art.  Amendments. 

Raum,  Green  B.,  born  in  1829,  served  with  distinction  during  the  Civil 
War.  He  represented  Illinois  in  the  U.  S.  Congress  as  a  Republican  from 
1867  to  1869,  was  Commissioner  of  Internal  Revenue  from  1876  to  1883, 
and  Commissioner  of  Pensions  from  1889  to  1893. 

Rawdon,  Francis  (1754-1826),  Lord  Rawdon,  came  to  America  as  a 
British  soldier  in  1773.  He  was  a  captain  at  Bunker  Hill.  As  aide  to  Sir 


544  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Henry  Clinton  he  fought  at  Long  Island,  White  Plains,  Fort  Washington, 
Fort  Clinton;  also  at  Monmouth.  He  led  a  corps  at  the  battle  of  Camden 
in  1780,  and  defeated  General  Nathanael  Greene  at  Hobkirk's  Hill,  relieved 
Fort  Ninety-Six  and  fortified  Orangeburg.  He  incurred  much  obloquy  for 
the  execution  of  Colonel  Isaac  Hayne.  Afterward  he  was  made  Earl  of 
Moira,  Marquis  of  Hastings,  and  Governor-General  of  India. 

Rawlins,  John  A.  (1831-1869),  became  a  successful  lawyer  in  Illinois. 
He  ably  defended  the  Union  cause.  He  became  an  aide  to  Grant  when 
commissioned  brigadier-general  in  1861,  and  served  with  him  throughout 
the  War.  Although  he  knew  nothing  of  military  affairs  at  the  beginning 
of  the  War,  yet  he  showed  remarkable  executive  ability  and  became  Gen- 
eral Grant's  chief  of  staff  in  1865.  He  exerted  great  influence  over  General 
Grant,  and  rendered  valuable  advice  in  many  of  the  important  manoeuvres. 
He  was  Secretary  of  War  in  Grant's  Cabinet  in  1869. 

Raymond,  Henry  J.  (1820-1869),  became  assistant  editor  of  the  New 
York  Tribune  on  its  foundation  in  1841.  He  was  connected  with  the  Courier 
and  Enquirer  from  1843  to  ^S1-  In  1851  he  established  the  New  York 
Times,  and  was  of  great  influence  as  its  editor.  He  represented  New  York 
in  the  U.  S.  Congress  as  a  Republican  from  1865  to  1867.  He  wrote  a 
"  Life  of  Daniel  Webster  "  and  "  The  Life  and  Public  Services  of  Abraham 
Lincoln." 

Raymond,  Miss.  In  this  battle,  May  12,  1863,  during  Grant's  Mississippi 
campaign  of  the  Civil  War,  6000  Federals  under  McPherson  defeated  Gregg 
leading  7000  Confederates.  Grant  was  moving  his  army  along  the  Big  Black 
River  in  two  columns.  McPherson  commanded  the  corps  on  the  extreme 
left,  eight  miles  from  the  main  line.  Early  on  the  twelfth  of  May  Gregg 
fell  upon  Logan's  division  of  McPherson's  troops.  The  fight  lasted  three 
hours  and  was  very  severe.  The  Confederates  v.-ere  pursued. 

Raynal,  Guillaume  T.  F.,  called  Abbe"  (1713-1793),  published  a  philo- 
sophical history  of  the  discovery  and  conquest  of  the  American  colonies 
which  contained  attacks  on  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  and  was  condemned 
by  it,  but  was  widely  popular. 

Read,  George  (1733-1798),  a  signer  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence, 
was  before  the  war  Attorney-General  of  Delaware  and  member  of  the  Legisla- 
ture. He  wrote  the  noted  address  to  George  III.,  and  was  a  leading  member 
of  Congress.  He  was  a  delegate  to  the  Annapolis  Convention  of  1786,  and 
to  the  Federal  Constitutional  Convention  of  the  following  year.  From 
1789  to  1793  he  was  U.  S.  Senator  from  Delaware,  and  Chief  Justice  of  the 
State  from  1793  until  his  death.  (Life  by  Read.) 

Read,  John  Meredith  (1797-1874),  was  a  U.  S.  District  Attorney  from 
1837  to  1844.  He  was  Judge  of  the  Pennsylvania  Supreme  Court  from  1860 
to  1872.  His  legal  opinions  had  a  wide  reputation. 

Read,  Thomas  (1740-1788),  was  the  first  to  obtain  the  rank  of  commo- 
dore in  the  American  navy.  He  rendered  valuable  assistance  at  the  battle 
of  Trenton.  He  commanded  the  frigate  "  George  Washington." 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  545 

Read,  Thomas  Buchanan  (1822-1872),  poet  and  artist,  was  born  in 
Pennsylvania.  Among  his  poems  "  Sheridan's  Ride  "  is  the  most  popular,  and 
one  of  his  chief  artistic  productions  was  a  painting  illustrating  that  poem. 

Readjusters,  a  political  faction  formed  from  the  Democratic  party  of 
Virginia  in  1878.  Its  formation  was  due  to  a  bill  which  passed  the  State 
Legislature  in  March  of  that  year  for  refunding  the  State  debt.  The  party 
was  led  by  William  Mahone  and  was  violently  opposed  to  the  payment  of 
the  debt.  In  1879  and  1881,  by  a  fusion  with  the  Republicans  they  gained 
control  of  the  State  government,  and  sent  William  Mahone  to  the  United 
States  Senate. 

Reagan,  John  H.,  born  in  1818,  was  a  member  of  the  Texas  Legislature 
from  1847  t°  1849.  He  represented  Texas  in  the  U.  S.  Congress  as  a  Demo- 
crat from  1857  to  1861.  He  was  Postmaster-General  of  the  Confederacy 
from  1 86 1  to  1865.  He  again  served  in  the  U.  S.  Congress  from  1875  to 
1887,  and  was  a  Senator  from  1887  to  1891. 

Rear- Admiral.  This  rank  was  created  by  Act  of  Congress  in  1862,  along 
with  that  of  commodore,  it  being  at  the  time  the  highest  naval  grade. 
Those  of  admiral  and  vice-admiral,  outranking  it,  were  created  several  years 
later. 

Rebellion.     (See  Civil  War.) 

Reciprocity.  A  reciprocity  agreement  between  the  United  States  and 
Canada  was  concluded  in  1854,  and  terminated  in  1866.  A  similar  one  was 
made  with  Hawaii  in  1875.  Various  others,  of  an  equally  special  sort,  were 
from  time  to  time  made  by  the  United  States.  The  matter  was  brought 
into  a  new  phase  by  the  tariff  act  of  1890  (McKinley  Act),  which  provided 
that  the  duties  on  sugar,  molasses,  coffee,  tea  and  hides,  which  had  been 
removed,  might  be  reimposed  by  the  President  in  case  of  any  countries 
which  levied  what  he  thought  unjust  or  unreasonable  duties  on  the  agricul- 
tural products  of  the  United  States.  With  this  resource  in  hand,  the  Presi- 
dent entered  on  negotiations  which  resulted  in  the  conclusion  of  reciprocity 
treaties  with  Brazil,  Spain  (for  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico),  and  San  Domingo 
(1891),  and  Salvador,  Germany,  Great  Britain  (for  the  West  Indies),  Nica- 
ragua, Honduras,  Guatemala  and  Austria-Hungary  (1892). 

Reconcentrado.  Name  applied  to  a  Cuban  living  under  the  severe  mili- 
tary rule,  culminating  under  Gen.  Weyler. 

Reconstruction.  One  of  the  leading  problems  remaining  after  the  Civil 
War  was  how  to  reconstruct  the  governments  of  the  States  which  had 
seceded.  Mr.  Lincoln  had  proceeded  upon  the  theory  that  nothing  more 
was  necessary  than  that  a  sufficient  number  of  the  citizens  should  form  a 
State  Government,  of  which  the  officials  were  loyally  desirous  of  maintain- 
ing constitutional  relations  with  the  Government  of  the  Union.  The  sepa- 
ration of  West  Virginia  from  Virginia  had  been  accomplished  by  a  Virginian 
Legislature  so  constituted.  President  Johnson  proceeded  upon  the  same 
theory.  In  Congress  other  theories  were  broached,  some  even  going  so  far 
as  to  hold  that  the  seceding  States  had  ceased  to  exist  as  States,  and  consti- 
tuted a  territory  respecting  which  Congress  was  at  liberty  to  make  such 
arrangements  as  it  chose.  The  view  generally  upheld  by  Congress  was  that 
the  Southern  States  could  be  re-admitted  only  on  such  terms  as  Congress 

35 


546        •  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATUS  HISTORY. 

should  impose.  Its  maintenance  of  this  view  was  largely  owing  to  its 
belief  that  the  substantial  results  of  the  war  in  respect  to  the  enfranchise- 
ment and  civil  rights  of  the  negro  could  not  be  secured  in  any  other  way, 
because  of  the  reluctance  of  some  Southern  Legislatures  to  accept  these 
results.  Before  Congress  met  in  December,  1865,  Johnson  had  recognized 
provisional  governments  in  all  the  Southern  States  but  one,  on  their  accept- 
ing the  Thirteenth  Amendment.  But  Congress  proposed  the  Fourteenth 
Amendment,  and  insisted  on  its  acceptance  as  a  pre-requisite  to  re- admission 
of  any  State.  In  1867  it  passed  the  Reconstruction  Act,  which  divided  the 
South  into  five  military  districts,  under  the  command  of  generals  of  the 
army,  who  were"  to  effect  a  registration  of  voters,  including  negroes,  and 
excluding  those  disqualified  by  the  Fourteenth  Amendment.  These  voters 
should  elect  a  convention,  which  should  make  a  constitution,  ratified  by 
them.  It  should  then  be  submitted  to  Congress,  and  if  it  was  acceptable  to 
Congress,  the  State  should  be  reinstated  whenever  its  Legislature  had  ratified 
the  Fourteenth  Amendment.  The  result  was  the  notorious  black  or  "  carpet- 
bag" governments.  Under  this  act  Alabama,  Arkansas,  Florida,  Louisiana 
and  the  Carolinas  were  re-admitted.  Tennessee  had  already  been  re-admitted 
by  Congress  in  1866.  Georgia,  Mississippi,  Texas  and  Virginia  were 
required  also  to  ratify  the  Fifteenth  Amendment,  and  were  not  re-admitted 
until  1870.  In  1868  the  Supreme  Court,  in  the  case  of  Texas  vs.  White, 
sustained  the  Congressional,  as  over  against  the  Presidential,  theory  of 
reconstruction. 

Record,  Congressional,  successor  to  the  Congressional  Globe.  It  contains 
a  complete  report  of  Congressional  debates,  proceedings  and  enactments  from 
1872  down  to  the  present  time. 

Red  Bank.     (See  Mifflin,  Fort.) 

Red-Cross  Society.  The  American  (National)  Association  of  the  Red- 
Cross,  for  the  relief  of  the  wounded  in  war  and  of  sufferers  by  floods  and 
other  similar  catastrophes,  was  founded  at  Washington,  May  21,  1881. 

Red-Jacket  (1751-1830),  chief  of  the  Wolf  tribe  of  the  Seuecas,  served 
with  the  Six  Nations  against  the  Americans  during  the  Revolution.  In  the 
War  of  1812  he  assisted  the  United  States.  He  made  an  eloquent  speech 
against  the  treaty  of  Fort  Stanwix  in  1784.  He  lacked  courage,  and  was  an 
inverate  opponent  of  Christianity,  schools  and  missionaries,  but  was  a 
sagacious  statesman  and  an  eloquent  orator. 

Red  Line  Map,  a  map  made  by  the  Frenchman  D'Anville  in  1746.  It 
had  been  sent  to  Vergennes,  the  French  Minister,  by  Franklin  in  1782,  and 
was  discovered  among  the  Paris  archives  by  Jared  Sparks.  A  strong  red 
line  drawn  near  the  ridge,  in  which  the  Kennebec  and  Penobscot  Rivers 
rise,  more  than  favored  the  English  claims,  respecting  the  northeast  bound- 
ary of  the  United  States.  Sparks  sent  it  to  Webster,  who  was  anxious  lest 
the  English  should  hear  of  it.  It  was  used  in  a  secret  session  of  the  Senate, 
and  with  the  Maine  commissioners  to  induce  a  ratification  of  the  treaty,  and 
was  afterward  made  a  ground  of  reproach  against  Webster  by  opponents  of 
the  treaty. 


DlCTlONARY~"OF   UNITED   STATES   HlSTORY.  547 

Red  Stone  Old  Fort,  Pa.,  built  as  a  store-house  by  the  Ohio  Company, 
was  the  scene  of  important  movements  during  the  French  and  Indian  War. 
Here  General  Dinwiddie  ordered  the  English  forces  to  assemble  until  they 
could  advance  against  the  French  (1754).  The  fort  was  burned  by  the 
French  after  the  English  defeat  at  Fort  Necessity.  During  the  Whisky 
Rebellion  a  committee  of  insurrectionists  held  a  meeting  here  August  28, 
1794. 

Redemptioners,  or  indented  servants.  From  the  earliest  settlement  of 
the  American  colonies,  particularly  the  middle  colonies,  indented  servants 
formed  a  large  part  of  the  population.  Many  came  over  from  England 
under  bond  for  their  passage  to  serve  a  number  of  years.  Many  also  were 
kidnapped  and  placed  in  enforced  slavery  for  a  term  of  years.  They  served 
four,  five,  or  seven  years,  according  to  contract.  At  the  end  of  these  terms 
they  were  released,  awarded  fifty  acres  of  land  and  became  free  citizens. 
Hence  the  term  "  Redemptioners."  This  system  was  introduced  in  Virginia 
in  1607  with  the  first  colony;  in  Massachusetts  in  1631.  It  also  existed  in 
Maryland,  New  York,  Connecticut  and  Pennsylvania.  The  practice  was 
not  discontinued  in  the  middle  colonies  until  1750. 

Redpath,  James  (1833-1891),  came  to  America  from  Scotland  in  1848. 
He  was  an  ardent  abolitionist.  He  founded  the  Haytian  Bureau  of  Emi- 
gration. He  assisted  Jefferson  Davis  in  preparing  his  "  History  of  the 
Southern  Confederacy,"  and  engaged  in  the  Irish  Home  Rule  movement. 

Reed,  John  (1781—1860)  represented  Massachusetts  in  the  U.  S.  Congress 
as  a  Federalist  from  1813  to  1817  and  as  a  Whig  from  1821  to  1841.  He 
was  Lieutenant-Governor  of  Massachusetts  from  1844  to  1851. 

Reed,  Joseph  (1741-1785),,  was  president  of  the  Pennsylvania  Convention 
of  1775.  He  became  aide-de-camp,  secretary  and  adjutant-general  to  Gen- 
eral Washington,  and  was  active  in  organizing  the  business  of  headquarters. 
He  served  in  the  Long  Island  campaign  and  at  Brandywine,  Germantown 
and  Monmouth.  He  was  elected  to  Congress  in  1777  and  signed  the  Articles 
of  Confederation  in  1778.  He  was  president  of  the  Pennsylvania  Executive 
Council  from  1778  to  1781.  He  was  an  earnest  opponent  of  slavery  and  of 
the  proprietary  system  of  government  in  Pennsylvania.  He  wrote  "  An 
Address  to  the  People  of  Pennsylvania."  Life  by  Reed. 

Reed,  Thomas  B.,  speaker,  born  in  1839,  was  a  member  of  the  Maine 
Legislature  from  1868  to  1870,  and  State  attorney-general  from  1870  to 
1873.  He  was  elected,  1876,  to  the  U.  S.  Congress  as  a  Republican,  and 
has  served  by  re-election  to  the  present  time  (1898).  He  was  speaker  from 
1889  to  1891  and  introduced  changes  in  parliamentary  practice  giving 
greater  powers  to  the  speaker,  especially  in  the  matter  of  deciding  upon  the 
presence  of  a  quorum.  Speaker  again  in  1895  and  1897.  Withdrew  1899. 

Reeder,  Andrew  H.  (1807—1864),  of  Pennsylvania,  was  appointed  Gov- 
ernor of  Kansas  in  1854,  but  was  removed  in  1855  for  not  exerting  official 
influence  against  the  Free-State  movement.  When  chosen  U.  S.  Senatoi 
tinder  the  Topeka  constitution  in  1856  he  was  not  allowed  his  seat. 


^48  DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Reformed  Church  (Reformed  Dutch  Church).  This  denomination  origi. 
nated  in  Holland,  and  its  first  synod  was  held  in  Antwerp  in  1563.  Emi- 
grants from  Holland  brought  its  teachings  to  this  country  and  a  church  was 
organized  as  early  as  1619  in  New  Amsterdam.  The  denomination  grew 
slowly,  owing  partly  to  persecutions  from  the  English,  but  about  1737  felt 
strong  enough  to  ask  for  a  separate  organization  from  the  parent  church  in 
Holland.  This  was  finally  effected  in  1772  through  the  agency  of  Dr.  John 
H.  Livingston,  and  in  1792  the  new  organization  was  completed.  At  that 
time  there  were  136  churches  and  fifty  ministers.  The  constitution  then 
adopted  was  revised  in  1842,  and  again  in  1874.  The  denomination  in  1890 
numbered  310,000  communicants,  living  largely  in  the  Middle  States,  and 
some  parts  of  the  West. 

Reformed  Episcopal.  This  church  separated  from  the  Protestant  Epis- 
copal in  December,  1873,  on  the  ground  that  the  parent  church  was  drifting 
from  evangelism  and  the  true  principles  of  the  church.  The  Rev.  G.  D. 
Cummins,  D.  D.,  assistant  bishop  of  the  diocese  of  Kentucky,  was  the  leader 
of  the  movement.  In  1890  this  church  had  8500  communicants. 

Reformed  Presbyterians.  In  1743  members  of  the  Scottish  church  of 
this  name,  who  were  settled  in  the  American  colonies,  organized  and  sub- 
scribed to  the  Old  Scottish  Covenant.  In  1798  the  first  Presbytery  was 
formed,  and  two  years  later  it  ordained  that  no  slave-holder  should  be 
admitted  to  membership.  In  1833  a  schism  took  place  on  the  church's  atti- 
tude toward  the  State.  The  main  body  now  ruled  that  its  members  should 
not  act  as  American  citizens  nor  in  any  way  identify  themselves  with  the 
political  system  of  the  United  States.  This  position  is  still  maintained. 
Number  of  members  in  1890,  17,000. 

Refunding.  On  August  31,  1865,  the  debt  of  the  United  States  consisted 
of  $2,845,907,627,  of  which  only  $1,109,568,192  was  funded  debt.  Partial 
enactments  enabled  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  by  December,  1867,  to 
convert  floating  debt,  compound  interest  notes,  7-30*5,  and  U.  S.  notes, 
into  funded  debt  of  the  amount  of  nearly  $700,000,000.  The  refunding  act 
of  1870  authorized  the  issue  of  certain  amounts  of  five  per  cent,  four  and  one- 
half  per  cent,  and  four  per  cent  bonds,  to  take  the  place  of  the  existing 
bonds,  mostly  sixes.  During  the  next  ten  years,  this  substitution  had  been 
carried  on  to  an  extent  which  lessened  the  annual  interest  charge  by  $20,000 
ooo,  (reducing  it  from  $82,000,000  to  $62,000,000).  In  1881  the  annual 
interest  charge  was  reduced  almost  $20,000,000  again,  by  the  Windom 
refunding  scheme,  which  converted  $460,000,000  of  five  and  six  per  cent 
bonds  into  bonds  bearing  three  and  one-half  per  cent  interest. 

Regicides.  In  July,  1660,  there  arrived  at  Cambridge,  Mass.,  Edward 
Whalley  and  his  son-in-law,  William  Goffe,  two  of  the  judges  who  had  con- 
demned Charles  I.  For  some  months  they  appeared  in  public  and  joined  in 
devotional  meetings  in  Cambridge  and  Boston,  where  they  were  kindly 
received.  Upon  the  news  of  the  passage  by  Parliament  of  the  Indemnity 
Act,  marking  Whalley  and  Goffe  Vor  vengeance  as  regicides,  they  fled  to 
New  Haven  and  were  received  and  concealed  by  Davenport  in  the  "Judges' 
Cave."  They  were  concealed  from  pursuit  at  New  Haven  and  Milford  for 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  549 

nearly  two  years.  After  this  they  fled  to  a  cave  in  New  Hampshire,  but 
were  there  discovered  by  some  Indians,  and  returned  to  Hadley,  Mass., 
where  they  were  concealed  until  their  death,  Whalley  dying  in  1674,  GofFe 
in  1679.  When  King  Philip  attacked  Hadley  in  1675,  Goffe  appeared  and 
led  the  defence.  Dixwell,  another  regicide,  also  escaped  to  New  England. 

Register  of  Debates,  a  record  of  Congressional  proceedings  from  Decem- 
ber, 1824,  to  October,  1837.  It  was  published  in  twenty-nine  volumes,  and 
contains  many  valuable  State  papers  and  public  documents,  besides  the  de- 
bates and  routine  Congressional  work.  It  is  a  continuation  of  the  "  Annals 
of  Congress,"  and  was  succeeded  by  the  Congressional  Globe. 

Regulators,  the  name  given  to  a  body  of  insurgents  in  North  Carolina 
just  before  the  Revolution.  Heavy  taxes  and  fees  aroused  the  resistance  of 
the  back-country  people  against  Governor  Try  on  in  1766.  The  rebellion 
spread,  but  Tryon  signally  defeated  the  armed  bands  at  Alamance,  on  the 
Haw,  in  1771.  His  successor,  Martin,  compromised  with  the  "Regulators." 

Reid,  Samuel  C.  (1783—1861),  commanded  the  privateer  "  General  Arm- 
strong," and  fought  one  of  the  most  remarkable  battles  on  record  at  Fayal 
in  1814  with  a  British  squadron.  He  designed  the  present  form  of  the 
U.  S.  flag. 

Reid,  Whitelaw,  journalist,  born  in  1837,  was  one  of  the  leading  war 
correspondents  during  the  Civil  War.  He  became  an  editor  of  the  New 
York  Tribune  in  1869,  and  its  proprietor  in  1872.  He  was  Minister  to 
France  from  1889  to  1892.  He  wrote  "After  the  War,"  a  description  of  the 
South,  and  "  Ohio  in  the  War,"  which  is  a  valuable  historical  work.  In 
1892  he  was  the  candidate  of  the  Republicans  for  Vice-President,  but  was 
defeated,  with  Harrison.  Special  Ambassador  to  England  in  1897. 

"  Reindeer,"  sloop.     (See  "  Wasp.") 

Relief  Party,  a  political  party  existing  in  Kentucky  between  the  years 
1820  and  1826.  This  party  advocated  the  relief  of  delinquent  debtors. 
They  elected  the  Governor,  and  passed  a  bill  to  this  end  in  1824.  The  bill 
was  deemed  unconstitutional.  The  Anti-Relief  party  regained  control  in 
1826. 

Remington,  Philo,  of  New  York,  born  in  1816,  superintended  the  business 
of  E.  Remington  and  Sons,  who  produced  the  celebrated  Remington  rifles 
and  developed  the  successful  Remington  type-writer. 

Removals.  The  Constitution  of  1787  gave  the  President  power  to 
appoint  officers  with  the  consent  of  the  Senate,  but  did  not  state  whether  the 
power  of  removal  was  also  to  be  exercised  under  this  restraint.  Debate  on 
this  arose  in  1789,  and  it  was  concluded  to  allow  the  power  of  removal  to 
rest  with  the  President  alone.  This  remained  the  policy  of  the  Government 
until  the  passage  of  the  Tenure-of-Ofnce  Act,  (see  Art.)  in  1867. 

Reno,  Jesse  L.  (1823-1862),  general,  served  at  Contreras,  Churubusco, 
Chapultepec  and  Vera  Cruz  during  the  Mexican  War.  He  commanded  a 
brigade  in  Burnside's  North  Carolina  expedition  at  Roanoke  Island,  Fort 
Barton  and  New  Berne.  He  commanded  a  corps  under  General  Pope  at 


55o  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Manassas  and  at  South  Mountain,  where  he  was  killed  while  leading  an 
assault. 

Rensselaerswyck,  a  Dutch  colony  of  New  York,  established  in  1630  by 
Kilian  van  Rensselaer,  a  pearl  merchant  and  member  of  the  Amsterdam 
Chamber.  He  purchased  territory  from  the  Indians,  which  is  now  comprised 
in  Albany  and  Rensselaer  counties,  and  established  the  first  settlement  near 
Fort  Orange,  the  present  site  of  Albany.  This  long  remained  an  indepen- 
dent manor.  (See  Anti-Renters.) 

Representatives.     (See  House  of  Representatives.) 

Republican  Party.  The  name  of  Republicans  was,  in  the  earlier  history 
of  the  Union,  taken  by  the  party  formed  by  Jefferson,  as  distinguishing  them 
from  their  Federalist  opponents,  stigmatized  as  monarchists.  But  this  party 
has  been  treated  in  an  article  under  the  name  of  Democrats,  by  which  they 
were  also  known.  In  1854  the  name  was  revived,  to  be  applied  to  a  new 
party,  at  first  characterized  primarily  by  opposition  to  the  extension  of 
slavery  to  the  territories.  The  compromise  of  i85Ofhad  resulted  in  the  dis- 
ruption and  decay  of  the  Whig  party.  There  was  a  brief  interval  before 
parties  could  be  re-formed  upon  the  basis  of  the  slavery  question  purely. 
The  passage  of  the  Kansas-Nebraska  Act  by  the  Democrats  in  1854  caused 
a  general  coalition  of  Northern  Free-Soilers,  Whigs,  Democrats,  Know-Noth- 
ings  and  Abolitionists,  united  in  opposition  to  that  measure  and  the  conse- 
quent repeal  of  the  Missouri  Compromise.  At  first  known  as  "  Anti- 
Nebraska  Men,"  the  coalitionists  took  in  that  same  year  the  name  of 
Republicans.  They  at  once  won  a  plurality  of  Congress,  and  in  1856  held 
their  first  national  convention  at  Philadelphia,  which  nominated  Fremont 
and  Dayton.  Defeated  then,  in  1859  tneY  again  controlled  the  House.  In 
1860  Democratic  divisions  enabled  them  to  elect  Lincoln.  For  the  next 
fourteen  years  the  party,  reinforced  for  a  time  by  "War  Democrats,"  was 
supreme.  It  controlled  the  National  Government,  enlarged  its  powers  by 
broad  construction  of  the  Constitution,  carried  on  the  war,  abolished  slavery, 
reconstructed  the  governments  of  the  seceding  States  and  controlled  them, 
maintained  the  protective  system  and  refunded  the  debt.  It  carried  the 
election  of  Lincoln  in  1864  and  of  Grant  in  1868  and  1872.  The  Liberal 
Republican  schism  of  1872  indicated  a  reaction  from  the  radical  policy  fol- 
lowed in  regard  to  reconstruction,  and  was  followed  by  extensive  defeats  in 
the  "tidal  wave"  of  1874,  due  partly  to  official  corruption  in  high  places. 
Yet  the  party  managed,  though  barely,  to  carry  the  election  of  Hayes  in 
1876,  and  elected  Garfield  in  1880.  In  1884  the  nomination  of  Elaine  caused 
the  "  bolt "  of  the  "  mugwumps,"  and  the  election  of  a  Democratic  President. 
The  party  then  became,  more  distinctly  than  in  the  years  just  preceding,  the 
party  of  high  protection.  In  1888  it  elected  Harrison.  Defeated  in  1892, 
it  was  again  successful  in  State  elections  in  1893.  Its  strength  has  always 
lain  in  the  North.  In  addition  to  the  principles  already  mentioned,  it  has 
of  late  advocated  a  more  stirring  foreign  policy  than  that  of  the  Democrats, 
and  larger  expenditures  for  pensions  and  other  national  objects. 

Republican  Party,  in  Pennsylvania,  a  party  existing  under  the  first  con- 
stitution, that  of  1776-1790,  which  desired  the  substitution  of  a  stronger 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  551 

government  for  that  set  up  in  1776.      They  formed  the  germ  of  the  Federal 
party  in  Pennsylvania.     Their  opponents  were  styled  Constitutionalists. 

Repudiation.  The  Constitution  provides  that  the  States  can  make  no 
laws  which  shall  impair  the  obligation  of  contracts;  yet  the  Eleventh 
Amendment  provides  that  the  jurisdiction  of  the  National  Supreme  Court 
does  not  extend  to  suits  brought  against  a  State  by  a  citizen  of  another 
State.  Hence  the  States  have  been  at  liberty  either  to  repudiate  or  to  acknowl- 
edge debts.  Repudiation  has  been  adopted  at  various  times  and  in  various 
degrees  by  Georgia,  Louisiana,  Mississippi,  Alabama,  Florida,  the  Carolinas, 
Arkansas,  Tennessee,  Minnesota,  Michigan  and  Virginia.  The  repudiation 
of  the  last  mentioned  State  involved  the  largest  sum,  ($33,000,000),  now  par- 
tially liquidated.  In  some  of  the  other  States  too,  bills  have  been  passed  in 
the  Legislature,  since  the  repudiating  acts,  for  refunding  the  debt. 

Requisitions  upon  the  States  were  the  only  means  of  raising  money 
which  the  Articles  of  Confederation  left  to  the  Continental  Congress.  This 
proved  entirely  ineffectual.  From  1782  to  1786  Congress  made  calls 
amounting  in  the  aggregate  to  more  than  $6,000,000,  but  only  a  million  of 
this  had  been  paid  in  by  the  end  of  March,  1787. 

Resaca  de  la  Palma,  Texas.  On  May  9,  1846,  General  Zachary  Taylor 
utterly  routed  General  Arista  and  drove  him  from  this  strongtiold,  to  which 
the  latter  had  retired  after  the  battle  of  Palo  Alto.  The  Mexican  artillery, 
baggage,  war  material  and  Arista's  private  correspondence  were  captured. 
Captain  May,  of  Taylor's  dragoons,  won  the  day  by  charging  upon  and 
silencing  the  Mexican  guns.  General  Taylor's  army  numbered  2000  men; 
that  of  Arista  5000  men. 

Resaca,  Ga.  Here  was  fought,  May  14  and  15,  1864,  one  of  the  first 
battles  of  Sherman's  celebrated  campaign  through  Georgia.  Marching 
toward  Atlanta  with  his  main  command,  Sherman  sent  McPherson  to  seize 
Resaca  and  cut  off  Johnston's  supplies  by  the  railroad.  McPherson  failed 
to  gain  this  point,  and  Johnston  immediately  availed  himself  of  the  oppor- 
tunity and  posted  his  own  army  in  this  desirable  position.  Sherman  turned 
back  and  marched  against  him.  Sherman  had  100,000  troops;  Johnston 
about  55,000.  May  14,  Sherman  was  in  position  around  Resaca  on  the  north 
and  west,  and  on  that  day  there  was  continual  skirmishing  and  artillery  firing. 
Johnston  refused  to  leave  his  entrenchments,  and  the  Union  leader  would 
not  attack  them.  Finally  McPherson  gained  an  elevated  position,  from 
which  he  could  destroy  the  railroad  bridge  over  the  Oostenaula  River. 
Johnston  tried  in  vain  to  dislodge  him.  Meantime  Hooker  made  a  brilliant 
charge,  and  Sherman  sent  a  detachment  across  the  stream  on  pontoons  to 
help  destroy  the  bridge.  Johnston,  seeing  his  communications  so  seriously 
threatened,  retreated  on  the  night  of  the  fifteenth. 

Resumption.     (See  Specie  Resumption.) 

Returning  Boards.  Although  in  general  it  is  a  fixed  principle  in  Ameri- 
can constitutional  law  that  judicial  functions  belong  solely  to  the  judiciary 
department,  and  the  returning  boards  are  allowed  only  ministerial  functions, 


552  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

yet  in  Florida,  South  Carolina  and  Louisiana  returning  boards  with  judicial 
powers  were  constituted  by  the  reconstructed  State  governments,  by  statute. 
This  action,  probably  quite  unconstitutional,  led  to  the  troubles  of  1876, 
connected  with  the  Presidential  election.  The  returning  boards  used  their 
judicial  power  to  manipulate  the  returns  to  such  a  degree  that  the  rights 
of  the  contest  were  practically  indiscoverable. 

Revels,  Hiram  R.,  born  in  1822,  represented  Mississippi  in  the  U.  S. 
Senate  as  a  Republican  from  1870  to  1871,  He  was  the  first  man  of  African 
descent  to  sit  in  the  U.  S.  Senate. 

Revenue.  In  1793  the  revenue  of  the  Federal  Government  was  $4,600,- 
ooo;  in  1813,  $14,300,000;  in  1833,  $33,500,000;  in  1853,  $61,600,000. 
During  the  war  it  rapidly  rose  until  it  attained  its  maximum  in  1866,  $520,- 
000,000.  Thence  it  declined,  until  in  1878'  it  was  $257,400,000.  During 
the  ensuing  decade  it  averaged  about  $340,000,000.  In  the  fiscal  year  end- 
ing June  30,  1893,  it  was  $461,700,000.  In  every  year  the  largest  item  in 
these  receipts  has  been  customs  revenue.  In  war  times  and  since  the  Civil 
War,  internal  revenue  (see  art.)  has  been  large.  Sales  of  public  lands  have 
been  a  large  source  of  revenue  at  times,  especially  just  before  the  panics  of 
1837  and  1857. 

Revenue  Flag,  instituted  by  act  of  Congress,  March  2,  1799,  to  consist 
of  "  sixteen  perpendicular  stripes,  alternate  red  and  white,  the  Union  of  the 
ensign  bearing  the  arms  of  the  United  States  in  dark  blue  on  a  white  field." 

Revenue  Scheme,  a  scheme  proposed  by  the  Continental  Congress,  in 
order  to  enable  it  to  meet  its  money  obligations.  Requisitions  upon  the 
States,  the  only  mode  allowed  to  Congress  by  the  Articles  of  Confederation, 
had  proved  a  failure.  In  1781  Congress  proposed  an  amendment  to  the 
Articles,  whereby  it  would  be  empowered  to  levy  a  five  per  cent  duty  on 
imports,  to  pay  the  Revolutionary  debt.  Rhode  Island  refused  her  assent. 
In  1783  Congress  asked  for  this  power  for  only  twenty-five  years.  After 
many  delays,  New  York  refused  in  1787,  making  impossible  that  unanimous 
consent  which  was  necessary  in  order  to  validate  an  amendment  to  the 
Articles.  Then  the  only  plan  was  that  of  a  Constitutional  Convention. 

Revere,  Paul  (1735-1818),  was  a  copper  plate  engraver  in  Boston,  Mass., 
and  produced  many  caricatures  illustrative  of  the  pre-Revolutionary  topics. 
He  was  one  of  the  prime  movers  of  the  Boston  tea  party.  On  the  night 
of  April  18-19,  I775>  he  apprised  the  citizens  of  Lexington  and  Concord  of 
the  intended  expedition  of  the  British.  This  is  the  subject  of  Longfellow's 
poem,  "  Paul  Revere's  Ride."  In  1775  he  printed  the  provincial  paper 
money  of  Massachusetts,  and  erected  a  mill  for  the  manufacture  of  gunpow- 
der. He  engaged  in  the' unsuccessful  Penobscot  expedition  in  1779. 

Revolution  and  Revolutionary  War.  The  Revolution,  by  which  the 
thirteen  American  colonies  separated  themselves  from  Great  Britain,  had 
several  causes.  Increase  of  population  in  America  would  naturally  cause  a 
desire  for  independence,  especially  after  the  French  had  been  driven  out 
(I763)-  Just  at  this  time  the  government  of  George  III.,  under  Grenville, 
resolved  to  enforce  more  strictly  the  Navigation  Act  and  other  laws  restricting 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  553 

•American  trade  in  the  interest  of  England,  to  station  garrisons  in  America, 
and  to  pay  a  part  of  the  expense  by  a  stamp-tax.  The  Stamp  Act  aroused 
violent  opposition,  expressed  through  the  Stamp-Act  Congress  of  1765. 
Taxation  by  Parliament  without  representation  in  Parliament  was  declared 
illegal  and  tyrannous.  The  British  Government  persisted  in  the  principle, 
taxing  various  imports  from  1767  to  1770,  and  tea  thereafter.  Boston  Tea- 
party  led  Parliament  to  pass  acts  retaliating  upon  Boston  and  altering  the 
charter  of  Massachusetts.  The  colonies,  already  brought  into  concert  through 
their  Committees  of  Correspondence,  convened  in  Continental  Congress  at 
Philadelphia  in  September,  1774.  They  published  a  declaration  of  rights, 
protested  to  king  and  Parliament,  and  engaged  in  an  association,  or  non- 
importation agreement.  In  April,  1775,  Gage,  the  British  commander  at 
Boston,  encountered  resistance  at  Lexington~and  Concord,  and  war  began. 
A  local  army,  though  defeated  at  Bunker  Hill,  besieged  Boston.  A  second 
Continental  Congress  organized  a  regular  or  Continental  army,  appointed 
Washington  commander-in-chief,  and  pursued  the  war.  Boston  was  captured, 
and  the  British  troops  under  Howe  retired  to  New  York.  Acting  from  this 
centre,  they  gained  considerable  successes  over  Washington.  Meanwhile 
Congress  issued  its  Declaration  of  Independence  (July  4,  1776),  and  provis- 
ionally governed  the  new  republic,  the  United  States  of  America.  Under 
its  advice,  the  colonies,  now  called  States,  made  for  themselves  constitutions  m 
and  organized  new  governments  in  place  of  the  defunct  royal  governments. 
It  also  framed  a  new  and  more  regular  scheme  of  Federal  government,  called 
the  Articles  of  Confederation;  but  unanimous  consent  to  its  adoption  was 
not  obtained  until  1781.  Congress  had  great  difficulty  in  getting  men  and 
money.  Many  were  disaffected  or  indifferent  to  the  cause  of  revolution. 
The  Continental  paper  money  depreciated  rapidly,  and  loans  were  hard  to 
raise.  In  1776  the  war  for  the  most  part  went  against  them.  In  1777 
Howe  occupied  Philadelphia,  their  capital,  defeating  the  Americans  at 
Brandywine  and  Germantown.  But  this  prevented  him  from  co-operating 
with  Burgoyne,  who  was  marching  down  from  Canada  to  New  York  in  the 
effort  to  cut  off  New  England  from  the  rest  of  the  Union.  In  October 
Burgoyne  surrendered  at  Saratoga.  This  success  enabled  the  Americans  to 
conclude,  in  February,  1778,  a  treaty  of  alliance  with  France,  which  brought 
them  French  aid  in  men  and  money.  During  the  remainder  of  the  war  the 
efforts  of  the  British  commander,  Clinton,  were  mainly  directed  against  the 
southern  end  of  the  American  line.  Savannah  was  taken  in  1778,  Charles- 
ton in  1780,  and  Gates  was  badly  defeated  at  Camden.  The  war  in  the 
South  was  managed  with  much  severity,  but  successfully  for  the  Americans 
after  the  appointment  of  Greene.  Cornwallis,  marching  northward  through 
the  Carolinas,  took  up  a  position  in  Virginia,  at  Yorktown,  where,  in  October, 
I28.I,  he  was  compelled  to  surrender  to  a  French-American  army  which 
Washington  had  brought  down  from  the  North,  the  French  fleet  assisting. 
This  virtually  ended  the  war.  England  was  obliged  to  consent  to  American 
independence.  Preliminaries  having  been  arranged  in  1782,  peace  was 
made  on  these  terms  at  Paris  in  1783,  the  United  States  being  conceded  a 
territory  extending  from  Canada  to  Florida  and  westward  to  the  Mississippi. 
Histories  by  Bancroft  and  Fiske. 


554  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Reynolds,  John  F.  (1820-1863),  was  brevetted  major  for  gallantry  at 
Monterey  and  Buena  Vista  during  the  Mexican  War.  He  commanded  a 
Pennsylvania  brigade  in  the  Peninsular  campaign  at  Games'  Mill  and  Glen- 
dale,  and  led  a  division  at  the  second  battle  of  Bull  Run.  In  1862  he  com- 
manded the  Pennsylvania  militia  for  the  defence  of  the  State.  He  was 
promoted  major-general  and  commanded  the  First  Corps  at  Fredericksburg. 
He  led  the  left  wing  at  the  beginning  of  the  battle  of  Gettysburg,  where  he 
was  killed. 

Reynolds,  Joseph  J.,  born  in  1822,  was  brevetted  major-general  for  ser- 
vices during  the  Civil  War.  He  fought  at  Chickamauga,  was  chief-of-staff 
at  Chattanooga  and  commanded  the  Department  of  Arkansas  from  1864  to 
1866. 

Rhea  Letter.  On  January  6,  1818,  Andrew  Jackson,  then  department 
commander  in  the  Southwest,  wrote  to  President  Monroe  regarding  the 
Seminole  troubles  in  Florida  and  advising  the  prompt  seizure  of  East 
Florida,  which  he  declared  could  be  done  "  without  implicating  the  Govern- 
ment." He  offered  to  accomplish  the  seizure  himself  within  sixty  days,  if 
it  should  be  indicated  to  him  that  it  were  desirable.  John  Rhea,  a  Con- 
gressman from  Tennessee,  was  the  secret  channel  through  which  he  hoped 
Monroe's  assent  might  be  signified.  It  was  not.  In  1831,  during  Jackson's 
administration,  in  the  height  of  his  quarrel  with  Calhoun,  which  turned  in 
'part  upon  the  Seminole  affair,  Rhea  wrote  to  Monroe,  hoping  to  elicit  from 
him  something  that  would  implicate  him  as  approving  Jackson's  plan. 
Monroe,  on  his  death-bed  in  New  York,  denounced  Rhea's  insinuations  as 
utterly  false. 

Rhett,  Robert  B.  (1800-1876),  represented  South  Carolina  in  the  U.  S. 
Congress  as  a  Democrat  from  1837  to  1849,  and  in  the  U.  S.  Senate  from 
1851  to  1852.  He  was  a  radical  States'-rights  secessionist. 

Rhind,  Alexander  C.,  born  in  1821,  commanded  the  "Crusader"  in  1861. 
He  was  prominent  in  the  attacks  on  Charleston  in  1863,  and  fought  at  Fort 
Wagner  and  Fort  Fisher.  He  was  commissioned  rear  admiral  and  retired 
in  1883.  Died  1897. 

Rhode  Island  was  one  of  the  original  thirteen  States.  Its  dual  origin  is 
indicated  by  its  official  title,  "  The  State  of  Rhode  Island  and  Providence 
Plantations,"  and  by  its  two  capitals,  Providence  and  Newport.  Roger  Wil- 
liams, the  patron  saint  of  the  State,  was  banished  from  Massachusetts  Bay 
Colony  because  of  his  attacks  on  the  theocratic  government  of  that  colony. 
He  advocated  complete  separation  of  church  and  State,  and  entire  toleration 
for  all  creeds.  He  founded  Providence  in  1636.  Two  years  later  the  Anti- 
nomians,  followers  of  Anne  Hutchinson  founded  Portsmouth,  and  in  1639 
Newport  was  settled.  March  14,  1644,  a  charter  was  granted  by  which  these 
settlements  were  united  in  one  colony  with  a  popular  government.  This 
charter  was  revoked,  and  in  1663  a  new  one  was  granted,  which  continued 
to  be  the  fundamental  law  until  1842.  This  gave  the  entire  power  of  govern- 
ment to  the  people.  Rhode  Island  applied  for  admission  to  the  New  England 
Confederation,  but  her  application  was  denied.  In  1742,  the  western  bound- 
ary line  was  finally  settled  with  Connecticut;  but  not  until  1862  was  the 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  555 

eastern  boundary  with  Massachusetts  determined.  Brown  University  was 
founded  in  1764.  The  devotion  of  the  colony  to  the  American  cause  was 
shown  in  1772,  by  the  affair  of  the  Gaspe".  Rhode  Island  was  not  represented 
in  the  convention  of  1787,  and  did  not  ratify  the  Constitution  until  May  29, 
1790.  This  delay  was  due  to  the  desire  of  the  agricultural  classes  to  retain 
the  power  to  levy  import  taxes  and  to  make  paper  money  a'  legal  tender. 
In  presidential  elections,  save  in  1804,  the  State  was  Federal  until  1816, 
when  the  electoral  votes  were  cast  for  Monroe.  From  1824  to  T85O,  the 
State  was  Whig,  with  the  exception  of  the  year  1836.  An  unjust  appor- 
tionment of  representatives  and  a  property  qualification  for  voting  led  to 
Dorr's  rebellion  in  1842,  when  a  new  constitution  was  adopted  which 
widened  the  suffrage,  but  the  property  restriction  was  not  entirely  removed 
until  (1886-1888)  the  adoption  of  the  Bourn  amendment  which  retained 
the  property  qualification  for  election  to  city  councils  only.  From  1856 
until  the  present  time  (1894)  the  State  has  been  Republican  in  Presidential 
elections.  The  Democrats  elected  the  Governor  in  1887,  1889,  1890  and 
1891.  The  extension  of  the  suffrage  has  strengthened  the  Democratic  party. 
From  1886  to  1889  there  was  a  prohibitory  amendment  against  intoxicants. 
In  1893  an  amendment  to  the  constitution  provided  for  plurality  elections. 
The  population  of  Rhode  Island,  which  in  1790  was  68,825,  in  1890  was 
345,506.  History  by  Arnold. 

Rhode  Island,  Battle  of,  August  29,  1778.  Newport,  R.  L,  had  been 
seized  and  garrisoned  by  the  British  with  6000  men  under  Pigott.  Sullivan 
and  Lafayette  on  land  and  Count  d'Estaing  on  sea  concerted  an  attack. 
Butts'  Hill  on  Rhode  Island  was  seized  by  Sullivan.  Estaing  was  forced  to 
meet  Howe  and  the  English  fleet,  but  a  terrible  storm  averted  battle,  and 
Estaing  retired  to  Boston  to  refit.  Pigott  attempted  to  carry  Butts'  Hill, 
August  29.  The  British  met  with  a  bloody  repulse.  The  Americans,  how- 
ever, were  obliged  to  evacuate  by  the  arrival  of  Clinton  with  5000  reinforce- 
ments. 

"Rhode  Island  Gazette, "  established  at  Newport,  September  27,  1732, 
by  James  Franklin,  was  the  first  newspaper  of  Rhode  Island.  Publication 
was  suspended  in  May,  1733. 

Rhode  Island  Historical  Society  was  founded  in  1822,  and  has  published 
eight  volumes  of  collections  and  begun  the  issue  of  a  quarterly. 

Riall,  Sir  Phineas  (1769-1851),  came  to  America  as  a  British  major-gen- 
eral in  1813.  He  commanded  at  Chippewa  and  Lundy's  Lane  in  1814.  He 
was  brave  and  energetic,  but  unskillful  in  military  operations. 

Ribaut,  Jean  (i52O-;i565),  a  Huguenot,  sailed  from  France  on  a  colonizing 
expedition  in  1562.  After  exploring  the  Florida  coast,  he  planted  a  colony 
at  Port  Royal,  called  Fort  Charles,  which  was  unsuccessful.  In  1565  he  was 
appointed  Governor  of  this  colony.  He  was  driven  off  by  a  Spanish  fleet, 
and  when  he  surrendered  later  to  Menendez,  the  entire  party  was  massacred. 

Rice.  The  production  6f  rice  was  begun  in  1695  in  South  Carolina,  when 
the  captain  of  a  brigantine  from  Madagascar,  which  touched  at  Sullivan's 
Island,  presented  one  of  the  colonists  with  a  small  bag  of  the  vegetable.  Its 


556 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITE®  STATES  HISTORY. 


cultivation  spread  rapidly  through  the  South  and  has  long  been  one  of  the 
chief  sources  of  revenue.  In  1870,  72,635,021  pounds  were  produced  in  the 
United  States,  South  Carolina  leading  with  32,304,825  pounds.  This  was  a 
marked  decrease  from  the  production  previous  to  the  Civil  War.  (In  1850, 
215,313,497  pounds.)  The  culture  at  present  is  much  less  successful  than 
in  former  years. 

Rice,  Alexander  H.,  born  in  1818,  represented  Massachusetts  in  the  U.  S. 
Congress  as  a  Republican  from  1859  to  1867.  He  served  on  the  naval  com- 
mittee. He  was  Governor  of  Massachusetts  from  1876  101879.  Died  1895. 

Rich  Mountain,  W.  Va.,  occupied  by  Colonel  Pegram,  with  a  regiment 
of  Confederates  and  six  guns  of  General  Garnet's  command.  July  n,  1861, 
McClellan  ordered  Rosecrans  to  attack  this  position.  Climbing  the  mountain 
during  a  heavy  storm,  Rosecrans,  with  1900  men,  forced  Pegram  to  retire 
after  a  fierce  fight.  Pegram  and  his  entire  force  were  captured  the  next  day 
by  McClellan. 

Richardson,  Henry  H.  (1838-1886),  was  the  architect  of  Trinity  Church, 
Boston,  and  many  other  noble  structures.  His  architecture  is  noticeable  for 
harmony  and  massiveness  rather  than  for  elaborate  details.  He  was  recog- 
nized as  the  leader  of  the  new  school  of  American  architects. 

Richardson,  Israel  B.  (1815-1862),  of  Vermont,  was  brevetted  major  for 
services  at  Contreras,  Churubusco  and  Chapultepec.  He  led  a  brigade  at 
Bull  Run,  and  commanded  a  division  at  Chickahominy,  South  Mountain 
and  Antietam,  where  he  was  mortally  wounded. 

Richardson,  William  A.,  of  Massachusetts,  born  in  1821,  was  Secretary 
of  the  U.  S.  Treasury  in  Grant's  Cabinet  from  1873  to  1874.  He  was  a 
Justice  of  the  U.  S.  Court  of  Claims  from  1874  to  1885,  when  he  became 
Chief  Justice.  Died  1896. 

Richmond,  Dean  (1804-1866),  gained  an  enviable  reputation  for  his 
upright  dealings  in  business.  He  was  a  leader  of  the  Democratic  party  in 
New  York.  He  secured  the  consolidation  of  the  New  York  Central  Rail- 
road. 

Richmond,  Ky.  Here,  August  29-30, 1862,  16,000  Federals  under  Mason 
and  Craft  were  utterly  routed  by  about  an  equal  number  of  Confederates, 
led  by  Kirby  Smith.  August  29  a  smart  skirmish  occurred,  in  which  Mason 
had  a  slight  advantage.  The  next  day  he  encountered  Smith's  entire  force 
and  was  wholly  defeated,  Craft  and  himself  escaping  by  flight.  The  Union 
loss  was  very  heavy. 

Richmond,  Va.,  was  founded  in  1742  and  made  the  capital  of  the  State 
in  1779.  In  1781  it  was  burned  by  Arnold.  Richmond  was  the  seat  of 
government  of  the  Confederate  States  during  the  Civil  War.  In  April, 
1865,  on  the  capture  of  Petersburg  by  General  Grant,  it  was  evacuated  and 
fired  by  the  Confederate  troops.  The  conflagration  lasted  for  over  twenty- 
four  hours. 

Richmond  and  Petersburg  Railroad,  Virginia,  attacked  by  General  Smith, 
May  6  and  7,  1864,  with  about  20,000  men  of  Butler's  Army  of  the  James 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  557 

during  the  occupation  of  Bermuda  Hundred  by  that  general.  Smith  com- 
menced to  destroy  the  railroad  at  Walthall  Junction,  but  D.  H.  Hill  came 
up  with  a  strong  Confederate  force.  Smith  stopped  and  gave  battle  to  the 
Confederates.  Hill  was  driven  away  after  some  sharp  fighting.  Then 
Smith  continued  his  destruction  of  the  road,  tearing  it  up  for  several  miles. 
He  was  suddenly  recalled  by  Butler,  May  7,  the  latter  having  heard  that  Lee 
was  advancing  in  full  force. 

"  Richmond  Enquirer."  This  newspaper  was  established  at  Richmond 
in  1804  by  T.  Ritchie.  It  continued  for  many  years,  and  exercised  great 
influence  in  the  politics  of  Virginia. 

Ricketts,  James  B.  (1817-1887),  of  New  York,  served  during  the  Mex- 
ican War.  He  commanded  a  Federal  battery  at  Alexandria  and  Bull  Run, 
led  a  division  at  Chantilly,  South  Mountain,  Antietam,  in  the  Richmond 
campaign,  and  at  Cedar  Creek. 

Riders,  objectionable  party  measures,  likely  to  be  vetoed  on  their  own 
merits,  which  are  added  to  important  bills  to  secure  their  passage.  The 
first  use  of  the  rider,  of  national  importance,  was  the  joining  in  1820  of  the 
bill  for  the  admission  of  Maine  to  that  permitting  slavery  in  Missouri,  so  as  to 
compel  the  acceptance  of  both  or  neither.  These  were  afterward  separated. 
The  Army  Appropriation  Bill  of  1856  had  a  rider  attached  prohibiting  the 
employment  of  Federal  troops  for  the  enforcement  of  territorial  law  in 
Kansas.  The  President  signed  this  measure,  but  protested  against  the 
rider.  In  1879  the  Democrats  in  Congress  attempted  by  riders  on  appropria- 
tion bills  to  bring  to  an  end  the  Federal  interference  in  Southern  politics. 
President  Hayes,  by  firm  use  of  the  veto,  dealt  a  severe  blow  at  this  objec- 
tionable practice.  State  Constitutions  have  frequently  prevented  it  by 
allowing  the  Governor  to  veto  separate  items  in  appropriation  bills. 

Riding,  a  division  of  the  provinces  held  by  James,  Duke  of  York,  insti- 
tuted by  the  "  Duke's  Laws."  The  riding  was  borrowed  from  Yorkshire, 
England. 

Ridpath,  John  C.,  of  Indiana,  born  in  1840,  is  author  of  a  "  Popular  His- 
tory of  the  United  States,"  a  "  Monograph  on  Alexander  Hamilton,"  "  Life 
and  Work  of  Garfield,"  "  Life  of  James  G.  Blaine,"  "  History  of  Texas," 
and  a  "  Cyclopaedia  of  Universal  History." 

Riedesel,  Baron  Friedrich  A.  (1738-1800),  major-general,  came  to 
America  in  1776  in  command  of  4000  troops  from  Brunswick  employed  by 
the  British.  He  served  in  Burgoyne's  expedition  in  1777,  and  fought  at 
Ticonderoga,  Hubbardton  and  Saratoga.  Captured  there,  he  was  afterward 
exchanged.  He  was  placed  in  command  of  Long  Island  in  1780  and  trans- 
ferred to  Canada  in  1781.  He  returned  to  Germany  in  1783.  He  was  a 
skillful  general. 

Riedesel,  Frederica  C.  L.  (1746-1808),  married  Baron  Riedesel  in  1762, 
and  came  to  America  in  1777.  She  was  with  her  husband  in  all  his  cam- 
paigns and  captivity,  ministered  to  the  sick  and  wounded,  and  wrote  interest- 
ing accounts  of  the  Americans. 


55g  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Rigdon,  Sidney  (1793-1876),  was  one  of  the  propagators  of  the  doctrine 
of  the  Mormons,  and  was  one  of  the  presidents  of  the  church.  He  refused 
to  recognize  Brigham  Young  as  leader  of  the  church,  and  was  excommuni- 
cated. 

Rinehart,  William  H.  (1825-1874),  of  Baltimore,  one  of  the  most  promi- 
nent of  American  sculptors,  produced,  among  his  works  of  art,  "  Indian 
Girl,"  "  The  Woman  of  Samaria,"  "  Love  Reconciled  with  Death,"  "  Clytie," 
and  a  statue  of  Chief-Justice  Taney. 

Ringgold,  Ga.,  an  engagement  of  the  Civil  War,  November  27,  1863, 
during  Bragg's  precipitate  flight  from  the  battle-field  of  Chattanooga. 
Hooker,  commanding  a  Federal  brigade,  was  in  hot  pursuit,  when  at  Ring- 
gold,  near  a  narrow  mountain  gap,  he  encountered  a  body  of  Confederates 
under  Cleburne  blocking  his  passage.  These  troops  were  immediately 
charged  by  Hooker,  and  the  fight  lasted  all  the  afternoon.  Hooker  was 
defeated  and  driven  back  with  great  loss. 

Ripley,  Eleazar  W.  (1782-1839),  major-general,  was  a  member  of  the 
Massachusetts  Legislature  from  i8iotoi8i2.  He  served  in  the  attack  on 
York  (now  Toronto),  Canada,  and  commanded  a  brigade  under  General 
Brown  on  the  Niagara  frontier,  fighting  at  Chippewa  and  Niagara.  He 
was  prominent  in  defence  of  Fort  Erie.  He  represented  Louisiana  in  the 
U.  S.  Congress  as  a  Jackson  Democrat  from  1835  to  1839. 

Ripley,  George  (1802-1880),  was  the  chief  promoter  of  the  Brook  Farm 
experiment  at  Roxbury,  Mass.,  from  1844  to  1846.  He  edited  the  Harbinger, 
a  Fourierite  organ,  from  1844  to  1848,  and  was  assistant  editor  of  "The 
American  Cyclopaedia."  He  was  literary  editor  of  the  New  York  Tribune 
from  1847  to  1880.  He  had  an  extensive  literary  knowledge,  and  was  a 
severe  critic. 

Rising,  Johan  C.,  born  about  1600,  came  to  America  from  Sweden  in  1654. 
He  captured  Fort  Casimir  from  the  Dutch  and  became  Governor  of  New 
Sweden,  but  was  expelled  by  Governor  Stuyvesant,  of  New  Amsterdam,  in 
1655- 

Ritchie,  Thomas  (1778—1854),  founded  the  Enquirer  at  Richmond,  Va.,  in 
1804,  and  edited  it  until  1845.  His  paper  was  a  powerful  organ  of  the 
States'-Rights  Democrats.  He  edited  the  Union  from  1845  to  1849. 

Rittenhouse,  David  (1732-1796),  a  famous  astronomer,  was  a  member  of 
the  Pennsylvania  Committee  of  Safety  in  1776  and  treasurer  of  Pennsylvania 
from  1777  to  1789.  He  was  director  of  the  U.  S.  mint  from  1792  to  1795. 

River  and  Harbor  Acts.  President  Polk  vetoed  a  river  and  harbor  bill 
in  1846  and  Pierce  another  in  1854.  From  this  time  to  1870  appropriations 
for  the  improvement  of  rivers  and  harbors  were  inserted  not  infrequently  in 
appropriation  bills.  Since  1870  they  have  been  separate.  From  $2,000,000 
in  1870  the  appropriations  rose  to  $19,000,000  in  1882-83.  Since  then 
biennial  appropriations  have  been  the  rule.  That  of  1891  was  of  $25,000,000. 

River  Brethren,  a  religious  denomination  which  came  into  existence  about 
the  close  of  the  Revolution,  named  probably  from  their  baptizing  only  in 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  559 

rivers,  or   perhaps   because   they  originated   near  the   Susquehanna  River; 
akin  in  doctrine  to  the  Mennonite  Baptists. 

Rives,  William  C.  (1793-1868),  represented  Virginia  in  the  U.  S.  Congress 
as  a  Democrat  from  1823  to  l8^9-  While  Minister  to  France  from  1829  to 
1832  he  negotiated  the  Indemnity  Treaty  of  1831.  He  was  a  U.  S.  Senator 
from  1833  to  1834  and  from  1836  to  1845,  Minister  to  France  from  1849  to 
1853,  and  a  Confederate  Congressman  from  1861  to  1864.  He  wrote  an 
elaborate  life  of  Madison. 

Rivington,  James  (i724?-i8o2),  came  to  America  from  England  in  1760, 
and  founded  the  New  York  Gazetteer  in  1773,  which  became  very  obnoxious 
to  the  patriots.  He  furnished  Washington  with  valuable  information  on  the 
British  movements. 

"  Rivington's  New  York  Gazetteer,"  or,  the  Connecticut,  New  Jersey, 
Hudson's  River  and  Quebec  Weekly  Advertiser.  This  newspaper  was  estab- 
lished in  New  York  City  April  22,  1773.  It  was  distinctly  royalist  in  its 
sympathies,  its  circulation  extended  exclusively  among  the  Tories,  and  it 
was  issued  under  the  protection  of  the  king's  army.  Rivington  was  obliged 
to  suspend  publication  in  1775,  but  renewed  in  1777  under  the  title  Riving- 
ton's New  York  Loyal  Gazette,  afterward  changed  to  Royal  Gazette.  The 
publication  was  finally  suspended  in  1783,  when  the  British  withdrew  from 
New  York. 

Roach,  John  (1815-1887),  came  to  New  York  from  Ireland  in  1829.  He 
established  extensive  ship-building  works  in  Pennsylvania  which  built  six 
monitors  and  many  other  vessels  for  the  U.  S.  Government. 

Roanoke  Colony.  In  1584  Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  having  obtained  a  large 
grant  of  land  from  Queen  Elizabeth,  sent  out,  April  9,  seven  vessels  and 
108  settlers  under  the  command  of  Sir  Richard  Grenville.  After  skirting 
the  West  Indies  and  Hispaniola,  they  landed  at  Roanoke,  in  North  Carolina, 
June  20.  Ralph  Lane  was  left  in  charge  of  the  settlement  and  Grenville 
returned  to  England .  During  the  following  winter  Lane  made  numerous 
exploring  expeditions  and  -suffered  greatly  from  Indian  attacks.  In  the 
spring  he  received  some  aid  in  men  and  supplies  from  Sir  Francis  Drake, 
but  finally  the  settlers  persuaded  Drake  to  take  them  home.  Soon  after 
Grenville  arrived  with  new  settlers.  These  had  been  destroyed  by  the 
Indians  when,  in  1587,  a  new  colony  of  Raleigh's,  under  White,  came  out. 
White  himself  returned  to  England.  When  he  came  back  (1590)  he  found 
the  colony  vanished.  It  seems  to  have  been  destroyed  by  the  savages, 
though  there  is  a  theory  that  descendants  of  the  colonists  are  still  to  be 
found  among  North  Carolina  half-breeds. 

Roanoke  Island,  N.  C.,  a  valuable  stronghold  of  the  Confederacy,  being 
the  key  to  their  defences  south  of  Norfolk,  and  a  protection  for  the  landing 
of  supplies  in  that  city.  It  was  defended  by  three  earthworks  :  Pork  Point, 
Weir's  Point  and  Fort  Blanchard,  and  commanded  by  General  Wise. 
Against  this  place  the  National  Government  dispatched  Burnside  and  Golds- 
borough  with  thirty-one  gunboats,  fourteen  transports  and  11,500  troops. 


56o  DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

With  great  difficulty  a  landing  was  effected  February  7,  1862,  the  Confed- 
erate fleet  was  dispersed  and  destroyed  at  Elizabeth  City,  N.  C. ,  the  earth- 
works were  demolished  and  2500  Confederates  made  prisoners. 

Roanoke  River,  N.  C.,  scene,  on  May  5,  1864,  of  a  naval  engagement 
between  Captain  Melancthon  Smith,  commanding  the  Federal  double-enders 
"  Sassacus,"  "  Mattabesett,"  "  Wyalusing  "  and  "  Miami  "  and  some  smaller 
vessels,  and  the  Confederate  ram  "Albemarle,"  Captain  Worley,  and  two 
gunboats.  The  Federal  fleet  was  badly  disabled,  and  the  "  Albemarle  "  too 
was  damaged.  After  the  battle  she  steamed  up  the  river,  and  in  October 
was  destroyed  by  the  Federal  commander  Gushing,  a  daring  exploit. 

Roberts,  Benjamin  S.  (1811-1875),  was  brevetted  lieutenant-colonel  for 
services  in  the  Mexican  War.  He  served  as  chief  of  cavalry  under  General 
Pope  in  1862,  and  fought  at  Cedar  Mountain  and  Bull  Run. 

Roberts,  Jonathan  (1771-1854),  represented  Pennsylvania  in  the  U.  S. 
Congress  as  a  Democrat  from  1811  to  1814.  He  earnestly  supported  the 
War  of  1812.  He  was  a  U.  S.  Senator  from  1814  to  1821. 

Robertson,  George  (1790-1874),  represented  Kentucky  in  the  U.  S.  Con- 
gress as  a  Democrat  from  1817  to  1821.  He  was  Speaker  of  the  Kentucky 
Legislature  from  1823  to  1827,  and  Chief  Justice  of  Kentucky  from  1829 
to  1843. 

Robertson,  James  (1710-1788),  came  to  America  in  1756  as  major  of 
British  troops.  He  commanded  a  brigade  at  the  battle  of  Long  Island.  He 
was  appointed  royal  Governor  of  New  York  in  1779. 

Robertson,  James  (1742-1814),  held  the  Cherokee  Indians  in  check  dur- 
ing the  Revolution.  He  founded  settlements  on  the  Cumberland  River  in 
1779.  He  defeated  the  designs  of  the  half-breed  McGillivray  (q.  v.)  for 
twelve  years. 

Robertson,  William  (1721—1793),  Scottish  historian,  published  eight 
books  of  a  "  History  of  America,"  dealing  with  the  settlement  and  history  of 
the  Spanish  colonies.  A  "  History  of  Virginia  until  1688  "  was  published 
from  his  manuscripts. 

Roberval,  Jean  F.  de  la  R.  (15007—1547),  led  a  colonizing  expedition  to 
Canada  from  France  in  1542.  He  was  soon  afterward  recalled,  and  perished 
while  conducting  another  expedition. 

Robeson,  George  M.,  born  in  1827,  was  Secretary  of  the  Navy  in  Grant's 
Cabinet  from  1869  to  1877.  He  represented  New  Jersey  in  the  U.  S.  Con- 
gress as  a  Republican  from  1879  to  1883.  Died  1897. 

Robinson,  Beverly  (1723-1792),  of  New  York,  commanded  the  Loyalist 
American  regiment  during  the  Revolution.  He  was  concerned  in  the  trea- 
sonable negotiations  of  Arnold,  and  was  prominent  in  the  trial  of  Major 
Andre".  His  immense  estate  was  confiscated. 

Robinson,  Charles,  born  in  1818,  had  a  prominent  part  in  the  early  strug- 
gles of  the  Forty-niners  in  California.  In  1856  he  was  el ected.  Governor  of 
Kansas  by  the  Free-State  party  under  the  Topeka  Constitution,  and  again 
under  ^he  Wyandqtte  Constitution,  in  1859.  Died  1894. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  561 

Robinson,  Edward  (1794-1863),  was  a  careful  student  of  Biblical  litera- 
ture. He  made  extensive  researches  in  the  Holy  Land  and  published  many 
works  relating  to  Biblical  literature,  history  and  geography. 

Robinson,  Ezekiel  G.,  born  in  1815,  was  president  of  Brown  University 
from  1872  to  1889.  He  has  a  high  reputation  as  a  teacher,  preacher  and 
orator.  He  made  a  careful  translation  of  Neander's  "  History  of  the  Plant- 
ing of  the  Church,"  and  has  written  on  philosophy  and  ethics.  Died  1894. 

Robinson,  George  D.,  born  in  1834,  represented  Massachusetts  in  the 
U.  S.  Congress  as  a  Republican  from  1877  to  J883.  He  was  Governor  of 
Massachusetts  from  1883  to  1886.  Died  February  22,  1896. 

Robinson,  John  (i575?-i625),  was  suspended  from  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land for  nonconformity,  and  in  1608  fled  to  Holland.  He  ardently  advo- 
cated the  plan  of  emigrating  to  America  and  made  arrangements  with  the 
Virginia  Company  for  sending  his  congregation  thither.  In  1620  the  Pil- 
grims sailed  from  Southampton,  and  Robinson  took  leave  of  them  in  a  mem- 
orable sermon.  He  intended  to  follow  them,  but  was  prevented  by  illness 
before  arrangements  could  be  made.  After  his  death  many  more  of  his  fol- 
lowers came  to  America.  He  wrote  "  A  justification  of  Separation  from  the 
Church  of  England,"  and  was  a  man  of  noble  and  tolerant  spirit. 

Robinson,  John  C.  (1817-1897),  served  in  the  Mexican  War.  He  com- 
manded a  brigade  at  Richmond  and  a  division  at  Fredericksburg,  Chancel- 
lorsville  and  Gettysburg,  and  fought  at  the  Wilderness  and  Spottsylvania. 

Robinson,  Lucius  (1810-1891),  joined  the  Republican  party  and  was 
Comptroller  of  New  York  from  1861  to  1865.  He  returned  to  the  Demo- 
cratic party  and  was  elected  Governor  in  1876,  serving  till  1880. 

Robinson,  William  Erigena  (1814-1892),  came  to  America  from  Ireland 
in  1836.  He  was  prominent  as  a  correspondent  of  the  New  York  Tribun^ 
under  the  name  of  "  Richelieu."  He  represented  New  York  in  the  U.  6'. 
Congress  as  a  Democrat  from  1866  to  1868  and  from  1880  to  1884.  He 
secured  the  passage  of  a  bill  in  1868  asserting  the  rights  of  expatriation  and 
naturalization. 

Rochambeau,  Comte  de  [Jean  Baptiste  Donatien  de  Vimeure]  (1725- 
1807),  the  principal  French  military  figure  in  the  Revolutionary  War,  aside 
from  Lafayette,  served  in  the  War  of  the  Austrian  Succession  and  the  Seven 
Years'  War.  In  1780  he  was  sent  to  America  in  command  of  a  considerable 
force,  and  fixed  his  headquarters  at  Newport.  Having  concerted  his  plans 
with  Washington,  he  marched  to  the  neighborhood  of  New  York  in  the 
summer  of  1781,  effected  a  junction  with  his  ally,  and  the  two  moved  rapidly 
southward  to  Yorktown.  Rochambeau  conducted  assaults  on  the  town,  and 
received  a  fair  share  of  the  credit  for  the  feat.  He  returned  to  France  in 
1783.  Later  he  was'a  field  marshal,  but  was  inconspicuous  in  the  French 
Revolution. 

Rochester,  Nathaniel  (1752-1831),  served  in  North  Carolina  in  the  Revo- 
lution as  commissary-general.  He  purchased  large  tracts  near  Rochester, 
N.  Y.,  which  was  named  for  him.  He  served  in  the  Legislatures  of  North 
Carolina,  Maryland  and  New  York. 

36 


562  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Rockingham,  Charles  W.  Wentworth,  Marquis  of  (1730-1782),  while 
Prime  Minister  of  England  from  1765  to  1766,  secured  the  repeal  of  the 
Stamp  Act.  He  became  Premier  again  in  1782  and  began  the  negotiation 
of  the  Treaty  of  Paris  with  the  United  States. 

Rockingham  Convention,  the  first  State  party  convention  held  in  New 
Hampshire.  August  5,  1812,  a  mass  meeting  of  1500  voters  assembled  at 
Portsmouth,  Rockingham  County,  adopted  a  platform,  nominated  a  full 
ticket,  State,  Electoral  and  Congressional,  and  joined  in  a  vigorous  address 
to  President  Madison. 

Rocky  Face  Ridge,  Ga.,  a  strong  position  from  which  Johnston,  with  an 
army  of  55,000  Confederates  during  four  days,  May  5-9,  1864,  opposed  the 
advance  of  Sherman's  army,  99,000  strong,  on  Atlanta.  McPherson  flanked 
the  Confederate  left  and  endeavored  to  carry  Resaca,  but  without  avail.  He 
then  fell  back  to  Snake  Creek  Gap,  and,  on  May  7,  Sherman  passed  his 
troops  through  this  defile,  threatening  Johnston's  rear,  while  Howard's 
division  menaced  his  front.  Johnston,  perceiving  he  was  about  to  be 
hemmed  in,  fell  back  to  Resaca  to  strengthen  his  position. 

Rocky  Mountain,  Battle  of,  July  30,  1780.  Rocky  Mountain,  one  of  the 
strategic  points  of  South  Carolina,  was  seized  by  the  British  in  1780.  On 
the  above  date  Sumter,  with  a  small  force,  made  a  spirited  but  unsuccessful 
attack  upon  the  post. 

Rodgers,  Christopher  R.  P.  (1819-1892),  commanded  the  "Wabash"  at 
Port  Royal.  He  was  fleet  captain  at  Fort  Sumter  in  1863.  From  1863  to 
1866  he  commanded  the  "  Iroquois."  He  retired,  a  rear  admiral,  in  1881. 

Rodgers,  John  (1771-1838),  a  naval  hero,  served  in  1799  in  the  war 
against  France,  and  later  in  the  Tripolitan  War.  He  took  command  in  the 
Mediterranean  in  1805,  and  compelled  Tripoli  and  Tunis  to  sign  treaties. 
While  in  command  of  the  "  President"  in  1811,  Rodgers  had  an  encounter 
with  the  British  "  Little  Belt,"  an  affair  which  increased  the  tension  between 
the  two  nations.  In  the  ensuing  war  he  took  many  prizes;  he  was  also 
present  at  the  defence  of  Baltimore  in  1814.  After  peace  was  restored  he 
held  for  many  years  the  office  of  naval  commissioner. 

Rodgers,  John  (1812—1882),  rear-admiral,  engaged  in  the  Port-Royal  expe- 
dition in  1861,  and  commanded  the  "Galena  "  in  the  battle  of  Drury's  Bluff. 
In  command  of  the  monitor  "  Weehawken,"  he  captured  the  Confederate 
iron-clad  "Atlanta-"  in  1863.  He  commanded  the  "Dictator"  from  1864  to 
1865.  He  was  distinguished  for  his  courage  and  superior  ability.  He  was 
superintendent  of  the  U.  S.  Naval  Observatory  from  1877  to  1882. 

Rodman,  Thomas  J.  (1815—1871),  invented  the  Rodman  guns,  which  are 
cast  about  a  hollow  core  through  which  a  stream  of  cold  water  runs.  He 
was  an  inspector  of  ordnance  during  the  Civil  War. 

Rodney,  Caesar  (1728-1784),  was  a  delegate  from  Delaware  to  the  Stamp 
Act  Congress  at  New  York  in  1765.  He  was  Speaker  of  the  Delaware 
Assembly  from  1769  to  1774,  and  of  the  Delaware  popular  Convention  in 
1774.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Continental  Congress  from  1774  to  1776, 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  563 

was  a  member  of  the  committee  to  draft  a  statement  of  rights  and  griev- 
ances, and  signed  the  Declaration  of  Independence.  He  served  under  Gen- 
eral Washington  in  the  Delaware  campaign  from  1776  to  1777,  and  was 
president  of  Delaware  from  1778  to  1782. 

'Rodney,  Caesar  A.  (1772-1824),  represented  Delaware  in  the  U.  S.  Con- 
gress as  a  Democrat  from  1803  to  l8°5-  He  was  Attorney-General  in  Jef- 
ferson's and  Madison's  Cabinets  from  1807  to  1811.  As  commissioner  to 
South  America  in  1817  he  advocated  the  recognition  of  the  Spanish-Ameri- 
can republics.  He  was  a  U.  S.  Congressman  from  1821  to  1822  and  a  U.  S. 
Senator  from  1822  to  1823.  He  was  appointed  Minister  to  the  Argentine 
provinces  in  1823. 

Rodriguez's  Canal  (near  New  Orleans).  Just  before  the  battle  of  New 
Orleans,  General  Jackson  had  made  this  his  line  of  defence  against  the  British, 
who  on  January  i,  1815,  endeavored  to  storm  the  works.  They  were  repulsed 
with  heavy  loss,  abandoning  five  heavy  cannon. 

Roe,  Francis  A.,  born  in  1823,  commanded  the  "Pensacola"  in  passing 
Forts  Jackson  and  St.  Philip  in  Farragut's  squadron.  He  commanded  the 
"Katahdin"  from  1862  to  1863.  He  commanded  the  "  Sassacus,"  destroyed 
blockade  runners  and  fought  against  the  "  Albemarle." 

Roebling,  John  A.  (1806—1869),  came  to  Pennsylvania  from  Germany  in 
1831.  He  established  a  large  wire  manufactory  in  Trenton,  N.  J.  He  con- 
structed the  Niagara  and  Cincinnati  suspension  bridges,  and  began  the  con- 
struction of  the  Brooklyn  Bridge  in  1869. 

Roebling,  Washington  A.,  born  in  1837,  was  a  colonel  in  the  Civil  War, 
serving  at  South  Mountain,  Antietam  and  Bull  Run.  He  succeeded  his 
father  in  the  construction  of  Brooklyn  Bridge,  which  was  completed  in 
1883. 

Rogerenes,  a  sect  of  Seventh-Day  Baptists,  followers  of  Jonathan  Rogers, 
of  New  London,  Conn.  The  sect  originated  about  1675.  Beside  keeping 
the  Saturday  as  the  holy  day,  they  opposed  the  use  of  medicines  and  family 
prayers. 

Rogers,  John,  of  New  York,  born  in  1829,  catl*e  into  prominence  as  a 
sculptor  in  1860  for  his  group,  "The  Slave  Auction."  He  has  gained  great 
celebrity  for  his  statuettes  illustrating  war  subjects  and  rural  life. 

Rogers,  Robert  (1727-1800),  commanded  "  Rogers'  Rangers  "  during  the 
French  War.  In  1759  he  destroyed  the  Indian  village  at  St.  Francis. 
In  1765  he  was  appointed  Governor  of  Mackinaw,  Mich.,  by  the  crown. 
He  was  paroled  by  Congress  at  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolution.  He  raised 
<:  The  Queen's  Rangers,"  a  corps  which  was  distinguished  during  the  war. 
In  1777  he  went  to  England,  and  in  1778  was  banished  from  America. 

Rogersville,  Tenn.,  a  brief  fight,  November  6,  1863,  between  detachments 
of  Burnside's  Federal  troops  and  some  Confederates  from  Longstreet's  com- 
mand. This  took  place  during  Longstreet's  pursuit  of  Burnside  toward 
Knoxville. 

Roman  Catholic.     (See  Catholic.) 


564  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Romero,  Matias,  born  in  1837,  was  Mexican  charge*  d'  affaires  at  Wash- 
ington from  1860  to  1863,  when  complicated  diplomatic  questions  were  at 
issue.  He  was  Minister  to  the  United  States  from  1863  to  1868,  and  from 
1882  to  the  present  time  (1898.)  Died  1898. 

Romney,  W.  Va.  October  25, 1861,  Colonel  Kelly,  who  was  then  guarding 
the  Allegheny  section  of  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  Railroad,  surprised  a  Con- 
federate battalion.  Sixty  prisoners  were  taken  besides  all  the  camp  equi- 
page, provisions  and  munitions.  Colonel  Wallace,  of  Indiana,  also,  June, 
1 86 1,  routed  a  Confederate  force  from  Romney. 

Roorback,  a  general  term  for  political  forgery,  originating  in  the  publica- 
tion for  political  purposes  of  alleged  extracts  from  the  "  Travels  of  Baron 
Roorback,"  in  1844. 

Roosevelt,  Robert  B.,  born  in  1829,  edited  the  New  York  Citizen  from 
x868.  He  represented  New  York  in  the  U.  S.  Congress  as  a  Democrat  from 
1871  to  1873,  and  was  Minister  to  the  Netherlands  from  1888  to  1889. 

Roosevelt,  Theodore,  born  in  1858,  was  a  Republican  member  of  the 
New  York  Assembly  from  1880  to  1884.  He  was  an  ardent  advocate  of 
political  reform,  and  succeeded  in  abolishing-  many  political  abuses.  He  is 
author  of  a  "History  of  the  Naval  War  of  1812,"  of  lives  of  Benton  and 
Gouverneur  Morris  in  the  American  Statesmen  Series,  and  of  "  The  Winning 
of  the  West."  Has  served  as  U.  S.  Civil  Service  Commissioner,  President 
Police  Board,  New  York,  and  Assistant  Secretary  of  Navy,  which  he  resigned 
May,  1898,  and  served  in  Cuba  as  Lt.  Col.  and  Col.  of  "  Rough  Riders." 
Became  Governor  of  New  York  State  Jan.  i,  1899. 

Root,  Elihu,  born  in  1845,  graduate  of  Hamilton  college,  U.  S.  District 
Attorney  1883  to  1885,  became  Secretary  of  War  in  1899. 

Root,  George  Frederick,  born  in  1820,  has  composed  many  songs  of 
national  popularity,  including  "  Battle  Cry  of  Freedom,"  "Just  Before  the 
Battle,  Mother,"  "  Tramp,  Tramp,  the  Boys  are  Marching,"  and  "  There's 
Music  in  the  Air."  Died  1895. 

Ropes,  John  C.,  born  in  St.  Petersburg  in  1836,  has  contributed  to  the 
publications  of  the  Military  Historical  Society  of  Massachusetts.  He  ha* 
written,  "  The  Army  under  Pope,"  in  "  Campaigns  of  the  Civil  War,"  a  book 
on  Napoleon,  and  one  on  the  Waterloo  campaign. 

Rosa  Americana,  a  coinage  issued  in  1722  by  Great  Britain  for  America 
of  a  mixed  metal  resembling  brass,  and  called  Rosa  Americana  or  Wood'? 
money,  after  its  manufacturer  William  Wood.  The  royal  letters  patent 
described  this  money  as  two-pence,  pence  and  half-pence.  The  obverse  wa5 
stamped  with  a  laureated  head  of  George  the  First;  the  reverse  with  a  double 
rose  from  which  projected  five  barbed  points.  Legend:  Rosa  Americana, 
1722  above,  and  below,  Utile  Dulci. 

Rose,  George  (1744-1818),  was  British  Minister  to  the  United  States 
from  1807  to  1808,  to  negotiate  concerning  the  "  Chesapeake"  affair.  He 
made  demands  which  the  United  States  would  not  concede. 

Rose,  Sir  John  (1820-1888),  came  to  Canada  from  Scotland  in  1836.  He 
was  British  Commissioner  to  the  United  States  in  1864  and  1869.  In  1870, 
as  confidential  agent  he  made  negotiations  toward  the  treaty  of  Washington. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  565 

Rosecrans,  William  Starke  (1819-1 8g8),  an  American  general,  was 
graduated  at  West  Point  in  1842.  Previous  to  the  war  he  was  a  professor  at 
the  academy,  an  engineer  and  a  financier.  Being  appointed  colonel  of  Ohio 
volunteers  in  1861,  he  served  in  West  Virginia,  and  won  the  battle  of  Rich 
Mountain,  July,  1861.  He  next  succeeded  McClellan  in  the  Department  of 
the  Ohio,  and  gained  the  victory  of  Carnifex  Ferry  in  September.  Appointed 
commander  of  the  Army  of  the  Mississippi,  he  conquered  at  luka,  Septem- 
ber, 1862,  at  Corinth,  October,  and  succeeded  Buell  as  commander  of  the 
Army  of  the  Cumberland.  He  fought  the  great  battle  of  Murfreesboro', 
showed  skillful  strategy  in  the  next  months,  and  was  defeated  at  Chicka- 
mauga.  After  this  Rosecrans  was  superseded,  sent  to  the  West,  and  put  on 
waiting  orders.  He  resigned  in  1867.  He  was  Minister  to  Mexico,  1868— 
1869,  Democratic  Congressman  from  California,  1881-1885,  aa(^  Register  of 
the  U.  S.  Treasury  from  1885  to  l893- 

Rosewell,  a  famous  old  Virginia  homestead  on  Carter's  Creek,  near  the 
York  River.  It  was  begun  in  the  seventeenth  century  by  Mann  Page,  and 
finished  by  his  son  and  widow. 

Ross,  George  (1730-1779),  was  a  member  of  the  Pennsylvania  Assembly 
from  1768  to  1770.  He  was  appointed  to  prepare  the  Pennsylvania  declara- 
tion of  rights.  He  served  in  the  Continental  Congress  from  1774  to  1777, 
and  signed  the  Declaration  of  Independence.  He  was  active  in  reorganizing 
the  government  of  Pennsylvania,  and  in  urging  aggressive  measures  against 
British  oppression.  He  was  appointed  judge  of  admiralty  in  1779. 

Ross,  John  (1790-1866),  chief  of  the  Cherokee  Indians,  successfully 
resisted  the  encroachments  of  the  Georgia  Legislature  upon  the  Cherokee 
land  titles  in  1829.  He  opposed  the  treaty  of  New  Echota  in  1835,  but  was 
compelled  by  the  United  States  to  remove  to  a  reservation. 

Ross,  Robert  (17707-1814),  came  to  America  in  1814  in  command  of  a 
force  of  British  soldiers.  *He  defeated  the  Americans  at  Bladensburg,  burned 
the  capitol  and  other  public  buildings  at  Washington,  and  was  killed  at 
North  Point. 

Rosser,  Thomas  L.,  born  in  1836,  attained  the  rank  of  major-general  in 
the  Confederate  service.  He  commanded  the  Virginia  cavalry  under  Gen- 
eral Early  in  1863,  fighting  at  Cedar  Creek. 

Rouarie,  Armand  T.  (1756-1793),  came  to  the  United  States  from  France 
in  1777.  He  served  with  Lafayette  in  New  Jersey  and  under  General  Gates 
against  Cornwallis.  He  fought  at  Warren  Tavern,  Camden  and  Yorklown. 

Rough  and  Ready,  a  nickname  of  President  Zachary  Taylor,  earned  dur- 
ing his  Mexican  campaigns. 

Rough  Riders.  Popular  name  of  the  First  Volunteer  Cavalry  in  the 
Spanish-American  War,  composed  of  "  cow-boys  "  and  society  men. 

Roumania.  The  United  States  concluded  a  consular  convention  with 
Roumania  in  1881. 

Rousseau,  Lovell  H.  (1818-1869)^  was  a  member  of  the  Indiana  Legis- 
lature in  1844  and  1845.  He  distinguished  himself  at  the  battle  of  Buena 
Vista  in  the  Mexican  War.  He  led  *  brigade  at  the  battle  of  Shiloh  and 


566  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

fought  at  Perryville.  He  commanded  a  division  of  the  army  of  the  Cum- 
berland at  Stone  River,  Chattanooga  and  Chickamauga.  He  represented 
Kentucky  in  the  U.  S.  Congress  as  a  Republican  from  1865  to  1867.  He  was 
sent  to  receive  Alaska  from  the  Russian  Government  and  assume  control 
of  the  territory  in  1867. 

Rowan,  Stephen  C.  (1808—1890),  vice-admiral,  came  to  America  from 
Ireland.  He  entered  the  U.  S.  navy  in  1826.  He  assisted  in  the  capture  of 
Monterey  and  San  Diego  in  1846  during  the  Mexican  War,  and  commanded 
a  naval  brigade  under  Commodore  Stockton  at  San  Gabriel  and  L,a  Mesa. 
In  the  Civil  War  he  commanded  the  "  Pawnee  "  at  Acquia  Creek  and  Hat- 
teras.  He  commanded  the  fleet  in  the  attack  on  Roanoke  Island  in  1862, 
fought  at  New  Berne  and  captured  Fort  Macon.  He  commanded  "  The 
New  Ironsides"  off  Charleston  from  1862  to  1864.  He  became  super- 
intendent of  the  Naval  Observatory  in  1882. 

Royal  African  Company,  an  English  slave-trading  corporation  organized 
about  1720  for  the  especial  purpose  of  transporting  slaves  to  the  colonies. 
In  the  Carolinas  special  care  was  enjoined  upon  the  Government  to  encourage 
this  trade. 

Ruger,  Thomas  H.,  born  in  1833,  commanded  a  brigade  in  the  Rappa- 
hannock  campaign  and  a  division  at  Gettysburg.  He  commanded  a  division 
against  General  Hood  in  1864  and  led  a  division  in  North  Carolina  in  1865. 
He  became  a  brigadier-general  in  1886.  Retired  1897. 

Ruggles,  Benjamin  (1783-1857),  represented  Ohio  in  the  U.  S.  Senate  as 
a  Democrat  from  1815  to  1833.  He  was  called  the  "  wheel-horse  of  the 
Senate  "  on  account  of  his  industrious  habits. 

Ruggles,  Timothy  (1711—1795),  served  in  the  Massachusetts  General 
Court  twenty-three  years  between  1739  and  1770.  He  commanded  a  regi- 
ment at  Crown  Point  in  1755,  was  second  in  command  at  Lake  George,  and 
led  a  brigade  in  General  Amherst's  Canadian  expedition.  When  a  delegate 
to  the  Stamp-Act  Congress  in  New  York  in  1765,  and  its  president,  he 
refused  to  sign  the  addresses  and  petitions.  He  espoused  the  British  cause 
during  the  Revolution. 

Rule  of  1756,  a  rule  of  international  law  laid  down  by  the  English  Courts 
in  the  War  of  1756,  to  the  effect  that  where  a  European  country  has  for- 
bidden trade  with  its  colonies  in  times  of  peace,  it  shall  not  open  it  to 
neutrals  in  time  of  war.  In  1793  the  English  Prize  Courts  enforced  this 
doctrine  against  American  neutral  carriers,  the  U.  S.  Government  pro- 
testing. 

"  Rum,  Romanism  and  Rebellion."  At  a  meeting  of  clergy,  in  which  all 
denominations  were  supposed  to  be  represented,  held  in  the  Fifth  Avenue 
Hotel,  New  York,  during  the  Presidential  campaign  of  1884  in  the  interest 
of  the  Republicans,  Rev.  R.  B.  Burchard  described  the  Democrats  as  the 
party  of  "Rum,  Romanism  and  Rebellion."  This  remark  was  unfortunate 
for  the  Republicans,  and  aided  in  a  great  measure  to  win  the  election  for  the 
Democrats. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  567 

Rumford,  Benjamin  Thompson,  Count  (1753-1814),  of  Massachusetts, 
sympathized  with  the  pre-Revolutionary  movements,  but  the  jealousy  of  his 
fellow-officers  in  the  New  Hampshire  regiments  alienated  his  patriotism. 
He  carried  dispatches  from  Howe  to  England  in  1776.  He  raised  the 
"King's  American  Dragoons"  in  New  York  in  1781  and  was  appointed 
lieutenant-colonel.  He  went  to  England  in  1783.  He  entered  the  service 
of  the  Elector  of  Bavaria,  acquired  great  influence,  and  was  made  prime 
minister  and  a  count  in  1790.  He  contributed  valuable  observations  and 
discoveries  to  science,  particularly  on  the  nature  and  effects  of  heat  and  in 
chemistry,  of  which  he  was  one  of  the  founders. 

Rumsey,  James  (1743-1792),  of  Maryland,  invented  a  steamboat  in  1786, 
but  died  in  England  before  he  could  perfect  his  invention. 

Rush,  Benjamin  (1745-1813),  was  prominent  in  the  pre-Revolution- 
ary movements.  He  was  chairman  of  the  committee  of  the  Pennsylvania 
Conference  which  decided  for  independence.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Con- 
tinental Congress  in  1776  and  signed  the  Declaration  of  Independence.  He 
was  physician-general  of  the  Middle  Department  from  1777  to  1778,  and  was 
a  member  of  the  Pennsylvania  Convention  of  1787.  He  was  treasurer  of 
the  U.  S.  Mint  from  1799  to  1813.  His  observations  and  discoveries  in 
medical  science  were  second  to  none,  and  he  was  noted  for  philanthropy. 

Rush,  Richard  (1780-1859),  was  Attorney-General  of  Pennsylvania  in 
1811,  Attorney-General  of  the  United  States  in  Madison's  Cabinet  from 
1814  to  1817,  temporary  Secretary  of  State  in  1817,  Minister  to  England 
from  1817  to  1825,  anc*  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  in  J.  Q.  Adams'  Cabinet 
from  1825  to  1829.  He  was  candidate  for  Vice-President  of  the  United 
States  on  the  ticket  with  Adams  in  1828.  He  was  Minister  to  France  from 
1847  to  J85i.  He  published  "Memorials  of  a  Residence  at  the  Court  of 
St.  James." 

Rusk,  Jeremiah  M.  (1830-1893),  entered  the  National  army  in  1862,  and 
served  under  General  Sherman  with  the  rank  of  lieutenant-colonel  from  the 
siege  of  Vicksburg  till  1865.  He  represented  Wisconsin  in  the  U.  S.  Con- 
gress as  a  Republican  from  1871  to  1877,  and  was  Governor  of  Wisconsin 
from  1882  to  1888.  He  was  Secretary  of  Agriculture  in  Harrison's  Cabinet 
from  1889  to  1893. 

Rusk,  Thomas  J.  (1802-1856),  was  active  in  the  struggle  of  Texas  for 
independence.  He  represented  Texas  in  the  U.  S.  Senate  as  a  Democrat 
from  1846  to  1856. 

Russell,  Benjamin  (1761-1845),  of  Massachusetts,  founded  the  Columbian 
Centinel,  a  Federalist  organ  of  great  influence,  which  he  edited  till  1828. 
He  published  the  Boston  Gazette  from  1795  to  1830.  He  originated  the 
phrase  "  era  of  good  feeling,"  and  the  word  "  gerrymander." 

Russell,  William  E.,  was  bora  in  1857.  He  was  mayor  of  Cambridge, 
Mass.,  from  1885  to  1889.  He  was  Governor  of  Massachusetts  from  1890  to 
1893.  He  advocated  tariff  and  industrial  reforms,  and  was  a  prominent 
leader  of  the  young  democracy.  Died  July  16,  1896. 


568 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 


Russia.  Russia  has  always  been  particularly  friendly  to  the  United  States, 
recognizing  its  independence  immediately  upon  the  settlement  of  peace  with 
Great  Britain  in  1783.  By  the  Treaty  of  1824  the  navigation  and  fisheries 
of  the  Pacific  were  regulated,  and  a  favorable  commercial  treaty  was  secured 
in  1832  by  the  United  States.  A  convention  relative  to  neutral  rights  at  sea 
was  concluded  in  1854.  By  the  Treaty  of  1867  Russia  ceded  all  its  Ameri- 
can possessions  to  the  United  States  for  $7,200,000.  An  extradition  treaty 
long  pending  went  into  effect  June  24,  1893. 

Rutgers  College,  New  Brunswick,  N.  J.,  was  established  by  royal  charter 
in  1770  under  the  name  of  Queen's  College.  It  received  its  present  name  in 
1825  in  honor  of  a  gift  of  $5000  from  Colonel  Henry  Rutgers.  Till  £865  it 
was  controlled  by  the  synod  of  the  Protestant  Reformed  Church,  which 
church  must  still  furnish  its  president  and  three-fourths  of  its  trustees. 
During  the  Revolution  its  exercises  were  suspended,  and  till  1863  the  college 
suffered  from  financial  embarrassments.  Since  then  it  has  greatly  increased 
in  endowment  and  influence. 

Rutgers  vs.  Waddington,  a  case  tried  before  Mayor  James  Duane,  of 
New  York,  in  1784.  Under  the  provisions  of  the  "Trespass  Act,"  passed 
some  time  before  by  the  New  York  State  Legislature,  Elizabeth  Rutgers  had 
sued  Joshua  Waddington,  a  wealthy  Tory  merchant,  for  unlawful  trespass 
upon  and  possession  of  certain  real  estate.  Alexander  Hamilton  appeared 
for  the  defendant.  It  was  alleged  that  the  Trespass  Act  was  contrary  to  the 
provisions  of  the  Treaty  of  1783,  by  which  protection  was  promised  the 
Tories,  and  likewise  violated  principles  of  the  law  of  nations.  The  court, 
however,  refused  to  assume  jurisdiction  over  acts  'of  Assembly,  to  set  them 
aside  on  any  ground.  It  gave  the  case  to  the  defendant  by  an  equitable  in- 
terpretation of  the  statute  itself. 

Rutledge,  Edward  (1749-1800),  was  a  delegate  from  South  Carolina  to 
the  Continental  Congress  from  1774  to  1777.  He  signed  the  Declaration  of 
Independence.  He  was  a  member  of  the  first  Board  of  War  in  1776,  and  a 
member  of  the  committee  to  draw  up  Articles  of  Confederation.  He  was  a 
commissioner  to  confer  with  Lord  Howe  in  1776.  He  commanded  a  com- 
pany of  artillery  during  the  siege  of  Charleston.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
South  Carolina  Legislature  from  1782  to  1798,  and  Governor  of  South 
Carolina  from  1798  to  1800. 

Rutledge,  John  (1739-1800),  an  eminent  statesman  of  South  Carolina, 
attended  the  Stamp  Act  Congress  of  1765,  and  the  First  and  Second  Con- 
tinental Congresses.  He  was  in  1776  the  president  of  the  State  Government, 
and  served  as  Governor  1779-1782.  He  was  also  Chancellor  of  the  State, 
and  a  member  of  the  Federal  Convention  of  1787.  Rutledge  ranked  among 
the  Federalist  leaders.  President  Washington  appointed  him  in  1795  Chief 
Justice  of  the  U.  S.  Supreme  Court,  but  the  nomination  was  rejected  by 
the  Senate. 

Ryswick,  Treaty  of,  in  1697,  ended  the  war  which,  in  Europe,  was  called 
the  War  of  the  Grand  Alliance;  in  America,  King  William's  War. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  569 

s. 

Sabine  Cross  Roads,  La.  Here  during  Banks'  Red  River  expedition  of 
1864  General  Banks'  advance-guard  of  8000  Federals  was  defeated,  as  it 
marched  toward  Shreveport,  by  20,000  Confederates  led  by  Kirby  Smith. 
Banks  was  totally  unprepared  for  battle,  his  line  of  march  extending  over 
twenty  miles.  Suddenly,  April  8,  the  Confederates  emerged  from  the  forest 
and  bore  down  upon  the  disorganized  line,  and  charged  the  Federals  with 
great  fury.  Their  line  gave  way  almost  immediately.  The  Confederates 
pursued  them  over  three  miles,  until,  at  Pleasant  Grove,  Emory's  division 
was  met  drawn  up  to  receive  them.  A  brief  skirmish  followed,  and  then 
the  Confederates  desisted.  Banks  lost  heavily. 

Sackett's  Harbor,  N.  Y.  The  first  attack  upon  this  place  in  the  War  of 
1812,  was  made  on  July  29,  1812,  by  a  fleet  of  five  British  vessels  that  bom- 
barded the  fortifications.  They  were  repulsed  with  the  loss  of  thirty-two 
men  killed  and  wounded;  the  Americans  lost  not  a  man.  A  second  and  last 
attempt  was  made  May  29,  1813.  Six  British  vessels  and  forty  bateaux  with 
1000  troops  aboard  under  command  of  Governor-General  Sir  George  Preyost, 
attacked  the  militia  and  regulars  under  General  Jacob  Brown.  The  militia 
fled  at  the  first  fire;  therefore,  the  officers  in  charge  of  the  storehouses,  think- 
ing the  Americans  defeated,  set  fire  to  the  storehouses,  whereby  half  a  mil- 
lion dollars'  worth  of  supplies  were  destroyed.  General  Brown,  however, 
succeeded  in  rallying  the  militia,  and  the  British,  believing  them  to  be  rein- 
forcements, turned  and  fled,  leaving  their  dead  and  wounded  behind. 

Sackville,  Lord.     (See  West,  Lionel  Sackville-.) 

Sacramento,  Cal.,  was  founded  in  1841,  and  became  the  capital  of  Cali- 
fornia in  1845.  It  obtained  a  city  charter  in  1863. 

Sacramento,  N.  MM  a  narrow  pass  where,  February  23,  1847,  the  Ameri- 
can Colonel  Doniphan  defeated  a  force  of  Chihuahuans  four  times  super- 
ior in  numbers  to  his  own. 

Sacs',  an  Algonquin  tribe  of  Indians,  formerly  centred  near  the  Detroit 
River,  were  driven  beyond  Lake  Michigan  by  the  Iroquois  and  settled  near 
Green  Bay,  where  they  subsequently  joined  with  the  Foxes.  They  aided 
Pontiac,  and  during  the  Revolution  supported  the  English.  In  1812,  the 
Rpck  River  Sacs  aided  Great  Britain.  In  1804  and  1816  they  ceded  lands. 
Their  later  history  is  that  of  the  Foxes. 

Safety  Fund,  the  beginning  of  reform  in  the  banking  system.  The  Safety 
Fund  Act  was  passed  by  the  New  York  Legislature  in  1829,  upon  the  sugges- 
tion of  Governor  Martin  Van  Buren.  It  required  that  banks  chartered  by 
the  State  should  pay  into  the  State  Treasury  a  certain  percentage  of  their 
capital  stock  to  serve  as  a  fund  out  of  which  the  liabilities  of  any  of  them 
that  might  fail  should  be  made  good.  But  the  deposit  was  eventually  found 
too  small,  and  a  different  system  was  adopted  later. 

Sage,  Russell,  born  in  1816,  represented  New  York  in  the  U.  S.  Congress 
as  a  Whig  from  1853  to  1857.  He  has  had  immense  interests  in  railroads, 
for  many  of  which  he  has  been  a  director. 


570  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

St.  Augustine,  Fla.,  the  oldest  town  in  the  United  States,  was  settled  by 
the  Spaniards  under  Menendez  in  1565,  when  a  fort  was  erected.  It  was 
several  times  attacked  by  the  French,  English  and  Indians.  It  came  into 
the  possession  of  the  English  by  the  Treaty  of  1763,  was  ceded  to  Spain  in 
1783,  and  transferred  to  the  United  States  in  1819. 

St.  Brandan's  Isle,  a  legendary  island  supposed  to  have  existed  to  the 
southwest  of  the  Canary  Islands  and  to  have  been  discovered  by  the  Irish 
Monk,  St.  Brandan,  and  seventy-five  brother  monks  in  the  sixth  century, 
after  seven  years  spent  in  the  search  for  the  land  of  saints.  This  legend  is 
traceable  as  far  back  as  the  eleventh  century.  Each  of  the  various  early 
geographers'  gives  it  a  different  location.  The  legend  had  some  influence 
upon  the  discovery  of  America. 

St.  Charles,  Ark.,  occupied  in  1862  by  the  Confederates,  100  strong,  under 
Williams  and  protected  by  Fry  with  a  gunboat,  the  "  Maurepas,"  and  several 
batteries.  The  Federals  under  Commander  Kilty  and  Colonel  Graham 
stormed  and  took  this  pkce  June  17.  They  had.  five  gunboats  and  a  regi- 
ment. 

St.  Clair,  Arthur  (1734-1818),  came  to  America  as  a  British  soldier  in 
1758.  He  served  under  General  Amherst  at  Louisbourg,  and  distinguished 
himself  at  Quebec.  Joining  the  American  cause,  he  accompanied  General 
Sullivan  in  the  expedition  to  Canada  in  1776.  He  commanded  a  brigade 
at  Trenton  and  Princeton.  He  was  appointed  major-general  and  succeeded 
General  Gates  at  Ticonderoga,  which  he  surrendered  in  1777.  He  fought  at 
Yorktown.  He  represented  Pennsylvania  in  the  Continental  Congress  from 
1785  to  1787,  and  was  Governor  of  the  Northwest  Territory  from  1789  to 
1802. 

St.  John,  John  P.,  born  in  1833,  served  during  the  Civil  War,  attaining 
the  rank  of  lieutenant-colonel.  He  served  in  the  Kansas  Senate  from  1873 
to  1874,  and  was  Governor  of  Kansas  from  1878  to  1882.  He  was  the  candi- 
date of  the  Prohibition  party  for  President  of  the  United  States  in  1884. 

St.  John's  College,  Annapolis,  Md.,  was  chartered  in  1784,  opened  five 
years  later.  It  was  closed  during  the  Civil  War. 

St.  Joseph,  Fort,  an  English  fort  situated,  in  1781,  within  the  limits  of  the 
present  State  of  Michigan.  It  was  captured  that  same  year  by  sixty-five 
Spanish  militiamen  and  sixty  Indians,  under  Don  Eugenio  Pourre",  from  the 
Spanish  settlement  at  St.  Louis  on  the  Mississippi.  The  avowed  intention 
of  Spain  in  this  expedition  was  hostility  to  England,  but  in  reality  it  meant 
proposed  encroachment  on  our  possessions,  a  fact  quickly  perceived  by  John 
Jay  and  Benjamin  Franklin,  then  ministers  at  Madrid  and  Paris,  respec- 
tively. 

Saint  Leger,  Barry  (1737-1789),  came  to  America  as  a  British  soldier  in 
r757-  He  commanded  a  company  at  Louisbourg  in  1758  and  served  under 
Wolfe  at  Quebec  in  1759.  He  commanded  the  British  expedition  against 
Fort  Stanwix  and  distinguished  himself  by  his  strategy  at  Oriskany.  From 
1780  to  1781  he  conducted  a  guerilla  warfare,  with  headquarters  at  Mon- 
treal. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  571 

St.  Louis,  Mo.,  settled  as  a  trading  post  in  1764,  was  occupied  by  Spanish 
troops  in  1771  and  was  under  Spanish  rule  for  thirty  years.  In  May,  1780, 
the  town  was  attacked  by  Indians  and  thirty  citizens  killed.  In  1803  it 
became  American,  and  the  seat  of  government  of  the  ' '  District  of  Louisiana; " 
in  1822  a  city.  In  1849  St.  Louis  was  visited  by  an  extensive  conflagration 
which  Destroyed  many  of  the  business  houses  of  the  town.  Population  in 
1810,  1600;  in  1860,  160,773;  in  1890,  450,245. 

Saint  Luc,  La  Corne  de  (1712-1784),  was  active  against  the  British  during 
the  old  French  War.  He  led  the  Indians  on  the  left  column  in  Montcalm's 
expedition  against  Fort  William  Henry.  He  distinguished  himself  at 
Ticonderoga  in  1758.  He  engaged  in  the  contests  about  Quebec  in  1760. 
He<  espoused  the  cause  of  the  crown  during  the  Revolutionary  War  and 
received  the  co-operation  of  the  Indians. 

St.  Lusson,  Simon  F.  D.,  Sieur  de,  was  sent  to  explore  the  Lake  Region 
in  1670.  In  1675  he  concluded  a  treaty  with  seventeen  Indian  tribes  and  took 
possession  of  the  country  for  France. 

St.  Mary's,  the  first  settlement  made  in  Maryland.  Governor  Calvert, 
with  his  ship,  the  "Ark,"  effected  a  landing,  March  27,  1634,  and  the  emi- 
grants took  possession  of  their  new  home,  calling  it  St.  Mary's.  The  town 
afterward  went  to  decay. 

St.  Paul,  Minn.,  was  settled  as  a  trading  post  in  1838,  and  laid  out  in 
1849-50.  It  was  the  capital  of  Minnesota  from  the  origination  of  the  terri- 
torial government  in  1849. 

St.  Philip,  Fort  (Mississippi  River,  below  New  Orleans).  This  fort,  con- 
sidered the  key  to  Louisiana,  was  garrisoned  by  about  400  men  under  Major 
Overton,  when,  January  9,  1815,  an  attack  upon  it  was  made  by  five  British 
vessels.  The  bombardment  lasted  nine  days  and  resulted  in  the  killing  of 
two  Americans  and  the  wounding  of  seven  others.  The  British  withdrew 
without  capturing  the  fort.  In  the  Civil  War,  this  fort  was  garrisoned  by  a 
small  Confederate  force  under  General  Duncan.  It  was  on  the  north  side  of 
the  bend  in  the  Mississippi  River.  It  was  bombarded  during  Farragut's 
expedition  against  New  Orleans  and  surrendered  to  General  Butler,  April  27, 
1862. 

St.  Regis  (on  the  boundary  between  Nova  Scotia  and  Canada),  an  Indian 
village  occupied  by  the  British,  and  captured  October  22,  1812,  by  Major 
Young.  Forty  prisoners,  army  supplies  and  a  flag  were  among  the  spoils. 

St.  Simon,  an  island  off  the  coast  of  Georgia,  south  of  Savannah,  ceded 
to  James  Oglethorpe  by  the  Creek  Indians  under  the  treaty  of  1733.  In 
1742  it  was  attacked  by  a  Spanish  fleet  of  fifty-one  sail  under  Monteano, 
Governor  of  St.  Augustine.  Oglethorpe  drove  off  the  Spaniards  with  a 
small  force. 

Salaries,  Congressional.  Clause  i  of  Art.  I,  Sect.  6,  of  the  Constitution  pro- 
vides that  "  the  Senators  and  Representatives  shall  receive  a  compensation 
for  their  services,  to  be  ascertained  by  law,  and  paid  out  of  the  Treasury  of 
the  United  States."  Under  the  Articles  of  Confederation  each  State  pro- 
vided payment  for  its  own  members  of  Congress,  but  in  the  convention  of 


572  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

1787  it  was  thought  best  that  they  be  made  independent  of  their  States  in 
this  respect.  Pinckney  suggested  that  the  Senate,  representing  the  wealth 
of  the  country,  be  allowed  no  salary,  but  the  proposition  was  voted  down. 
The  First  Congress  voted  that  its  members  be  paid  $6.00  per  day  and  $6.00 
for  each  twenty  miles  of  travel  going  and  coming.  The  rates  have  been 
repeatedly  changed.  They  were:  From  1789  to  1815,  $6.00  per  day;  from 
1815  to  1817,  $1500  per  year;  from  1817  to  1855,  $8.00  per  day;  from  1855 
to  1865,  $3000  per  year;  from  1865  to  1871,  $5000  per  year;  from  1871  to 
! 874,  $7500  per  year;  and  since  1874,  $5000  per  year.  The  Senators  and 
Representatives  have  received  the  same  compensation,  except  during  1795, 
when  the  Senators  received  $7.00  per  day.  The  Speaker  of  the  House  and 
the  president  pro  tempore  of  the  Senate  receive  $8000  per  year.  A  mileage 
of  twenty  cents  is  allowed.  The  change  in  1816  from  $6.00  per  day  to 
$1500  per  year  was  received  with  great  disfavor,  as  was  that  of  1873,  to 
take  effect  from  March  4,  1871,  which  is  known  as  the  "salary  grab."  All 
changes  ir  Congressional  salaries  have  been  retroactive,  covering  from  twelve 
to  twenty-four  months.  Acts  affecting  salaries  prior  to  1866  were  separate 
acts.  Since  then  they  have  frequently  been  sections  of  an  appropriation 
act. 

Salaries,  Executive.  By  the  Act  of  Congress  of  September  24,  1789,  and 
again  February  18,  1793,  the  salary  of  the  President  was  made  $25,000,  that 
of  the  Vice-President  $5000.  That  of  the  President  continued  the  same 
until  March  3,  1873,  when  it  was  raised  to  $50,000.  The  salary  of  the  Vice- 
President  was  raised  to  $8000  in  1853,  to  $10,000  March  3,  1873,  and  was 
reduced  to  $8000  again  January  20,  1874.  These  salaries  are  paid  monthly. 
A  furnished  house  is  provided  for  the  President.  The  Constitution  provides 
that  a  salary  shall  be  voted  for  the  President,  which  shall  not  be  diminished 
during  his  term  of  office.  Hence  that  part  of  the  "  salary  grab  "  act  of  1873 
which  affected  his  salary  was  not  repealed.  Of  the  Cabinet  officers,  the  Sec- 
retary of  State  and  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  received  in  1789  a  salary 
of  $3500,  the  Secretary  of  War  $3000,  the  Attorney-General  $1500.  The 
Postmaster-General  had  $2000.  In  1819,  the  salary  of  the  four  secretaries 
was  made  $6000,  that  of  the  Postmaster- General  $4000,  and  that  of  the 
Attorney-General  $3500.  In  1853,  all  were  made  equal,  $8000;  in  1873, 
$10,000;  in  1874,  $8000  again. 

Salaries,  Judicial.  The  Constitution  provides  that  the  salaries  of  judges, 
voted  by  Congress,  shall  not  be  lessened  during  their  term  of  office.  When 
the  courts  were  first  organized  in  1789,  the  Chief  Justice  of  the  Supreme 
Court  was  paid  $4000,  the  Associate  Justices  $3500  each.  The  District 
Judges  received  from  $1000  to  $1800.  These  salaries  have  been  raised  from 
time  to  time.  Since  March,  1873,  the  Chief  Justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  has 
received  $10,500;  the  Associate  Justices  $10,000;  the  Circuit  Court  Judges 
$6,000  each,  and  the  District  Judges  from  $3500  to  $5000,  until  1891,  when 
the  salary  of  all  District  Judges  was  fixed  at  $5000. 

Salary  Grab,  the  popular  name  for  the  general  increase  in  Federal 
salaries  in  1873.  The  Constitution  provides  for  the  compensation  of  the 
President,  Senators,  Representatives,  Justices  and  Federal  officers  from  th<? 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  573 

Federal  treasury.  The  Act  of  March  3,  1873,  provided  that  the  President's 
salary  be  increased  from  $25,000  to  $50,000,  that  of  the  Chief  Justice  from 
$8500  to  $10,500,  those  of  the  Vice-President,  Cabinet  officers,  Associate 
Justices  and  Speaker  of  the  House  from  $8000  to  $10,000,  and  of  Senators 
and  Representatives  from  $5000  to  $7500.  Another  Act,  March  4,  1873, 
was  retroactive  as  regarded  the  salaries  of  members  of  Congress  during  the 
previous  two  years.  This,  the  essence  of  the  "  salary  grab,"  excited  so  much 
indignation  that  the  laws  were  repealed,  except  those  affecting  the  salaries 
of  the  President  and  Justices. 

Salem,  Mass.  The  first  house  was  built  here  in  1626  by  Roger  Conant, 
and  the  town  was  settled  in  1628  by  John  Endicott.  The  next  year  eleven  ships 
came  from  England  bringing  406  immigrants  who  settled  in  the  vicinity. 
In  this  year  the  first  church  organization  in  the  Massachusetts  colony  was 
effected  here.  In  1692  the  town  was  stirred  up  by  the  famous  witchcraft 
delusion  which  resulted  in  the  execution  of  nineteen  alleged  witches  on 
Gallows  Hill.  The  town  was  incorporated  in  1630  and  assumed  a  city 
government  in  1836. 

Salem,  Oregon,  was  settled  in  1834,  incorporated  in  1853,  and  became 
capital  of  the  State  in  1860. 

Salisbury,  N.  C.,  a  Confederate  prison  camp  defended  by  Gardiner  with 
3000  soldiers.  It  was  captured  April  12,  1865,  by  4000  Federal  cavalry 
under  Stoneman.  All  its  guns  and  1364  prisoners  were  taken,  besides  enor- 
mous quantities  of  ammunition  and  provisions. 

Salt  Lake  City,  capital  of  Utah,  was  settled  by  the  Mormons  under 
Brigham  Young  in  1847. 

Saltonstall,  Dudley  (1738-1796),  was  commodore  of  the  expedition 
against  a  British  post  on  the  Penobscot  River  in  1779,  where  the  disastrous 
defeat  by  Sir  George  Collier  was  charged  to  him. 

Saltonstall,  Gurdon  (1666-1724),  was  Governor  of  Connecticut  from  1708 
to  1724.  He  was  prominent  in  the  political  affairs  of  the  colony,  and  dis- 
tinguished for  his  learning  and  eloquence. 

Saltonstall,  Sir  Richard  (1586—1658),  came  to  Massachusetts  from  Eng- 
land in  1630  as  Assistant  to  Winthrop.  He  began  the  settlement  of  Water- 
town,  but  returned  to  England  in  1631.  He  was  a  patentee  of  Connecticut, 
and  sent  a  vessel  to  take  possession  of  the  territory.  He  wrote  letters  of 
remonstrance  to  John  Cotton  and  John  Wilson  in  regard  to  the  persecution 
of  persons  for  their  religious  convictions. 

Salvation  Army.  The  United  States  branch  of  this  organization,  which 
originated  in  England  in  1865,  was  established  in  1880.  There  are  now  in 
this  country  536  corps  and  outposts,  about  1700  officers,  with  15,000  adher- 
ents. 

Salzburgers.  Numerous  immigrants  from  among  these  people,  Protestants 
driven  out  by  the  oppressions  of  the  Prince-Bishop  of  Salzburg,  settled  in 
what  was  afterward  Georgia  previous  to  the  granting  of  Oglethorpe's  patent 
in  1733.  Their  chief  settlement  was  a  mere  hamlet  called  Ebenezer.  They 


,74  DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

and  the  Highlanders  aided  Oglethorpe  considerably  in  his  troubles  with  the 
Spaniards  and  unfriendly  Indians.  They  owned  land  on  the  communal 
system.  They  were  chiefly  fanners  and  Indian  traders  and  were  opposed  to 
the  introduction  of  negroes. 

Samoa.  The  United  States  concluded  a  treaty  of  friendship  and  com- 
merce  with  Samoa  in  1878.  German  aggressions  and  native  difficulties 
resulted  in  the  establishment  of  a  joint  protectorate  of  the  islands  by  the 
United  States,  Germany  and  Great  Britain  by  the  treaty  of  Berlin  in  1889. 
The  death  of  the  king,  in  1898,  led  to  new  difficulties,  which  were  settled 
in  1899  by  the  abolition  of  the  kingship. 

Samoset,  born  about  1590,  was  a  chief  of  the  Pemaquid  Indians  in 
Maine.  He  learned  English  from  the  colonists  of  Monhegan  Island,  sent 
out  by  Sir  Ferdinando  Gorges.  Soon  after  the  landing  of  the  Pilgrims  he 
entered  Plymouth,  saying,  "Welcome,  Englishmen."  He  brought  Squanto, 
who  had  visited  England,  to  act  as  interpreter,  and  manifested  a  friendly 
interest  toward  the  colonists. 

Sampson,  William  T.,  born  1840,  Palmyra,  N.  Y.  Acting  rear-admiral 
in  Spanish- American  war  1898.  Was  advanced  to  rear-admiral  after  the 
naval  battle  of  Santiago,  in  which  he  commanded  the  American  squadrons. 

San  Antonio,  Tex.,  was  founded  in  1714  by  the  Spaniards.  A  fort  and 
a  mission  were  established.  The  city  was  an  important  centre  during  the 
Mexican  and  Texan  Wars.  It  was  incorporated  in  1733. 

San  Diego,  Cal.  A  settlement  made  near  the  site  of  the  present  city  by 
Father  Junipero  in  1768  was  the  first  in  the  State. 

San  Domingo.  The  revolt  of  the  blacks  of  San  Domingo,  under  Tous- 
saint  Louverture  against  the  French  had  an  important  connection  wi^h  the 
history  of  the  United  States.  Bonaparte  as  First  Consul  conceived  the  idea 
of  forming  a  great  French  colonial  empire  in  the  Mississippi  Valley,  to 
balance  the  influence  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  race  in  America.  To  this  end  he 
acquired  Louisiana  from  Spain  by  the  treaty  of  San  Ildefonso.  But  San 
Domingo  was  to  be  his  military  base,  and  its  recouquest  was  to  be  a  first 
step.  His  failure  in  attempts  to  recover  it,  coming  at  the  same  time  with  the 
opportunity  of  renewing  war  with  England,  caused  him,  instantly  abandon- 
ing the  whole  scheme,  to  sell  Louisiana  to  the  United  States.  (See  also 
Dominican  Republic.) 

San  Domingo  Question.  In  1869  the  desirability  of  San  Domingo  as  a 
coaling  station  for  U.  S.  vessels  and  other  American  interests  there  caused  a 
movement  toward  the  annexation  of  that  republic  to  the  United  States.  Pres- 
ident Grant  sent  General  Babcock  to  examine  into  the  matter  and,  on  his 
favorable  report,  a  treaty  was  concluded  November  29,1869.  The  Senate 
rejected  the  treaty  June  30, 1870,  and  the  movement  became  generally  unpop- 
ular. Grant  still  persisted  and  Congress  concurred  in  sending  a  commission, 
consisting  of  Wade,  White  and  Howe,  to  examine  the  matter  in  1871.  Their 
report  was  favorable,  but  Congress  continued  to  disapprove  of  annexation. 
Grant  abandoned  the  question  in  a  special  message  in  April,  1871. 

San  Francisco,  Cal.,  was  settled  as  a  fortified  town  and  Spanish  mission 
SLX^!r  In  J*^  an  ^lner^can  man-of-war  took  possession  of  the  place. 
The  discover}-  of  gold  in  1849  caused  the  city  to  grow  enormously.  The 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  575 

city  was  granted  a  charter  in  1850.     Three  disastrous  fires  occurred  in  that 
year  amounting  to  about  $8,000,000  in  property  destroyed. 

San  Ildefonso,  Treaty  of,  a  secret  treaty  between  France  and  Spain, 
October  i,  1800,  by  which  Louisiana  was  retroceded  by  Spain  to  France  in 
consideration  of  an  agreement  advantageous  to  the  royal  family  of  Spain 
relative  to  Tuscany.  This  treaty  was  directly  instrumental  in  bringing 
about  the  purchase  of  Louisiana  by  the  United  States  in  1803. 

San  Jacinto,  Battle  of,  fought  in  1836,  was  the  closing  battle  of  the  war 
for  Texan  independence.  General  Houston,  at  the  head  of  about  700  Texans, 
defeated  1536  Mexicans  under  Santa  Anna.  Many  of  General  Houston's 
troops  had  openly  enlisted  in  New  Orleans  and  the  independence  of  Texas  was 
looked  upon  with  favor  by  the  U.  S.  Government. 

San  Juan  de  Ulua,  a  fortified  castle  on  an  island  in  the  harbor  of  Vera 
Cruz,  Mexico.  General  Winfield  Scott  bombarded  the  city  and  fort  from 
March  22  to  28,  1847.  March  29,  both  city  and  fort  were  called  upon  to 
surrender  and  agreed  to  do  so. 

San  Juan  Question.  In  negotiating  the  treaty  of  1846,  by  which  the 
forty-ninth  parallel,  from  the  Rocky  Mountains  to  the  sea,  was  made  the 
boundary  between  the  American  and  British  possessions,  a  controversy  arose 
concerning  the  course  of  the  line  through  the  channel  which  divides  Van- 
couver Island  from  the  mainland.  The  Americans  contended  for  the  Canal 
de  Haro,  the  British  for  the  Rosario  Strait.  To  avoid  conflict,  it  was  decided 
that  both  nations  occupy  the  island  of  San  Juan  at  opposite  ends.  In  1872 
the  German  Emperor,  acting  as  arbitrator,  decided  for  America. 

San  Salvador.  A  treaty  of  amity,  commerce  and  navigation  was  con- 
cluded between  the  United  States  and  San  Salvador  in  1850.  May  23,  1870, 
an  extradition  convention  was  signed,  and  on  December  6  a  treaty  of  amity, 
commerce  and  consular  privileges  was  concluded.  A  reciprocity  treaty  was 
concluded  in  1891. 

"  Sand-lot  Constitution,"  the  California  constitution  of  1879. 

Sands,  Benjamin  F.  (1811-1883),  commanded  the  "  Dacotah  "  at  Fort 
Caswell  in  1862.  He  was  senior  officer  of  the  North  Carolina  Blockading 
Squadron  from  1862  to  1865.  He  commanded  the  "  Fort  Jackson  "  in  both 
attacks  on  Fort  Fisher. 

Sands,  Joshua  R.  (1795-1883),  fought  in  the  engagement  with  the  "  Royal 
George"  in  1812.  He  commanded  the  "Vixen"  during  the  Mexican  War, 
fighting  at  Alvarado,  Tabasco,  Laguna  and  Tuxpan. 

Sands,  Robert  C.  (1799-1832),  of  New  York,  was  assistant  editor  of  the 
New  York  Review  from  1825  to  1827,  and  of  the  Commercial  Advertiser 
from  1827  to  1832.  He  wrote  with  Bryant  and  Verplanck  "The  Talis- 
man." 

Sandy  Creek.  An  American  flotilla  with  supplies  for  the  fleet  at  Sackett's 
Harbor  was  attacked  here  May  30,  1814,  by  two  gunboats,  but  defeated  and 
captured  them.  The  British  lost  sixty-eight  killed  and  wounded  and  170 
prisoners. 


576 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 


Sandys,  Sir  Edwin  (1561-1629),  was  an  active  member  of  the  first  Lon- 
don Company  for  Virginia.  He  was  made  treasurer  of  the  company  in  1619. 
He  established  representative  government  in  Virginia,  and  contributed 
largely  to  its  prosperity.  He  aided  the  Pilgrims  in  securing  a  charter. 

Sandys,  George  (1577-1644),  was  treasurer  of  Virginia  from  1621  to  1624. 
He  built  the  first  water-mill,  the  first  iron-works  and  the  first  ship  in  Vir- 
ginia, and  his  translation  of  Ovid  was  English  America's  first  literary  pro- 
duction. 

Santa  Anna,  Antonio  Lopez  de  (1795-1876),  a  turbulent  Mexican  poli- 
tician, entered  the  Spanish  army  in  Mexico,  sided  finally  with  the  patriots, 
opposed  Iturbide,  and  became  a  politico-military  leader  of  national  promi- 
nence. He  was  President  1832-1835.  The  next  year  he  marched  against 
the  Texan  revolutionists,  stormed  the  Alamo,  and  was  defeated  by  Houston 
at  San  Jacinto  and  captured.  He  was  head  of  the  executive  in  1839,  and 
ao-ain  President  1841-1844;  overthrown,  he  was  once  more  President  in 
1846,  and  in  1847  was  beaten  by  Taylor  at  Buena  Vista.  After  Scott's  vic- 
tories and  conquest  of  the  capital  Santa  Anna  resigned,  but  reappeared  as 
President  and  dictator  in  1853-1855.  He  frequently  attempted  to  regain 
power,  and  was  a  marshal  under  the  empire,  but  died  in  obscurity. 

Santa  Barbara,  Cal.,  occupies  the  site  of  a  mission  founded  in  1786.  It 
was  visited  by  an  earthquake  in  1806.  It  was  occupied  by  U.  S.  troops 
during  Fremont's  campaign. 

Santa  Fe,  N.  M.,  was  first  visited  by  the  Spaniards  in  1542  and  settled  in 
1609,  according  to  the  latest  authorities.  It  was  captured  by  the  Indians  in 
1680  and  the  settlement  burned.  It  was  recaptured  in  1694.  It  has  suffered 
several  subsequent  attacks  from  the  natives,  the  most  serious  being  in  1837. 
It  was  occupied  August  18,  1846,  by  an  American  army  under  General 
Kearny  after  a  march  of  sixteen  days  from  Bent's  Fort  on  the  Arkansas 
River.  The  occupation  was  achieved  without  bloodshed.  From  captured 
parties  of  scouts  it  was  learned  that  the  Mexican  General  Armijo  was  lying 
in  wait  with  a  large  army,  but  no  engagement  took  place. 

Santa  Rosa  Island,  Fla.,  was  attacked  the  night  of  October  9,  1861,  by 
Confederate  soldiers,  who  surprised  and  routed  Wilson's  New  York  Zouaves, 
but  were  themselves  compelled  to  retire  the  next  day. 

Santiago,  Battles  of  (Cuba),  July  i,  2  and  3,  1898.  The  American  army 
of  about  twenty  thousand  men,  commanded  by  General  Shafter,  attacked  the 
Spanish  army  of  an  equal  number,  under  Generals  Linares  and  Toral,  driving 
them  back  into  the  city.  American  loss,  250  men  killed  and  1500  wounded; 
Spanish  loss  much  greater.  On  July  3  the  Spanish  fleet,  viz.:  "Cristobal 
Colon,"  " Vizcaya,"  "  Almirante  Oquendo,"  "  Maria  Teresa,"  "  Furor"  and 
"  Pluton,"  under  Admiral  Cervera,  attempted  to  escape  from  the  harbor,  and 
was  met  and  destroyed  by  the  American  fleet,  viz. :  the  "  Brooklyn," 
"Oregon,"  "Texas,"  "Iowa,"  "Indiana,"  "Gloucester,"  "Vixen"  and 
"  New  York,"  under  Admiral  Sampson.  Spanish  loss  about  600  killed  and 
1700  prisoners.  American  loss,  one  killed.  Santiago  surrendered  to  Shafter 
July  17.  Americans  took  possession  of  the  city  July  18. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  577 

Saratoga,  Battle  of,  September  19,  October  7,  October  17,  1777.  Baum's 
defeat  at  Benuiiigton  and  St.  Leger's  failure  at  Fort  Stanwix  rendered  Bur- 
goyne's  position  perilous.  The  Continental  armies  were  daily  increasing, 
and  there  were  no  signs  of  help  from  Howe.  Burgoyne  determined  to  take 
the  offensive  and  crossed  the  Hudson.  The  Americans,  under  Gates,  held 
a  strong  position  at  Bemis'  Heights.  Burgoyne  decided  to  storm  their 
encampment  and  to  try  to  turn  their  flank  simultaneously.  His  plan  was  dis- 
covered and  thwarted  by  Arnold,  who  made  a  furious  opposition  until  he  too 
was  outflanked  by  Riedesel,  who  had  been  dispatched  against  the  Heights. 
It  was  a  drawn  battle.  Gates  showed  his  incompetency  by  keeping  his 
11,000  men  in  camp,  while  Arnold  with  3000  held  the  British  in  check. 
The  battle  was  bloody,  both  British  and  Americans  losing  a  fourth  of  the 
men  engaged.  For  eighteen  days  nothing  was  done.  Then  news  came  to 
Burgoyne  that  his  supplies  were  cut  off,  and  he  was  forced  to  engage  again, 
though  he  had  but  4000  to  oppose  to  16,000.  Again  with  1500  picked  men 
under  Fraser  he  tried  to  turn  the  American  flank  and  again  Arnold  thwarted 
him.  Both  Fraser  and  Arnold  were  disabled.  The  Americans  gained  the 
field.  October  7,  Gates  with  20,000  men  followed  up  the  retreating  army,  who 
found  their  passage  across  the  Hudson  blocked.  No  word  reached  Burgoyne 
from  Clinton,  and  he  accordingly  treated  in  regard  to  surrender.  The  terms 
agreed  upon  were  that  the  British  should  march  out  with  honors  of  war,  lay 
down  their  arms,  march  to  Boston,  embark  for  England  and  not  serve 
against  Americans  again.  This  was  called  the  "  Convention  of  Saratoga," 
to  respect  Burgoyne' s  feelings.  Arms  were  laid  down  October  17.  Thus 
failed  the  first  attempt  to  cut  in  twain  the  American  military  line.  The 
Convention  was  broken  by  Congress. 

Sardinia.  The  United  States  concluded  a  commercial  treaty  with  Sar- 
dinia in  1838. 

Sargent,  Aaron  A.  (1827-1887),  represented  California  in  the  U.  S.  Con- 
gress as  a  Republican  from  1861  to  1863,  and  from  1869  to  1873,  and  was  a 
U.  S.  Senator  from  1873  to  1879.  He  was  Minister  to  Germany  from  1883 
to  1884.  V> 

Sassacus,  (1560  7—1637),  chief  of  the  Pequot  Indians,  led  an  attack  on  a 
fort  at  Say  brook  and  massacred  its  inmates.  The  English  under  John 
Mason  destroyed  the  Pequot  settlement  in  1637. 

Saulsbury,  Eli  (1817-1893)  represented  Delaware  in  the  U.  S.  Senate  as 
a  Democrat  from  1871  to  1889. 

Saulsbury,  Willard  (1820-1892),  was  Attorney-General  of  Delaware  from 
1850  to  1855.  He  represented  Delaware  in  the  U.  S.  Senate  as  a  Democrat 
from  1859  to  1871.  He  earnestly  supported  the  Union  and  sought  to  pre- 
vent the  Civil  War.  He  formed  the  famous  Saulsbury  combination  with  his 
brothers  Gove  and  Eli,  which  ruled  Delaware  politics  for  thirty  years.  He 
was  Chancellor  of  Delaware  from  1874  to  1892. 

Sault  Ste.  Marie,  Mich.,  was  first  settled  in  1641  by  Jesuits,  and  during 
the  seventeenth  century  was  famous  as  a  centre  for  missionary  expeditions 
and  explorations. 

37 


578  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Saunders,  Alvin,  born  in  1817,  was  territorial  Governor  of  Nebraska  from 
1 86 1  to  1867.  He  represented  Nebraska  in  the  U.  S.  Senate  as  a  Republi- 
can from  1877  to  1883. 

Saunders,  Romulus  M.  (1791-1867),  represented  North  Carolina  in  the 
U.  S.  Congress  as  a  Democrat  from  1821  to  1827  and  from  1841  to  1845.  He 
was  Minister  to  Spain  from  1846  to  1849. 

Savage's  Station,  Va.,  a  battle  during  McClellan's  Peninsular  campaign, 
occurring  June  29,  1862.  Magruder,  with  a  detachment  of  Lee's  army,  while 
moving  along  the  Williamsburg  road,  came  upon  Sumner  and  Heintzelman 
retiring  toward  Savage's  Station  with  a  large  number  of  McClellan's  troops. 
An  engagement  immediately  took  place,  the  Confederates  attacking  Sumner's 
corps,  which  was  endeavoring  to  bar  the  road  into  the  White  Oak  Swamp. 
Sumner  maintained  his  ground  stoutly  against  repeated  assaults,  and  in  the 
evening  the  national  army  retired  into  the  swamp. 

Savannah,  Ga.,  was  settled  in  1733  by  Oglethorpe,  as  the  first  settlement 
in  the  colony.  In  the  Revolution  it  was  captured  by  the  British.  In 
December,  1778,  3000  British  under  Colonel  Campbell  attacked  Savannah. 
Howe,  the  American  commander,  held  out  against  a  force  three  times  his 
own  until  a  negro  guided  the  British  to  the  American  rear.  The  British 
lost  but  twenty-four,  and  secured  the  capital  of  Georgia  and  400  prisoners. 
In  September,  1779,  the  French  under  D'Estaing  and  the  Americans  under 
Lincoln  undertook  the  siege  of  Savannah.  The  plan  was  to  make  two  real 
and  two  feigned  attacks  before  dawn.  The  plan  miscarried.  A  brave  but 
unavailing  assault  was  made,  in  which  Sergeant  Jasper  distinguished  him- 
self by  rescuing  his  colors,  though  twice  mortally  wounded.  After  an  obsti- 
nate struggle  of  fifty-five  minutes  the  assailants  were  driven  back.  The 
British  loss  was  trifling.  The  French  and  Americans  lost  about  800  men. 
Estaing  sailed  away  and  Georgia  was  left  in  the  undisputed  possession  of  the 
British. — In  1864  the  city  was  occupied,  after  ten  days'  siege  and  fighting, 
December  10  to  21,  by  Sherman  as  the  finale  of  his  celebrated  march  to  the 
sea.  §herman's  army  was  60,000  strong.  Hardee  held  Savannah  with 
15,000  Confederates.  After  great  difficulty  experienced  in  approaching  the 
town,  Sherman  began  his  investment  December  10.  On  the  I2th,  Hazen 
was  sent  with  his  division  of  the  Fifteenth  Corps  "to  capture  Fort  Me  A  lister, 
since  Sherman  desired  to  communicate  with  the  Federal  fleet,  which  lay  off 
Savannah  under  the  command  of  Dahlgren.  Hazen  took  the  fort,  which 
was  manned  by  200  Confederates  and  had  twenty-three  guns,  after  about  fif- 
teen minutes  of  desperate  assault,  and  communication  with  the  fleet  was 
established.  Thereupon  Sherman  summoned  Hardee  to  surrender,  but  the 
latter  refused.  Sherman  accordingly  put  his  siege  guns  in  position  and  pre- 
pared for  assault  Hardee,  seeing  himself  about  to  be  surrounded,  evacuated 
the  city  on  the  night  of  the  2oth  by  means  of  a  pontoon  bridge. 

Savings  Banks.     (See  Banks,  Savings.) 

Sawyer,  Philetus,  born  in  1816,  represented  Wisconsin  in  the  U.  S.  Con- 
gress as  a  Republican  from  1865  to  1875.  He  was  a  member  of  the  U.  S. 
Senate  from  1881  to  1893. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  579 

Saxe,  John  G.  (1816-1887),  was  prominent  in  journalism,  but  won  dis- 
tinction by  his  poems,  mostly  humorous. 

Saxony.  The  droit  d'aubaine  and  taxes  on  emigration  were  abolished  by 
the  Convention  of  1845  between  the  United  States  and  Saxony. 

Saybrook,  Conn.,  was  founded  in  1635  by  a  party  sent  out  by  John  Win- 
throp,  and  was  given  its  name  in  1639  by  George  Fen  wick,  who  conveyed 
the  settlement  to  the  jurisdiction  of  Connecticut  in  1644.  It  was  named  for 
Ivords  Saye  and  Brooke. 

Saybrook  Platform.  May  13,  1708,  at  the  suggestion  of  the  Colonial 
Legislature  of  Connecticut,  a  synod  of  four  lay  delegates  and  twelve  minis- 
ters met  at  Saybrook  to  adopt  some  more  energetic  system  of  church  govern- 
ment than  then  existed.  They  adopted  the  Confession  of  Faith  of  the 
Reforming  Synod  held  at  Boston  in  1680  and  provided  for  "  one  consocia- 
tion or  more "  of  churches  in  each  county  "  for  mutual  affording  to  each 
other  such  assistance  as  may  be  requisite,  upon  all  occasions  ecclesiastical," 
and  that  a  general  association  of  church  representatives  should  meet  each 
year  at  election  time. 

Saye  and  Sele,  'William  Fiennes,  Lord  (1582-1662),  a  Puritan  lord,  was 
prominent  in  colonization  enterprises.  In  1632  he  and  others  obtained  a 
grant  for  a  colony  on  the  Connecticut  River,  afterward  called  Saybrook,  from 
his  name  and  that  of  Lord  Brooke.  In  1633  he  ptocured  a  grant  in  New 
Hampshire. 

Schaff,  Philip,  born  in  Switzerland  in  1819,  died  1893,  was  president  of  the 
American  Bible  Revision  Committee.  He  was  president  of  the  Society  of 
Church  History  from  1888  till  his  death.  He  published  an  important  "His- 
tory of  the  Christian  Church." 

Schaumburg-Lippe.  Schaumburg-Lippe  acceded  to  the  German  extradi- 
tion convention  with  the  United  States  in  1854. 

Schell,  Augustus  (1812-1884),  was  chairman  of  the  New  York  Democratic 
Committee  from  1853  to  1856,  and  of  the  National  Committee  in  1860  and 
1872.  After  the  overthrow  of  the  Tweed  ring  he  was  active  in  reorganizing 
Tammany. 

Schenectady,  N.  Y.,  was  settled  in  1661  by  Arent  Van  Corlear,  who 
erected  a  fort  here.  The  Indians  and  French  massacred  nearly  all  the 
inhabitants  on  February  9,  1690,  and  in  1748  again  a  large  number  of  people 
were  killed.  It  was  incorporated  as  a  city  in  1798.  Union  College  was  in- 
corporated here  in  1795. 

Schenk,  Robert  C.  (1809-1890),  represented  Ohio  in  the  U.  S.  Congress 
as  a  Whig  from  1843  to  1851.  He  was  Minister  to  Brazil  from  1851  to  1853, 
negotiating  important  commercial  treaties.  He  commanded  a  brigade  at 
Bull  Run,  and  served  under  General  Rosecrans  in  the  Shenandoah  Valley. 
He  led  a  division  at  Cross  Keys  and  was  engaged  in  the  second  battle  of 
Bull  Run.  He  again  served  in  the  U.  S.  Congress  as  a  Republican  from 


58o  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

1863  to  1871.     He  served  on  the  Joint  High  Commission  which  negotiated 
the  Treaty  of  Washington,  and  was  Minister  to  England,  1871  to  1876. 

Schley,  Winfield  S.,born  in  1839,  engaged  in  the  capture  of  Port  Hudson 
in  1862.  He  commanded  the  expedition  which  rescued  A.  W.  Greely  at 
Cape  Sabine,  in  Grinnell  Land,  in  1884.  He  commanded  a  squadron  at 
naval  battle  at  Santiago,  July  3,  1898,  and  was  made  rear-admiral. 

Schlosser,  Fort,  near  Niagara,  a  fort  held  by  Major  Mallory  which  was 
captured  and  burned  by  the  British,  December,  1813,  during  the  raid  of 
Colonel  Murray  in  retaliating  for  the  burning  of  Newark. 

Schofield,  John  M.,  born  in  1831,  was  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1853. 
In  the  beginning  of  the  war  he  served  in  Missouri.  Afterward  he  held  com- 
mand of  that  department  and  later  of  the  Department  of  the  Ohio.  In  the 
Atlanta  campaign  he  commanded  a  corps.  He  defeated  Hood  at  the  battle 
of  Franklin,  November  30,  1864,  and  fought  at  the  following  battle  of  Nash- 
ville. In  the  beginning  of  1865  he  commanded  in  North  Carolina,  and 
united  his  force  with  Sherman's  army.  He  was  then  sent  on  a  special 
mission  to  France.  Since  that  time  he  has  been  a  department  com- 
mander, except  in  1868-1869,  when  he  was  Secretary  of  War,  and 
1876-1881,  when  he  was  Superintendent  at  West  Point.  He  was  made 
major-general  in  1869,  and  succeeded  Sheridan  as  commander-in-chief  in 
1888.  Retired  September  29,  1895. 

Schoolcraft,  Henry  Rowe  (1793-1864),  an  expert  on  Indian  affairs  and 
ethnologist,  studied  the  natural  sciences  and  passed  many  years  as  Indian 
agent  for  the  Government  in  the  region  of  the  great  lakes.  Mackinaw  was 
his  headquarters.  He  led  a  Government  expedition  in  1832.  At  various 
times  he  was  commissioned  in  regard  to  Indian  matters.  Besides  poems, 
Schoolcraft  wrote  a  number  of  books  of  travel,  and  works  relating  to  Ameri- 
can languages  and  antiquities. 

Schools.  There  has  been  much  controversy  as  to  whether  the  public 
school,  i.  e.,  the  school  supported  by  the  public  and  free  to  the  poor,  was 
first  established  in  New  England  (Massachusetts)  or  in  New  Netherland, 
with  the  weight  of  evidence  inclining  to  the  latter.  The  Boston  Latin 
School  seems  to  be  the  direct  successor  of  one  founded  in  1635,  the  Roxbury 
Latin  School  was  founded  in  1657,  tne  Penn  Charter  School  at  Philadelphia 
in  1698.  Governor  Berkeley's  famous  remark  made  in  1670,  that  he  thanked 
God  there  were  no  free  schools  in  Virginia,  is  often  quoted.  The  South 
being  thinly  settled,  efforts  to  maintain  schools  were  seldom  successful. 
Boys  were  sent  abroad,  or  were  educated  by  tutors  or  by  the  parish  clergy- 
man or  by  lettered  servants.  In  New  England  a  certain  amount  of  educa- 
tion was  general  and  compulsory.  The  Society  for  the  Propagation  <5f  the 
Gospel  in  Foreign  Parts  did  something  for  education  in  American  colonies. 
The  disorders  of  the  Revolutionary  period  probably  caused  some  falling  off 
in  elementary  education.  The  Constitution  left  the  matter  to  the  States. 
The  "Blair  Bill,"  which  passed  the  Senate  in  1884  and  1886,  proposing  to 
give  Federal  money  to  States,  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  their  illiter- 
ates, for  education,  was  defeated  in  the  House. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  581 

Schouler,  James,  of  Massachusetts,  born  in  1839,  has  published  many 
valuable  legal  treatises  and  an  excellent  "  History  of  the  United  States 
under  the  Constitution,"  in  five  volumes.  Since  1889  he  has  lectured  on 
American  History  at  the  Johns  Hopkins  University. 

Schurman,  Jacob  G.,  born  in  1854,  Canadian  educator,  became  professor 
of  philosophy  at  Cornell  University  in  1884,  and  its  president  in  1892.  He 
has  published  "Kantian  Ethics  and  the  Ethics  of  Evolution,"  and  "The 
Ethical  Import  of  Darwinism."  Philippine  Commissioner  in  1899. 

Schurz,  Carl,  was  born  in  1829  Qt  Cologne,  in  Prussia.  He  took  part  in 
the  revolutionary  movements  of  1849,  escaped  from  Germany,  and  eventu- 
ally settled  in  the  United  States.  He  soon  attracted  attention  as  an  able 
political  orator;  President  Lincoln  appointed  him  Minister  to  Spain  in  1861, 
but  he  resigned  and  entered  the  army.  He  commanded  a  division  at  the 
second  battle  of  Bull  Run  and  at  Chancellorsville,  and  had  charge  of  a  corps 
at  Gettysburg.  After  the  war  he  was  a  journalist.  In  1869-1875  he  was 
Republican  U.  S.  Senator  from  Missouri.  He  was  active  in  the  Liberal 
Republican  movement  of  1872.  He  was  Secretary  of  the  Interior  in  Presi- 
dent Hayes'  Cabinet  ,i  87  7—1881;  editor  of  the  New  York  Evening  Post  1881- 
1884,  and  has  since  been  engaged  in  business.  His  life  of  Clay  is  in  the 
Statesmen  Series. 

Schuyler,  Eugene  (1840-1890),  was  U.  S.  Consul  at  Moscow  from  1866  to 
1869,  and  at  Reval  from  1869  to  1870.  He  was  secretary  of  the  U.  S.  Lega- 
tion at  St.  Petersburg  from  1870  to  1876;  was  Consul-General  at  Constanti- 
nople from  1876  to  1878;  Consul  at  Birmingham,  England,  from  1878  to 
1879;  Charg£  d' Affaires  and  Consul-General  at  Bucharest  from  1880  to  1882, 
and  Minister  Resident  and  Consul-General  to  Greece,  Roumania  and  Servia 
from  1882  to  1884.  He  wrote  a  work  on  Turkestan,  and  "  American  Diplo- 
macy and  the  Furtherance  of  Commerce." 

Schuyler,  Peter  (1657-1724),  enjoyed  great  influence  with  the  Five 
Nations  and  negotiated  many  treaties.  He  commanded  an  expedition 
against  the  French  on  Lake  Champlain  in  1691.  He  was  second  in  com- 
mand in  the  expedition  against  Montreal  in  1709.  He  went  to  England 
with  five  Indian  chiefs  in  1710  to  solicit  vigorous  measures  against  the 
French.  He  was  acting  Governor  of  New  York  from  1719  to  1720. 

Schuyler,  Peter  (1710-1762),  of  New  York,  commanded  Oswego  when 
captured  by  Montcalm  in  1756.  He  led  a  regiment  in  1759  under  General 
Amherst  during  the  conquest  of  Canada. 

Schuyler,  Philip  John  (November  22,  1733-November  18,  1804),  an 
American  general  and  statesman,  was  born  at  Albany.  He  fought  in  the 
French  and  Indian  War,  and  was  afterward  a  member  of  the  New  York 
Assembly  and  one  of  the  leaders  among  the  patriots.  He  was  a  delegate  to 
the  first  Continental  Congress  in  1774,  and  was  included  in  the  first  list  of 
major-generals  in  the  next  year.  Schuyler's  familiarity  with  Northern  New 
York  fitted  him  for  his  assignment  to  the  command  in  that  region.  There 


582 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 


was  soon  unfortunately  a  divided  authority  in  that  department,  as  intrigues 
gave  a  command  there  also  to  General  Gates.  Schuyler  was,  in  1777, 
reinstated,  and  put  in  charge  of  the  defence  against  Burgoyne's  invasion. 
Before  he  could  reap  the  results  of  his  efforts  he  was  superseded  by  Gates. 
General  Schuyler  resigned  from  the  army  in  1779,  but  continued  to  be  a 
trusted  adviser  of  Washington  and  Indian  commissioner.  He  was  frequently 
State  Senator,  and  was  a  Federalist  U.  S.  Senator  in  1789-1791  and  1797- 
1798.  He  was  a  strong  advocate  of  the  canal  system  in  the  State.  Life  by 
Lossing. 

Schuyler,  Fort.  After  Herkiiner's  defeat  at  Oriskany  there  was  danger 
of  St.  Leger's  descending  upon  Albany.  All  depended  upon  the  relief  of 
Fort  Schuyler.  Contrary  to  the  advice  of  his  officers,  General  Schuyler  sent 
a  relief  party  of  800  volunteers.  The  fort  was  relieved  and  St.  Leger's 
troops  dispersed  (August  16,  1777). 

Schwatka,  Frederick  (1849-1892),  commanded  the  Arctic  expedition  in 
1878  which  discovered  traces  of  Sir  John  Franklin's  party.  In  1889  he  made 
valuable  discoveries  relating  to  Aztec  civilization. 

Scioto  Company,  a  land-speculating  organization  formed  in  1787  for  the 
purchase  of  territory  along  the  Ohio  and  Scioto.  John  Cleves  Symmes,  Joel 
Barlow  and  William  Duer,  of  New  York,  were  largely  interested.  Barlow 
was  sent  to  Europe  in  the  company's  interest  as  emigration  agent.  Symmes 
parcelled  out  the  lands  to  other  parties,  the  tract  which  now  embraces  the 
city  of  Cincinnati  falling  to  the  share  of  Matthias  Denman,  Robert  Patter- 
son and  John  Tilson,  of  New  Jersey. 

Scofield,  Glenni  W.  (1817-1891),  represented  Pennsylvania  in  the  U.  S. 
Congress  as  a  Republican  from  1863  to  1875.  He  was  Register  of  the  U.  S. 
Treasury  from  1878  to  1881,  and  a  Justice  of  the  U.  S.  Court  of  Claims  from 
1881  to  1891. 

Scotch-Irish,  the  name  used  in  America  to  designate  immigrants  from  the 
north  of  Ireland,  mostly  Presbyterians  of  Scotch  descent.  Scots  had  been 
settled  in  the  north  of  Ireland  during  the  "  Plantation  of  Ulster "  in  the 
reign  of  James  I.  Thence  some  came  to  America  early.  But  the  large  emi- 
grations were  just  after  the  famous  siege  of  Londonderry  in  1689,  and  again 
in  1718  and  the  years  immediately  succeeding.  The  largest  settlements  of 
them  were  made  in  the  hilly  parts  of  Pennsylvania,  in  the  valley  of  the 
Shenandoah,  and  in  the  Carolinas.  In  all  these,  they  occupied  the  highland 
regions,  back  from  the  coast,  and  formed  a  sturdy,  independent,  Presbyterian 
population.  Jackson,  Calhoun,  and  many  other  eminent  men  were  of  this 
stock.  In  New  England  their  chief  settlements  were  at  Londonderry, 
Antrim,  etc.,  in  New  Hampshire,  founded  about  1719. 

Scotch-Irish  Congresses.  The  first  was  held  at  Columbia,  Tenn.,  in 
May,  1889,  at  which  time  the  Scotch-Irish  Society  was  organized.  The  pur- 
pose of  the  society  and  the  yearly  conventions  is  the  preservation  of  Scotch- 
Irish  history  and  associations.  The  second  Congress  was  convened  at  Pitts- 
burgh, Pa.,  May  2g-June  i,  1890;  the  third  at  Louisville,  Ky.,  May,  1891; 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  583 

the  fourth  at  Atlanta,  Ga.,  April  28,  1892  ;  the  fifth  at  Springfield,  Ohio,  in 
May,  1893  ;  the  sixth  at  Des  Moines,  Iowa,  in  June,  1894. 

Scott,  Dred  (i8io?-after  1857),  a  negro  slave  born  in  Missouri.  His  suit 
for  freedom  is  known  as  the  Dred  Scott  case  (see  art).  He  was  afterward 
owned  by  C.  C.  Chafee,  of  Massachusetts.  In  1857  he  was  emancipated 
in  St.  Louis. 

Scott,  John  M.  (1730-1784),  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Sons  of 

Liberty.    He  advocated  extreme  measures  against  England.  He  commanded 

a  brigade  at  Long  Island,  and  represented  New  York  in  the  Continental 
Congress  from  1780  to  1783. 

Scott,  Robert  K.,  born  in  1826,  commanded  a  regiment  at  Fort  Donelson 
and  Shiloh.  He  led  a  brigade  at  Hatchie  River  and  a  division  at  Port  Gib- 
son and  Champion  Hills.  He  was  Governor  of  South  Carolina  from  1868 
to  1871. 

Scott,  Thomas  A.  (1824-1881),  won  distinction  in  the  management  of 
railroads.  His  energy  and  business  qualifications  contributed  largely  to  the 
success  of  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad  system. 

Scott,  Winfield  (June  13,  1786-May  29,  1866),  a  distinguished  American 
general,  was  born  near  Petersburg,  Va.  Educated  at  William  and  Mary 
College,  he  entered  the  army  at  the  age  of  twenty-two.  In  the  opening  year 
of  the  War  of  1812  he  was  taken  prisoner  at  the  battle  of  Queenstown 
Heights.  Being  released,  he  served  in  the  campaign  of  1813,  was  made  a 
brigadier-general,  and  distinguished  himself  at  the  battles  of  Chippewa  and 
Bridgewater  in  1814.  He  was  promoted  to  be  major-general,  and  saw  little 
more  service  for  a  generation.  In  the  Nullification  excitement  he  com- 
manded at  Charleston,  and  he  served  against  the  Seminoles  andk  Creeks,  suc- 
ceeding Macomb  as  commander-in-chief  of  the  U.  S.  army  in  1841.  In  the 
second  year  of  the  Mexican  War  General  Scott  took  command  of  the  main 
army.  He  besieged  and  took  Vera  Cruz,  stormed  Cerro  Gordo,  and  reached 
Puebla.  Having  rested  his  army,  he  pushed  on  to  the  plain  of  the  capital, 
won  the  victories  of  Contreras,  Churubusco,  Molino  del  Rey  and  Chapulte- 
pec,  and  entered  the  city  of  Mexico,  September  14,  1847.  In  1852  he  was 
the  Whig  candidate  for  President,  and  was  overwhelmingly  defeated  by 
Pierce.  Later  he  was  engaged  on  a  commissio  i  for  rectifying  the  boundary 
line  with  Great  Britain.  The  outbreak  of  the  war  found  him  still  in  com- 
mand of  the  army,  but  he  retired  in  October,  1861.  Scott's  imposing  stature, 
strict  discipline,  and  attachment  to  military  etiquette  won  for  him  the  epithet 
of  "  Old  Fuss  and  Feathers." 

Scott  Law,  a  liquor  law  passed  by  the  Legislature  of  Ohio  in  1883.  It 
forbids  the  selling  of  liquor  on  Sunday;  levies  a  tax  of  $200  yearly  on  gen- 
eral liquor  dealers,  and  $100  on  sellers  of  malt  liquors,  the  whole  tax  to  go 
into  the  county  and  municipal  treasuries. 

"  Scribner's  Monthly,"  projected  by  James  G.  Holland  and  Roswell  B. 
Smith  in  1870  at  New  York.  In  1881  this  company  sold  out  to  a  new 


584  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

company  formed  by  Smith,  which  began  the  Century  Magazine  in  the  same 
year.     The  Scribner>s  Magazine  was  re-established  in  1887. 

Scrooby,  a  small  hamlet  in  the  northern  part  of  Nottinghamshire,  Eng- 
land, one  of  the  strongholds  of  Puritanism  in  the  latter  part  of  the  six- 
teenth century.  Thence  came  a  number  of  the  Pilgrim  Fathers. 

Scrub  Race.  The  Presidential  campaign  and  election  of  1824  was  termed 
the  "scrub  race."  The  candidates  were  not  nominated  by  Congressional 
caucus,  as  had  been  the  custom.  Crawford,  of  Georgia,  was  put  forward  by 
a  quasi-caucus;  New  England's  candidate  was  John  Q.  Adams;  Clay  was 
nominated  by  Kentucky,  Louisiana,  Missouri,  Illinois  and  Ohio;  and  Andrew 
Jackson  by  Tennessee  and  other  States.  Jackson  received  the  largest  popular 
vote,  but  Adams  was  chosen  by  the  House. 

Scudder,  Horace  EM  of  Massachusetts,  was  born  in  1838.  He  has  pub- 
lished the  series  of  "  American  Commonwealths,"  "  Men  and  Manners  in 
America,"  "  Noah  Webster,"  and  a  "  History  of  the  United  States."  He  has 
lately  been  the  editor  of  the  Atlantic  Monthly. 

Seabury,  Samuel  (1729—1796),  of  New  York,  clergyman,  was  obnoxious 
to  the  colonists  on  account  of  the  publication  of  pamphlets  signed  "A  West- 
chester  Farmer,"  entitled  "Free  Thoughts  on  the  Proceedings  of  the  Con- 
tinental Congress,"  "The  Congress  Canvassed,"  and  "A  View  of  the 
Controversy  between  Great  Britain  and  her  Colonies."  He  was  made 
Bishop  of  Connecticut  in  1784,  one  of  the  first  three  Episcopal  bishops. 
He  was  prominent  in  the  organization  of  the  Episcopal  Church  in 
America. 

Seal,  Confederate,  adopted  by  the  Confederate  Congress,  April  30,  1863, 
was  designed  by  Thomas  J.  Semmes,  of  Louisiana.  The  device  represents 
an  equestrian  portrait  of  Washington,  surrounded  by  the  principal  agricultural 
products  of  the  Confederacy. 

Seal  of  the  United  States.  July  4,  1776,  Congress  appointed  Benjamin 
Franklin,  John  Adams  and  Thomas  Jefferson  a  committee  tc  prepare  a  device 
for  the  great  seal  of  the. United  States..  The  committee  reported  various 
devices  during  several  years.  William  Barton,  of  Philadelphia,  was  appointed 
to  submit  designs.  Sir  John  Prestwich,  an  English  antiquarian,  suggesk  1 
a  design  to  John  Adams  in  1779.  Combining  the  various  designs  of  Barton 
and  Prestwich,  a  seal  was  adopted  June  20,  1782.  Arms:  Paleways  of 
thirteen  pieces  argent  and  gules;  a  chief  azure;  the  escutcheon  on  the  breast 
of  the  American  eagle  displayed  proper,  holding  in  his  dexter  talon  an  olive 
branch  and  in  his  sinister  a  bundle  of  thirteen  arrows;  and  in  his  beak  a 
scroll  with  the  motto:  E  Pluribus  Unum.  Crest:  a  glory  breaking  through 
a  cloud  proper  and  surrounding  thirteen  stars.  Reverse:  A  pyramid 
unfinished.  In  the  zenith  an  eye  in  a  triangle,  surrounded  with  a  glory 
proper,  over  the  eye  the  words,  Annuit  Coeptis.  Beneath  the  pyramid, 
MDCCLXXVI,  and  words,  Novus  Or  do  Seculorum. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  585 

Search.  Great  Britain,  in  the  period  before  the  War  of  1812,  claimed 
and  exercised  the  right  of  search  on  two  grounds.  Search  was  made  for 
deserting  English  sailors,  and  many  American  seamen  were  impressed  as 
such,  and  search  was  made  for  such  goods  as  were  declared  subject  to  con- 
fiscation in  accordance  with  the  paper  blockade  of  the  Continent  and  the 
Orders  in  Council.  This  was  one  of  the  grievances  on  account  of  which  the 
War  of  1812  was  begun,  but  was  not  remedied  by  the  Treaty  of  Ghent. 
The  right  of  search  for  the  purposes  of  suppression  of  the  slave-trade  was 
carefully  regulated  by  several  treaties  between  Great  Britain  and  the  United 
States.  " 

Seaton,  William  W.  (1785-1866),  was  joint  editor  with  Joseph  Gales  of 
the  National  Intelligencer  from  1812  to  1860,  and  'sole  editor  from  1860  to 
1866.  With  Mr.  Gales  he  published  "Annals  of  Congress  from  1798  to 
1824,"  "  Register  of  Debates  in  Congress  from  1824  to  I837,"  and  "  Ameri- 
can State  Papers." 

Secession.  After  the  adoption  of  the  Constitution  of  1787  the  thought 
that  the  States  were  sovereign  remained  familiar  to  the  minds  of  many,  if 
not  most,  Americans.  This  led  easily  to  the  thought  of  secession  by  a  State 
or  States  as  a  remedy  for  aggressive  action  on  the  part  of  the  Federal 
Government.  The  Federalists  of  New  England  made  threats  of  secession 
in  1811  and  1814.  As  the  slavery  agitation  began  to  be  foremost  among 
political  issues,  secession  was  extensively  suggested  as  the  constitutional 
right  of  the  Southern  States  if  the  system  of  slavery  was  attacked.  South 
Carolina  was  ready  to  secede  in  1850.  In  1860,  upon  news  of  the  election 
of  Lincoln,  she  did  so,  December  20,  by  convention,  which  passed  an 
ordinance  purporting  to  repeal  her  adoption  of  the  Constitution  in  1788  and 
to  revive  her  independence.  Mississippi  seceded  January  9,  1861,  Florida 
January  10,  Alabama  January  n,  Georgia  January  19,  Louisiana  January  26, 
Texas  February  i, — all  by  conventions.  These  seven  States  formed  the 
Confederate  States  of  America,  February  4,  1861.  Buchanan's  government 
could  find  no  constitutional  warrant  for  coercing  a  seceded  State.  After  the 
firing  on  Fort  Sumter  and  the  decision  of  Mr.  Lincoln  and  the  North  to 
suppress  rebellion  by  armed  force,  four  more  °tates  seceded — Arkansas 
May  6,  North  Carolina  May  20,  Virginia  May  23,  Tennessee  June  8.  In 
most  of  these  States  there  had  been  strong  opposition  to  secession,  but  on 
the  ground  that  it  was  inexpedient.  That  a  State  had  a  right  to  secede  was 
the  nearly  universal  belief.  The  national  Government  never  recognized  this 
right,  nor  the  validity  of  the  ordinances.  (See  arts.  Confederate  States,  Civil 
War.) 

Secretaries.  The  first  heads  of  executive  departments  bearing  this  title 
were  instituted  in  1781.  (See  art.  Executive,  and  those  on  the  several 
departments  now  represented  in  the  Cabinet.) 

Seddon,  James  A.  (1815-1880),  represented  Virginia  in  the  U.  S.  Congress 
as  a  Democrat  from  1845  to  1847  and  from  1849  to  1851.  He  was  Con- 
federate Secretary  of  War  from  1862  to  1865. 


586  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Sedgwick,  Catherine  Maria  (1789-1867),  of  Massachusetts,  established  and 
managed  a  private  school  from  1813  to  1863.  She  published  many  novels 
illustrative  of  American  life  and  manners. 

Sedgwick,  John  (1813-1864),  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1837,  and  served 
in  the  Seminole  and  Mexican  Wars.  In  the  opening  phase  of  the  Rebellion 
he  led  a  brigade  in  the  Army  of  the  Potomac,  and  commanded  a  division  at 
Fair  Oaks,  the  Seven  Days'  Battles,  and  Antietam.  He  was  a  corps  general 
at  Chancellorsville,  and  directed  the  left  wing  at  Gettysburg.  In  November, 
1863,  he  captured  a  Confederate  division  at  the  River  Rapidan.  In  the 
terrible  fighting  of  the  Wilderness  General  Sedgwick  was  as  usual  foremost, 
and  was  killed  at  Spottsy^lvania. 

Sedgwick,  Robert  (1590-1656),  came  to  Massachusetts  about  1635  from 
England.  In  1652  he  became  commander  of  the  Massachusetts  militia. 
He  engaged  in  the  expedition  against  Penobscot  in  1654  and  against  the 
Spanish  West  Indies  in  1655. 

Sedgwick,  Theodore  (1746-1813),  represented  Massachusetts  in  the  Con- 
tinental Congress  from  1785  to  1786.  He  served  in  the  U.  S.  Congress  as  a 
Federalist  from  1789  to  1796  and  in  the  U.  S.  Senate  from  1796  to 
1799.  He  was  Speaker  of  the  U.  S.  House  of  Representatives  from  1799 
to  1801.  He  was  a  Judge  of  the  Massachusetts  Supreme  Court  from  1802 
to  1813. 

Sedition  Law.  The  Sedition  law  was  an  act  passed  by  the  Federal 
majority  in  Congress  in  1798.  It  was  passed  in  order  to  put  an  end  to  the 
scurrilous  and  abusive  tone  of  the  press,  which  was  largely  controlled  by 
aliens,  French,  English,  Irish  and  Scotch  refugees.  It  was  modelled  on  two 
English  acts  of  1795.  It  provided  heavy  fines  and  imprisonment  for  any 
who  should  combine  or  conspire  against  the  operations  of  the  Government, 
or  should  write,  print  or  publish  any  "  false,  scandalous  and  malicious  writ- 
ings" against  it,  or  either  House  of  Congress,  or  the  President,  with  intent 
to  bring  contempt  upon  them  or  to  stir  up  sedition;  truth  of  the  libel  could 
be  offered  in  defence.  The  Alien  and  Sedition  laws  called  out  the  Virginia 
and  Kentucky  resolutions,  and  by  their  severity  occasioned  the  fall  of  the 
Federal  party. 

Seelye,  Julius  H.,  born  in  1824,  was  professor  of  mental  and  moral  phil- 
osophy at  Amherst  College  from  1858  to  1875,  and  its  president  from  1877 
to  1891.  He  represented  Massachusetts  in  the  U.  S.  Congress  as  a  Republican 
from  1875  to  1877.  Died  1895. 

Selectmen,  the  chief  officers  of  a  New  England  town.  English  parishes 
had  their  vestries,  which  were  of  two  sorts,  common  vestries,  composed  of 
all  the  rate-payers,  and  select  vestries.  In  the  latter,  concerns  were  managed 
by  select  vestrymen.  Hence  the  term  selectmen,  as  used  in  New  England, 
for  the  governing  board  of  a  town.  The  practice  is  found  in  Massachusetts 
as  early  as  the  issue  of  the  "  Body  of  liberties."  The  selectmen  acted 
under  the  orders  of  the  town-meeting. 


NAVAL  COMMANDERS   OF  CIVIL  WAR. 


D.  G.   Farragut. 
A.   H.   Foote. 


S.   F.    Dupont. 
Raphael   Semmes. 


John  A.   Winslow. 


John   L.   Worden. 


John  A.   Dahlgr.en. 
David   D.   Porter. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  587 

Selfridge,  Thomas  O.,  born  in  1837,  commanded  a  siege  battery  at  Vicks- 
burg.  He  commanded  the  "  Osage "  in  the  Red  River  Expedition,  and 
the  "  Huron "  at  Fort  Fisher.  He  was  distinguished  for  courage  and 
coolness. 

Seminole  War.  The  Seminoles  were  a  nation  of  Florida  Indians,  com- 
posed chiefly  of  Creeks  and  remnants  of  other  tribes.  During  the  War  of 
1812,  the  British  had  been  materially  aided  by  the  Seminoles.  The  com- 
bined British  and  Indian  stronghold — the  "  Negro  Fort,"  on  the  Appalachicola 
— was  a  constant  menace  to  Georgia.  During  1817,  there  were  constant 
collisions  and  massacres  of  the  whites.  General  Gaines  accomplished  little. 
Florida  was  then  held  by  Spain.  In  January,  1818,  Andrew  Jackson  was 
given  command,  and  in  less  than  six  months  completely  reduced  the  Semi- 
noles, burning  their  towns  and  defeating  them  day  after  day.  Ambrister  and 
Arbuthnot,  English  adventurers  in  league  with  the  Spanish  and  Indians, 
were  summarily  hanged.  Pensacola  was  captured  and  the  whole  of  East 
Florida  was  taken  possession  of.  After  the  acquisition  of  Florida,  many 
slaves  fled  to  the  Seminoles.  The  Government  endeavored  to  recover  them, 
and  to  force  the  Seminoles  to  remove  to  the  West.  War  with  the  Seminoles 
ensued  and  was  carried  on  with  severity  on  both  sides.  General  Thompson, 
the  U.  S.  agent,  finding  their  chiefs  opposed  to  migration,  put  Osceola  in 
chains.  War  followed  and  Osceola  killed  Thompson  and  others  at  Fort 
King  on  December  28,  1835,  and  cut  to  pieces  a  body  of  troops  under  Major 
Dade.  After  a  most  disastrous  struggle  they  were  partially  conquered,  and 
in  1837  agreed  to  emigrate.  Osceola,  however,  fled  and  renewed  the  war. 
He  was  finally  taken  by  treachery  and  the  conflict  ended  (1842).  By  treaty 
of  1845  the  Seminoles  were  removed  west  of  the  Mississippi;  in  1856  they 
were  assigned  lands  west  of  the  Creeks. 

Semmes,  Raphael  (1809-1877),  a  Confederate  naval  commander,  served 
for  many  years  in  the  American  navy,  including  the  Mexican  War,  and  in  1861 
joined  the  Southern  side.  In  the  period  just  before  the  commencement  of 
hostilities,  he  was  very  active  in  procuring  supplies  for  the  naval  depart- 
ment of  the  new  Confederacy.  As  commander  of  the  "  Sumter "  he  cap- 
tured many  American  merchantmen  until  he  was  blockaded  at  Tangier. 
He  then  sold  the  "  Sumter,"  and  in  1863  assumed  charge  of  the  "  Alabama." 
In  this  privateer  he  made  sixty-two  captures,  but  the  "  Alabama's  "  career 
was  ended  off  Cherbourg,  June  19,  1864,  by  the  "  Kearsage."  (See  "Ala- 
bama" and  "  Kearsarge.")  Semmes  escaped  in  a  British  vessel,  made  his 
way  to  the  South,  and  was  appointed  rear-admiral.  He  was  arrested  in  1865 
after  the  close  of  the  war,  but  was  released; 

Senate.  The  name  Senate  was  first  applied  to  an  American  institution  of 
government  in  the  Virginia  Constitution  of  1776.  Thence  it  was  adopted 
into  all  those  States  whose  legislatures  were  organized  with  two  branches. 
The  State  Senates  were  in  some  cases  elected  by  voters  having  a  higher 
property  qualification  than  the  electors  of  the  lower  branch.  In  the  delibera- 
tions of  1787  the  Federal  upper  House  was  at  first  designated  as  the  "  second 
branch."  The  name  Senate  first  appears  in  the  report  of  the  committee  of 
detail,  August  6,  One  of  the  chief  compromises  of  the  Constitution  was  that 


588  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

effected  by  Connecticut,  which  harmonized  the  conflicting  interests  of  large 
and  small  States  by  arranging  that,  while  Representatives  should  be  appor- 
tioned to  population,  each  State  should  have  two  Senators,  chosen  by  the  State 
Legislature.  In  1789  the  Senate  was  divided  into  three  classes  by  lot,  one- 
third  retiring  every  two  years.  Down  to  1795  the  Senate  sat  with  closed 
doors.  Invested  with  the  executive  powers  of  concurrence  in  appointments 
and  treaties,  it  has  been,  as  a  rule,  stronger  than  the  House,  though  the 
reverse  is  usually  true  of  upper  Houses.  Elections  of  Senators  were  not 
governed  by  any  Federal  law  until  1866,  when  an  act  was  passed  providing 
for  the  present  mode  of  election. 

Senecas,  a  tribe  of  Iroquois  Indians,  lived  in  Western  New  York.  They 
allied  themselves  with  Pontiac,  destroying  Venango,  attacking  Fort  Niagara, 
and  cutting  off  an  army  train  near  Devil's  Hole  in  1763.  During  the  Revo- 
lution they  favored  the  English.  General  Sullivan  invaded  their  territory 
and  devastated  it.  They  made  peace  in  1784.  They  ceded  a  great  part  of 
their  land,  and  in  1812  joined  the  American  cause,  though  a  part  in  Ohio 
joined  the  hostile  tribes  of  the  West,  making  peace  in  1815.  This  band 
removed  to  Indian  Territory  in  1831,  but  the  rest  remained  in  New  York. 

Separatists,  a  sect  which  arose,  chiefly  in  the  North  of  England,  aboiit 
1567,  inspired  by  the  exhortations  of  ministers  who  believed  the  gospel 
should  be  preached  freely  and  "  the  sacraments  administered  without  idola- 
trous gear,"  and  who,  like  Robert  Brown,  called  upon  the  people  "  to  sepa- 
rate "  from  the  Church  of  England.  A  number  of  them  emigrated  to 
Holland  in  1608.  Their  chief  strength  was  about  Scrooby,  in  Nottingham- 
shire. A  number  of  the  Pilgrim  Fathers  belonged  to  this  sect. 

Separatists  (of  Zoar),  the  inhabitants  of  a  communistic  settlement  in 
Ohio,  called  Zoar.  They  originated  in  Wiirttemberg,  whence,  in  1817,  a 
number  of  them  emigrated  to  this  country  to  secure  religious  freedom. 
They  were  dissenters  from  the  Established  Church.  Arriving  at  Philadel- 
phia, they  procured  a  tract  of  6500  acres  of  land  in  Ohio,  and  founded  the 
village  of  Zoar,  choosing  Joseph  Baumeler  as  leader.  It  was  not  their 
original  intention  to  form  a  communistic  society,  but  necessity  compelled 
them  to  do  so  later.  At  first  marriage  was  prohibited,  but  in  1830  this  rule 
was  abolished. 

Sergeant,  John  (1779-1852),  represented  Pennsylvania  in  the  U.  S.  Con- 
gress as  a  Federalist  from  1815  to  1823,  from  1827  to  1829,  anc*  from  ^3,7 
to  1842.  He  was  the  Whig  candidate  for  the  Vice-Presidency  in  1832,  on 
the  ticket  with  Clay. 

Servia.  The  United  States  concluded  commercial  and  consular  conven- 
tions with  Servia  in  1881. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISIORY. 
Sessions  of  Congress. 


589 


Congress,  j 

Session. 

From 

TD 

Congress.  ' 
Session. 

From 

To 

•{ 

March                 4,  1789 
January             4,  179° 
December          6,  1790 
October             24.  i7Qi 

September       29,  1789 
August              12,  1790 
March                 3,  1791 
Mav                     8,  1  792 

37\       2 

December          5,  1859 
December           4,  1860 
July                     4,  1861 
December          2,  1861 

June                   25,  1860 
March                  2,  1861 
August                  6,  1861 
July                     17,  1862 

2  1          ;  November          5,  1792  ;  March                  2,  1793 

LI     3 

December           i,  1862 

March                  3,  1863 

3 

!  December          2,  1793    June                    9,  1704 
:  November         3,  1794    March                 3.  I79.S 

3     (         2 

December           7,  1863 
December          5,  1864 

July                      2,  1864 
March                  3,  1865 

4{| 

December          7,  1795    June                     i,  1796 
December          5,  1796    March                 3,  1797 

39 

2 

December          4,  1865 
December          3,  1866 

July                    28,  1866 
March                  2,  1867 

'5i 

May                    15,  1797    July                    io,  1797 
November        13,  1797    July                   16,  1798 
December           3,  1798    March                  3,  1799 
December          2,  1799  ]  May                   14,  1800 

40-! 

2 

March                  4,  1867     March                 30,  1867 
July                     3,  1867  i  July                    20,  1867 
November        21,  1867  |  November         30,  1867 
December          3,  1867    July                    25,  1868 

* 

November        17,  1800 

March                 3,  1801 

j  September        21,  1868 

December           7,  1801 

May                     3,  1802 

November          i,  1868    November          10,  1868 

7 

December          6,  1802 

March                 3,  1803 

3 

December          7,  1868    March                  3,  1869 

8{: 

October              17,  1803  j  March                27,  1804 
November          5,  1804  j  March                 3.  iSos 

41- 

i 

2 

March                 4,  1869  j  April                    9,  1869 
December          6.  1860     lulv                     is,  1870 

f  , 

December          2,  1805 

April                 «i,  1806 

3  1  December          5,  1870 

March                  3,  1871 

9  1  j 

December           i,  1806 

March                 3,  1807 

i 

March                 4,  1871 

April                  20,  1871 

c 

October              26,  1807 

April                 25,  1808 

42- 

2 

December          4,  1871 

June                     8,  1872 

IOJ| 

November          7,  1808 

March                 3,  1809 

3 

December          2,  1872 

March                   3,  1873 

"1 

12 

May                   22,  1809 
November        27,  1809 
December           3,  1810 
November          4,  1811 
November          2,  1812 

June                  28,  1809 
May                     i,  1810 
March                 3,  1811 
July                     6,  1812 
March                 3,  1813 

43 

44! 

i 

\ 

December  '        i,  1873 
December          7,  1874 
December          6,  1875 
December          4,  1876 
October             15,  1877 

June                   23,  1874 
March                  3,  1875 
August               15,  1876 
March                  3,  1877 
December           i,  1877 

13- 

May                    24,  1813 
December           6,  1813 

August                2,  1813 
April                  18,  1814 

45  jj    a 

December          3  1877 
December          2,  1878 

June                   19,  1878 
March                  3,  1879 

14 

September        19,  1814 
December          4,  1815 
December           2,  1816 

March                 3,  1815 
April                 30,  1816 
March                 3,  1817 

46J       \ 

March                18,  1879 
December          i,  1879 
December           6,  1880 

July                      i,  1879 
June                     16,  1880 
March                  3,  1881 

I  December           i,  1817 

April                  30,  1818 

.,,/       * 

December          5,  1881 

August                 8,  1882 

15 

1  November        16,  iSi8 

March                 3,  1819 

47\       2 

December          4,  1882 

March                   3,  1883 

16 

December          6,  1819 
November         13,  1820 

May                   15,  1820 
March                 3,  1821 

4?{      I 

December           3,  1883 
December           i,  1884 

July                       7,  1884 
March                  3.  1885 

December          3,  1821  1  Mav                     8,  1822 

/  !    i 

December          7,  1885 

August                  5,  1886 

*7  • 

December    *       2,  1822 

March                 3,  1823 

49    !     2 

December          6,  1886 

March                  3,  1887 

December          i,  1823 

May                   27,  1824 

( 

j 

December          5,  1887 

October              20,  1888 

lo  • 

I           December           6,  1824 

March                 3,  1825 

50  i 

2 

December          3,  1888 

March                  3,  1889 

i           December           5,  1825 

May                   22,  1826 

f 

December          2,  1889 

October                i,  1890 

19  • 

!  December           4,  1826 

March                3,  1827 

5'1       2 

December           i,  1890 

March                  3,  1891 

20. 

.  December          3,  1827 
;        i  December           i,  1828 

May                    26,  1828 
March                 3,  1829 

December          7,  1891 
December          5,  1892 

August                  5,  1892 
March                  3.  1893 

!  December           7,  1829 

Mav                    3i,  1830 

(  '          I 

August               7,  1893 

November           3,  1893 

21 

i           December          6,  1830  1  March                 3,  1831 

53-^       2 

December          4,  1893 

August                 28,  1894 

22 

December           5,  1831 
December          3,  1832 

July                     16,  1832 
March                 3,  1833 

3 

December          3,  1894 
December          2,  1895 

March                  4,  1895 
June                    ii,  1896 

December          2,  1833 

June                  30,  1834 

54  | 

2 

December          7,  1896 

March                  4,  1897 

23 

1 

December           i,  1834 
December           7,  1835 
December          6,  1836 

March                 3,  1835 
July                    4,  1836 
March                3,  1837 

55J 

I 
2 

3 

March                15,  1897 
December          6,  1897 
December          5,  1898 

July                    24,  1897 
July                      8,  1898 
March                  4,  1899 

I 

September         4,  1837  i  October             16,  1837 

25^ 
1 

December           4,  1837  i  July                     9,  1838 
December          3,  1838    March                 3,  1839 

-i 

December           2,  1839  i  July                   21,  1840 
December          7,  1840    March                 3,  1841 

May                   31,  1841    September       13,  1841 

27- 

December           6,  1841     August               31,  1842 

December           s.  1842  !  March                  •*.  184-? 

28 

1  December          4^  1843  '  June                  17,  1844 
!  December           2,  1844  i  March                 3,  1845 

i  December           i,  1845  i  August              10,  1846 

29 

!  December           7   1846 

March                 3,  i&47 

December           6,  1847 

August               14,  1848 

3° 

December           4,  1848 

March                 3,  1849 

December           3,  1849 

September       30,  1850 

31 

December           2,  1850 

March                 3,  1851 

.,' 

December           i,  1851 

August              31,  1852 

J21 

December           6,  1852 

March                  3,  1853 

*.j 

December          5,  1853 

August                 7,  1854 

33  1 

December          4,  1854 

March                 3,  1855 

i 

December         .3,  1855 

August              18,-  1856 

34" 

August              21,  1856 

August              30,  1856 

December           i,  1856 

March                 3,  1857. 

December          7,  i8s7 

June                   14,  1858 

35 

Decembei           6,  1858 

March                 3,  1859 

59o  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Seven  Cities.     (See  Cibola.) 

Seven  Days,  an  unbroken  series  of  battles,  between  the  Federal  and  Con- 
federate troops,  June  26  to  July  2,  1862,  known  as  the  Seven  Days'  Fight 
around  Richmond.  McClellan's  army  was  92,500  strong,  June  26;  Lee's 
forces  numbered  about  85,000.  McClellan  lying  quiet,  Lee  left  Magruder 
to  defend  Richmond,  and  planned,  with  his  main  force,  to  unite  with  Jackson 
and  crush  Porter,  who  was  lying  on  the  north  of  the  Chickahominy.  He 
defeated  him  at  Gaines  Mills  and  cut  off  McClellan's  communications  to  the 
north.  That  general  determined  to  change  his  base  to  the  James,  which  he 
did  at  the  expense  of  continual  fighting.  Arriving  there,  he  was  forced  to 
withdraw  and  end  the  campaign.  (See  Mechanicsville,  Gaines  Mills, 
Savage's  Station,  Frayser's  Farm,  White  Oak  Swamp,  Malvern  Hill.) 

Seven  Pines,  or  Fair  Oaks,  Va.  May  31,  1862,  McClellan's  army  had 
crossed  the  Chickahominy  and  advanced  toward  Richmond.  Johnston,  with 
a  heavy  force  of  Confederates,  attacked  Keyes'  corps  at  Seven  Pines.  Keyes 
defended  himself  stoutly,  but  the  rain  had  washed  away  the  bridges  over 
the  Chickahominy  and  reinforcements  came  up  slowly,  so  he  held  his  line 
with  difficulty.  After  protracted  and  fierce  fighting,  reinforcements  came 
up  under  Sumner,  and  the  Confederates  were  repulsed,  Johnston  himself 
receiving  severe  wounds. 

Seven-thirties,  treasury  notes  of  the  United  States  bearing  interest  at 
the  rate  of  7.30  per  cent  per  annum  (.02  per  cent  a  day).  They  were  first 
authorized  in  order  to  meet  the  expenses  of  the  war  by  act  of  July  17, 
1861.  The  total  amount  issued,  before  the  war  was  concluded,  amounted  to 
$830,000,000. 

Seven  Years'  War,  a  war  between  England  and  Prussia  on  the  one  hand, 
and  France  and  Austria  on  the  other,  lasting  from  1756  to  1763.  A  part 
of  it  went  on  in  India,  and  a  part  in  America.  The  latter  phase  of  it  is  in 
American  history  called  the  French  and  Indian  War.  The  war  was  con- 
cluded by  the  Treaty  of  Paris  in  1763,  France  losing  Canada  and  Louisiana. 
(See  French  and  Indian  War.) 

Seventh  of  March  Speech,  Daniel  Webster's  celebrated  speech  "  For  the 
Union  and  Constitution"  in  the  Senate,  March  7,  1850.  It  essentially 
approved  of  the  Clay  Compromise  and  advocated  yielding  on  the  part  of 
Northern  abolitionists  to  Southern  slavery  principles  in  order  to  maintain 
the  Union  in  harmony.  Calhoun's  doctrine  of  peaceable  secession  was 
denounced  as  impossible. 

Sevier,  John  (1745-1815),  one  of  the  chief  pioneers  of  the  West,  was  born 
in  Virginia,  and  was  a  hardy  Indian  fighter  from  his  early  years.  He  was 
present  at  the  battle  of  Point  Pleasant  in  1774,  and  was  one  of  the  command- 
ers at  King's  Mountain  in  1780.  When  the  Tennessee  district  of  North 
Carolina  in  1784  declared  its  independence  as  the  State  of  Franklin,  it  chose 
Sevier  for  Governor.  He  assumed  the  office  but  the  temporary  State  was 
soon  taken  back.  Sevier  became  Congressman  in  1790.  When  Tennessee 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  591 

finally  entered  the  Union  he  was  its  first  Governor,  serving  from  1796  to 
1803.  He  was  again  Congressman  from  1811  to  1815.  There  is  a  biography 
by  Gilmore. 

Sewall,  Samuel  (1652-1730),  Chief  Justice  of  Massachusetts,  came  to 
America  from  England  in  1661.  He  was  an  "assistant"  of  Massachusetts 
from  1684  to  1688,  a  member  of  the  Executive  Council  from  1692  to 
1725,  and  judge  of  the  probate  court  from  1692  to  1718.  He  was  prominent 
in  the  Salem  witchcraft  trials  and  afterward  publicly  acknowledged  his 
error.  He  was  Chief  Justice  from  1718  to  1728.  He  published  "Tke 
Selling  of  Joseph,"  one  of  the  first  tracts  advocating  the  rights  of  slaves, 
and  kept  a  diary,  since  published,  which  gives  an  interesting  and  amusing 
picture  of  life  in  Puritan  Boston. 

Seward,  Frederick  W.,  born  in  1830,  son  of  W.  H.  Seward,  was  Assistant 
U.  S.  Secretary  of  State  from  1861  to  1869  and  from  1877  to  1 88 1.  He 
published  the  "  Life  and  letters  of  William  H.  Seward." 

Seward,  George  F.,  born  in  1840,  was  Consul  at  Shanghai,  China,  from 
1 86 1  to  1863,  Consul-General  to  China  from  1863  to  1876,  and  Minister  to 
China  from  1876  to  1880. 

Seward,  William  Henry  (May  16,  i8oi-October  10,  1872),  a  distinguished 
American  statesman,  was  born  in  Orange  County,  N.  Y.  He  was  graduated 
at  Union  College  in  1820,  and  having  studied  law  he  entered  on  its  practice  at 
Auburn.  The  anti-Masonic  excitement  broke  out  soon  afterward,  and  Sew- 
ard was  carried  into  the  State  Senate  on  a  wave  of  this  feeling  in  1830.  In 
1834  he  was  defeated  as  the  Whig  candidate  for  Governor.  About  this  time 
began  the  political  partnership  of  Thurlow  Weed,  Horace  Greeley  and  Sew- 
ard, which  was  far-reaching  in  its  influence  on  State  and  National  affairs. 
Seward  was  Governor  in  1839-1843.  In  1849  ne  entered  the  U.  S.  Senate. 
He  was  in  that  body  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  anti-slavery  men,  and  when 
the  Republican  party  was  formed  he  was  among  its  foremost  orators. 
Among  his  numerous  speeches  were  that  in  1850,  which  spoke  of  the 
"  higher  law,"  and  the  "irrepressible  conflict"  oration  of  1858.  In  1860,  at 
the  Chicago  Convention,  Seward  was  at  the  start  the  leading  candidate  for 
the  Presidential  nomination.  The  many  elements  opposed  to  him  proved 
too  strong,  and  Lincoln  was  nominated.  The  new  President  called  his  chief 
rival  to  the  Department  of  State.  Secretary  Seward's  tenure  of  his  office, 
1861-1869,  covers  the  highly  important  periods  of  the  Civil  War  and  of 
reconstruction.  Many  were  the  delicate  questions,  especially  with  England, 
as  in  the  "Trent"  affair  and  throughout  the  struggle,  also  with  France  in 
the  Mexican  episode.  Seward's  ability  in  the  conduct  of  the  foreign  rela- 
tions has  been  generally  praised.  On  the  night  of  Lincoln's  assassination 
he  was  stabbed  and  dangerously  injured.  In  1867  he  negotiated  the  pur- 
chase of  Alaska,  and  he  made  various  West  Indian  treaties  which  failed  of 
confirmation.  He  traveled  extensively  after  retiring  from  office,  and  the 
narratives  of  his  travels,  as  well  as  his  speeches,  have  been  published.  Life 
by  Seward. 

Seymour,  Horatio  (May  31,  i8io-February  12,  1886),  a  prominent  Demo- 
cratic statesman,  was  in  early  life  the  military  secretary  of  Governor  Marcy 


592  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

of  New  York.  With  the  politics  of  that  State  he  was  thereafter  identified. 
As  Assemblyman,  Mayor  of  Utica,  and  Speaker  of  the  Assembly,  he  had 
become  noted  as  a  leader  of  the  Democratic  party,  and  in  1850  he  was 
defeated  as  its  candidate  for  Governor.  In  1853-1855  he  was  Governor,  but 
the  State  was  close,  and  the  Republicans  held  control  for  a  few  years.  Sey- 
mour's attitude  in  the  Civil  War  is  difficult  to  characterize.  He  supported 
the  Union,  but  could  hardly  be  reckoned  as  a  u  War  Democrat."  In  1862  he 
was  elected  Governor  over  the  Republican  candidate,  and  served  1863-1865. 
During  his  term  occurred  the  Draft  Riots  in  New  York  City,  July,  1863. 
Governor  Seymour's  speech  to  the  mob  has  been  the  subject  of  severe  criti- 
cism. He  was  defeated  for  re-election  in  1864.  In  1868  he  presided  over 
the  Democratic  National  Convention,  and  received  against  his  will  the 
nomination  for  President.  In  the  election  he  was  defeated  by  Grant. 

Seymour,  Truman  (1824-1891),  U.  S.  A.,  served  in  the  Mexican  War.  He 
aided  in  the  defence  of  Fort  Sumter  in  1861.  He  commanded  the  left  wing 
at  Mechanicsville  in  1862,  led  a  division  at  Malvern  Hill,  and  was  brevetted 
colonel  for  services  at  South  Mountain  and  Antietam.  He  fought  at  Morris 
Island  and  Fort  Wagner  and  captured  Jacksonville. 

Shackamaxon,  scene  of  William  Penn's  famous  treaty  with  the  Indians 
in  1682,  near  Chester,  Pa.  By  this  treaty  the  confidence  and  friendship  of 
the  Indians  were  secured,  and  their  land  was  fairly  purchased. 

Shadrach  Case  (1851).  In  May,  1850,  a  fugitive  slave  from  Virginia, 
named  Frederic  Wilkins,  came  to  Boston,  and  secured  employment  under 
the  alias  of  Shadrach.  Subsequently  he  was  arrested  and  jailed  in  the 
United  States  Court-house  pending  trial.  Shadrach  was  rescued  by  a 
body  of  colored  people  and  conveyed  in  safety  to  Canada.  Intense  excite- 
ment prevailed  in  Boston,  and  spread  over  the  entire  country  upon  Congress 
turning  its  attention  to  the  infringement  of  the  law.  Mr.  Clay  introduced  a 
resolution  requesting  the  President  to  send  to  Congress  information  regard- 
ing the  matter.  President  Pierce  issued  a  proclamation  announcing  the 
facts,  and  calling  upon  the  people  to  prevent  future  disturbances. 

Shafter,  William  R.,  born  in  1835,  at  Galesburg,  Mich.  Served  through 
the  Civil  War  with  distinction.  He  became  Brigadier  General  in  1897. 
President  McKinley  appointed  him  Major  General  in  1898,  and  he  commanded 
the  American  army  at  the  battle  of  Santiago. 

Shaftesbury,  Anthony  Ashley  Cooper,  Earl  of  (1621-1683),  was  one  of 
the  nine  proprietors  who  received  a  grant  of  Carolina  in  1663,  extending 
from  ^  the  Virginia  frontier  to  the  river  St.  Mathias  in  Florida.  He  was 
prominent  in  the  management  of  the  colony,  and  secured  for  it  the  consti- 
tution drafted  by  Locke  in  1667.  ^  established  a  territorial  aristocracy 
with  the  proprietors  at  the  head,  granting  religious  toleration. 

Shakers,  a  communistic  association  founded  at  New  Lebanon,  N.  Y.,  in 
September,  1787,  by  a  party  of  the  followers  of  Ann  Lee,  of  England, 
founder  of  the  sect.  James  and  Jane  Wardley  were  at  the  head  of  this 
society.  The  formation  of  the  society  was  due  chiefly  to  the  influence  of  a 
religiqus  revival,  and  the  name  is  derived  from  the  peculiar  dance  with 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  593 

which  they  accompany  their  worship.  Ann  Lee  was  supposed  to  have  had 
a  special  revelation  from  heaven.  She  died  at  Watervliet,  N.  Y.,  in  1784, 
after  a  number  of  years  spent  in  preaching  and  making  converts. 

Shanley  vs.  Haney  (1762),  an  English  case  in  equity  brought  by  an 
administrator  to  recover  money  given  by  his  intestate  to  a  negro  brought  to 
England  as  a  slave.  The  suit  was  dismissed  by  Lord  Northington,  who  held 
that  a  slave  became  free  as  soon  as  he  set  foot  on  English  territory.  (See 
Sommersett.) 

"Shannon,"  frigate.     (See  "Chesapeake.") 

Sharpless,  James  (1751-1811),  came  to  America  from  England  in  1794, 
and  executed  many  portraits  of  distinguished  Americans  in  pastel,  the  most 
noteworthy  being  that  of  Washington. 

Sharpsburg.     (See  Antietam  Creek.) 

Sharswood,  George  (1810-1883),  was  President-Judge  of  a  district  court 
from  1851  to  1867  and  a  Judge  of  the  Pennsylvania  Supreme  Court  from 
1867  to  1882.  He  published  many  valuable  legal  works. 

Shaw,  Lemuel  (1781-1861),  was  Chief  Justice  of  the  Massachusetts 
Supreme  Court  from  1830  to  1860.  He  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  foremost 
of  New  England  jurists. 

Shawmut,  the  name  of  an  Indian  settlement,  which  once  stood  upon  the 
site  of  Boston.  The  latter  town  was  long  known  to  the  Indians  by  that 
name. 

Shawnees,  a  tribe  of  Algonquin  Indians,  after  wandering  about  the  east 
were  driven  west  by  the  Iroquois.  They  first  aided  the  French  in  their  final 
struggle  until  won  over  to  the  English.  They  joined  Pontiac  and  from  time 
to  time  continued  hostilities  until  the  peace  of  1786.  They  took  part  in  the 
Miami  War,  but,  finally  reduced  by  General  Wayne,  they  submitted  under 
the  Treaty  of  1795.  In  1812  a  part  joined  the  English.  The  Missouri  band 
ceded  their  lands  in  1825,  an^  tne  Ohio  band  in  1831.  They  became  some- 
what scattered,  but  '.he  main  band  in  Kansas  ended  tribal  relations  in  1854. 

Shawomet,  a  place  on  the  Pawtuxet  River,  R.  I.,  where  in  1643  tne  turbu- 
lent English  adventurer,  Gorton,  and  a  few  friends  concluded  a  purchase  of 
land  from  Miantonomo,  a  chief  of  the  Narragansett  Indians,  and  established 
the  town  of  Warwick,  one  of  the  elements  which  combined  to  make  Rhode 
Island. 

Shays,  Daniel  (1747—1825),  served  as  an  ensign  at  the  battle  of  Bunker 
Hill  and  attained  the  rank  of  captain  during  the  Revolutionary  War.  In 
1786  he  was  the  chief  leader  of  the  insurrection  known  as  "Shays'  Rebel- 
lion" (q.  v.)  After  the  rebellion  he  lived  for  a  year  in  Vermont.  He  received 
pardon  from  Governor.  Bowdoin  of  Massachusetts  and  settled  in  New  York  in 
1788. 

Shays'  Rebellion.  After  the  close  of  the  Revolution,  much  discontent 
and  indeed  actual  want  prevailed  through  New  England,  especially  in 
Western  Massachusetts.  The  annual  State  tax  amounted  to  $1,000,000. 
Riots  and  armed  mobs  were  frequent,  the  especial  grievances  being  the  high 
salary  of  the  Governor,  the  refusal  to  issue  paper  money,  and  the  specific 


5g4  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

taxes  to  pay  the  interest  on  the  State  debt.  December  5,  1786,  1000  armed 
men  under  Daniel  Shays  took  possession  of  Worcester  and  prevented  the 
session  of  the  Supreme  Court.  Springfield  was  mobbed  by  the  same  men. 
General  Lincoln,  commanding  4000  militia,  attacked  Shays  near  Spring- 
field, January  25,  1787,  quickly  routing  his  force.  They  fled  to  Amherst, 
where  150  were  captured.  The  insurgents  were  pardoned  on  laying  down 
their  arms. 

Shea,  John  D.  Gilmary  (1824-1892),  published  "The  Discovery  and 
Exploration  of  the  Mississippi  Valley,"  "  Novum  Belgium,"  "  The  Opera- 
tions of  the  French  Fleet  under  Count  de  Grasse  "  and  an  extensive  and 
valuable  "History  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  the  United  States." 

Sheaffe,  Sir  Roger  H.  (1763-1851),  served  in  the  British  army  in  Canada 
from  1802  to  1811.  He  defeated  the  American  troops  at  Queenstown  in 
1813,  and  defended  York  (now  Toronto)  when  attacked. 

Shelburne,  Wm.  P.  Fitz-Maurice,  Earl  of,  (1737-1805),  while  President 
of  the  Board  of  Trade  in  Grenville's  Cabinet  in  1763,  opposed  the  Stamp 
Act  and  other  measures  oppressive  to  the  American  colonies.  He  sought  to 
moderate  the  arbitrary  colonial  policy  of  Grafton  and  Townsend,  and  ardently 
opposed  the  colonial  administration  of  Lord  North.  He  became  Premier  in 
1782,  and  negotiated  the  preliminaries  of  peace  with  the  United  States.  He 
resigned  in  1783. 

Shelby,  Isaac  (1750-1826),  served  in  the  battle  of  Point  Pleasant  in  1774. 
He  distinguished  himself  at  the  battle  of  Long  Island  Flats,  Tenn.,  with 
the  Indians  in  1776.  In  1780  he  defeated  the  British  at  Cedar  Springs  and 
Musgrove's  Mill. .  He  planned  and  engaged  in  the  battle  of  King's  Moun- 
tain. He  was  Governor  of  Kentucky  from  1792  to  1796  and  from  1812  to 
1816.  In  1812  he  organized  a  body  of  4,000  volunteers  and  joined  General 
Harrison  in  Canada,  taking  part  in  the  victory  of  the  Thames. 

"  Shenandoah,"  a  British-Confederate  cruiser.  She  sailed  from  London 
as  the  "  Sea  King,"  October  8,  1864,  commanded  by  Captain  James  J.  Wad- 
dell,  of  the  Confederate  navy.  Making  for  Madeira,  her  name  was  changed 
to  the  "Shenandoah."  From  Madeira  she  sailed  for  Melbourne,  destroying 
a  number  of  United  States  merchant  ships  on  her  way.  Thence  she  went 
to  Behring  Sea  and  did  great  damage  to  the  whaling  vessels.  At  the  close 
of  the  war  the  "  Shenandoah  "  was  surrendered  to  the  British  Government 
and  afterward  turned  over  to  the  United  States. 

Shepard,  Thomas  (1605—1649),  was  charged  with  non-conformity  in  Eng- 
gland  and  came  to  America  in  1635.  He  was  pastor  of  the  church  at  Cam- 
bridge, Mass.,  from  1635  to  1649.  He  was  influential  in  the  establishment 
of  Harvard  College  at  that  place.  He  was  one  of  the  most  influential  men 
in  New  England  and  a  writer  on  theological  subjects.* 

Sheridan,  Philip  Henry  (March  6,  i83i-August  5,  1888),  one  of  the  great 
Unionist  generals  of  the  war,  was  born  at  Albany,  and  graduated  at  West 
/Point  in  1853.  In  the  first  stages  of  the  Civil  War  he  was  quartermaster, 
but  in  1862  he  received  a  cavalry  command.  At  the  battle  of  Perryville  he 


John  Sh 

William   M.   Evarts. 
John  G.   Carlisle. 


STATESMEN    OF    RECENT    TIMES. 

George  F.   Edmunds.  Allen  G.  Thurman, 

James  G.   Elaine. 
George  Wm.  Curtis. 


Carl  Schurz. 
Samuel  J.  Tilden. 
Thomas   F.    Bayard. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  595 

led  a  division,  and  on  the,  bloody  field  of  Murfreesboro  he  especially  distin- 
guished himself.  Appointed  major-general  of  volunteers,  he  fought  at 
Chickamauga,  and  at  Missionary  Ridge  he  shared  with  Hooker  and  others 
the  honors  of  the  day.  The  great  period  of  his  career  was  now  approaching. 
Grant  gave  him,  in  1864,  the  charge  of  the  cavalry  corps  in  the  Army  of 
the  Potomac;  he  was  present  at  the  Wilderness,  fought  the  battle  of  Todd's 
Tavern,  conducted  an  extended  raid  in  May  and  June,  and  was  in  August 
placed  in  charge  of  the  Army  of  the  Shenandoah.  He  defeated  Early  at 
Winchester  and  Fisher's  Hill,  and  was  absent  at  Winchester,  when,  on 
October  19,  1864,  the  enemy  made  a  sudden  attack  on  his  army  at  Cedar 
Creek.  "  Little  Phil's  "  ride  from  "  Winchester,  twenty  miles  away,"  to  the 
battle-field,  his  reforming  the  army  and  turning  defeat  into  a  brilliant  vic- 
tory, is  the  theme  of  story  and  poetry.  He  was  made  a  major-general  in  the 
regular  army.  In  the  operations  of  1865  ^e  took  the  leading  part,  won  the 
battle  of  Five  Forks,  April  i,  and  helped  materially  in  the  denouement  at 
Appomattox.  In  1869  ^e  was  promoted  to  be  lieutenant-general  and  in  1888 
general.  In  1883  he  succeeded  General  Sherman  as  commander-in-chief  of 
the  army.  He  wrote  "Personal  Memoirs." 

Sheridan's  Raid  in  Virginia.  On  the-  day  of  the  battle  of  Spottsylvania 
Court  House,  May  8,  1864,  Grant  ordered  Sheridan  to  ride  with  his  cavalry 
entirely  around  the  Confederate  army,  destroying  bridges  and  depots,  tearing 
up  railroads  and  capturing  trains.  Sheridan  followed  his  commands  to  the 
letter.  He  destroyed  ten  miles  of  railroad,  captured  several  trains,  cut  all 
the  telegraph  wires  and  recaptured  400  prisoners,  who  had  been  taken  by 
the  Confederates  in  the  Wilderness.  The  Confederate  cavalry  under  J.  E.  B. 
Stuart  was  immediately  dispatched  to  intercept  him.  They  met  at  Yellow 
Tavern,  and  a  hot  engagement  took  place.  The  Confederates  were  finally 
defeated,  and  Stuart  himself,  the  most  famous  cavalryman  of  the  Southern 
army,  was  mortally  wounded.  Sheridan  then  rode  on  toward  Richmond. 
The  outer  defences  were  at  that  time  quite  weak,  and  the  Union  leader  found 
little  difficulty  in  dashing  through  the  Confederate  lines  and  capturing  a 
large  number  of  prisoners.  The  inner  works  were  too  strong  for  him,  so  he 
retreated  and  rejoined  Grant  May  25. 

Sherman,  John,  born  May  10,  1823,  American  statesman,  is  the  brother 
of  General  W.  T.  Sherman.  Having  been  a  surveyor,  he  settled  to  the  prac- 
tice of  law  at  Mansfield,  O.  Since  he  entered  the  House  of  Representatives 
in  1855  his  official  career  has  been  unbroken.  He  was  the  Republican  candi- 
date for  Speaker  in  1859,  and  was  chairman  of  the  Ways  and  Means  Com- 
mittee. In  1 86 1  he  entered  the  U.  S.  Senate.  He  was  foremost  in  the 
financial  and  other  measures,  and  personally  recruited  an  Ohio  brigade.  For 
several  years  he  was  chairman  of  the  important  Finance  Committee.  He 
visited  Louisiana  at  the  time  of  the  Tilden-Hayes  excitement,  and  in  1877 
left  the  Senate  to  enter  President  Hayes'  Cabinet.  During  his  administra- 
tion of  the  Treasury  Department  occurred  the  Resumption  of  Specie  Pay- 
ments in  1879,  for  which  Secretary  Sherman  had  made  careful  preparation. 
In  1881  he  re-entered  the  Senate.  His  name  has  been  several  times  pre- 
sented to  Republican  National  Conventions.  In  1880  Garfield  headed  the 


596 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 


Ohio  delegation  in  Sherman's  favor,  and  was  himself  nominated.  In  1888 
Sherman  was  first  in  the  lead,  but  Harrison  finally  won.  Senator  Sher- 
man has  been  chairman  of  the  Committee  on  Foreign  Relations.  He  became 
Secretary  of  State  in  McKinley's  Cabinet  March  4,  1897. 

Sherman,  Roger  (1721-1793),  a  signer  of  the  Declaration  of  Indepen- 
dence, was  a  shoemaker  in  early  life,  a  surveyor,  lawyer,  Judge  of  the  Supe- 
rior Court  of  Connecticut,  and  member  of  the  Legislature.  He  was  a  dele- 
gate to  the  first  and  second  Continental  Congresses,  was  one  of  the  committee 
of  five  to  draft  the  Declaration,  and  a  member  of  the  Connecticut  committee 
of  safety.  He  was  an  influential  delegate  to  the  Federal  Constitutional 
Convention  of  1787.  He  supported  the  Constitution  in  the  ratifying  con- 
vention of  his  State,  and  wrote  the  valuable  "  Citizen  "  letters.  In  the  first 
Congress  he  was  a  member  of  the  House  of  Representatives  1789-1791,  and 
U.  S.  Senator  1791-1793.  Few  of  his  contemporaries  have  a  more  honorable 
record  of  usefulness  through  the  entire  revolutionary  period. 

Sherman,  Thomas  W.  (1813-1879),  was  brevetted  major  for  services  at 
Buena  Vista  during  the  Mexican  War.  He  commanded  the  land  forces  of 
the  Port  Royal  Expedition  in  1861.  In  1862  he  commanded  a  division  in 
the  Army  of  the  Tennessee,  engaging  at  Corinth.  He  was  active  in  the 
engagements  about  New  Orleans  and  led  the  left  wing  at  Port  Hudson 
in  1863. 

Sherman,  William  Tecumseh  (February  8,  i82O-February  14,  1891),  one 
of  the  most  famous  generals  of  recent  times,  was  born  at  Lancaster,  Ohio, 
and  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1840.  He  was  engaged  in  the  Seminole 
War,  and  in  the  Mexican  War  took  part  in  the  expedition  to  California.  In 
1853  he  resigned,  and  was  in  business  in  California,  New  York  and  Kansas. 
In  1860-1861  he  was  superintendent  of  a  military  college  in  Louisiana. 
When  the  Rebellion  began  he  was  appointed  colonel.  At  the  first  battle  of 
Bull  Run  he  commanded  a  brigade.  In  October  he  was  transferred  to  the 
department  of  the  Cumberland,  but  was  removed  the  next  month.  Sherman 
was  one  of  the  few  who  early  in  the  war  foresaw  the  severity  of  the  contest. 
In  1862  he  was  assigned  to  the  Army  of  the  Tennessee,  and  with  his  division 
contributed  materially  to  the  victory  of  Shiloh.  Made  major-general  of 
volunteers  and  corps  commander,  he  had  a  signal  share  in  the  success  of  the 
Vicksburg  campaign.  He  was  now  promoted  to  be  brigadier-general  in  the 
regular  army,  and  commanded  the  left  wing  at  the  battle  of  Chattanooga. 
Immediately  afterward  he  was  sent  to  relieve  Burnside  at  Knoxville.  When 
Grant  in  1864  assumed  command  of  all  the  Federal  armies  he  intrusted 
Sherman  with  the  task  of  crushing  the  Rebellion  in  the  West.  Accordingly 
in  the  spring  General  Sherman  with  a  powerful  force  moved  southward, 
opposed  by  General  J.  E.  Johnston  in  the  mountains  of  Northern  Georgia. 
These  great  strategists  contended  at  Dalton,  Resaca,  Kenesaw  Mountain, 
etc.  (See  arts.)  In  the  vicinity  of  Atlanta  three  severe  battles  were  fought 
with  Hood,  and  that  city  was  taken.  In  November  Sherman  started  on  his 
famous  "  march  to  the  sea,"  reaching  Savannah  at  Christmas  time.  He  was 
now  a  major-geneial  in  the  regular  army.  Leaving  Savannah  in  February, 
he  entered  Columbia,  fought  the  battles  of  Averysboro  and  Bentonville, 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  597 

and  after  Lee's  surrender,  concluded  a  treaty  with  Johnston;  as  this  was 
rejected  by  the  Government,  another  treaty  on  September  26,  1865,  was 
framed,  and  Johnston's  army  surrendered.  General  Sherman  was  promoted 
to  be  lieutenant-general  in  1866,  and  succeeded  Grant  as  general  and  com- 
mander-in-chief  in  1869.  He  retired  from  the  army  in  1883.  He  is  the 
author  of  "Memoirs."  Sherman  was  of  a  firm,  straightforward,  soldierly 
character. 

Sherman  Act,  a  bill  submitted  by  Senator  Sherman,  of  Ohio,  and  passed 
by  Congress  July  14,  1890.  This  act  provided  that  the  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury  purchase  each  month  4,500,000  ounces  of  silver  bullion  at  market 
price,  treasury  notes  of  legal-tender  character  to  be  issued  in  payment  there- 
for, and  these  notes  to  be  redeemable  on  demand,  in  coin  at  the  treasury.  It 
also  provided  that  2,000,000  ounces  be  coined  each  month  into  standard  sil- 
ver dollars,  and  that  the  silver  legislative  act  of  February  28,  1878,  be 
repealed.  The  purchasing  clause  of  the  Sherman  act  was  repealed  in  1893. 

Shields,  Charles  W.,  born  in  1825,  nas  occupied  at  Princeton  Theological 
Seminary  a  professorship  of  the  harmony  of  science  and  revealed  religion 
since  1865.  He  is  the  author  of  extensive  philosophical  works. 

Shields,  James  (1810-1879),  soldier,  came  to  the  United  States  from  Ire- 
land in  1826,  and  was  a  member  of  the  Illinois  Legislature  in  1836.  He  was 
Commissioner  of  the  General  Land  Office  from  1845  to  1847.  He  com- 
manded a  brigade  during  the  Mexican  War,  gaining  distinction  at  Cerro 
Gordo  and  Chapultepec.  He  represented  Illinois  in  the  U.  S.  Senate  as  a 
Democrat  from  1849  to  1855.  He  commanded  a  division  in  General  Banks' 
army  and  gained  a  victory  at  Winchester  in  1862,  but  was  defeated  at  Port 
Republic  by  General  Jackson. 

Shilling.  In  America  this  coin  was  first  issued  from  the  mint  at  Boston. 
Its  coins  were  of  the  value  of  "  I2d,  6d  and  3d  peeces,"  and  "  every  shilling 
weighing  the  three-penny  trojweight  and  lesser  peeces  proportionably."  The 
first  struck  were  mere  planchets  stamped  near  the  border  NE,  and  on  the 
reverse  the  value  indicated  by  XII,  similarly  impressed.  The  first  struck 
were  known  as  the  "  New  England  Shilling  "  and  these  were  followed  by 
the  "  Willow  Tree,"  "  Oak  -  Tree  "  and  "  Pine  Tree  "  coins.  Their  weight 
was  72  grains,  and  their  value  18^  cents.  The  tree  coins  all  bore  the  same 
date,  the  "  Pine  Tree  "  being  the  most  conspicuous.  Maryland  also,  1659, 
had  shillings  coined  in  London  by  Lord  Baltimore;  their  weight  was  66 
grains,  and  their  value  16.73  cents.  They  bore  a  profile  bust  of  Lord  Balti- 
more, an  escutcheon  with  his  arms  and  the  figure  XII  denoting  the  value. 
There  was  also  the  Bermuda  shilling  or  Hogge  penny,  one  of  the  earliest 
coins  used  in  America. — As  a  money  of  account  the  shilling,  like  the  pound, 
varied  much  in  value  from  colony  to  colony.  In  New  England  and  Virginia 
the  shilling  equalled,  in  1790,  a  sixth  part  of  the  Spanish  or  Mexican  silver 
dollar;  in  New  York  and  North  Carolina  an  eighth;  in  New  Jersey,  Penn- 
sylvania, Delaware  and  Maryland  two-fifteenths;  in  South  Carolina  and 
Georgia  three-fourteenths. 

Shiloh  or  Pittsburg  Landing,  Tenn.,  the  most  important  of  the  battles 
between  the  western  armies  during  the  Civil  War,  resulting  in  frightful  loss 


598  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

of  life  on  both  sides.  This  fight  lasted  two  days,  April  6  and  7,  1862,  the 
Confederates  being  forced  to  retreat  on  the  afternoon  of  the  second  day. 
Grant  commanded  the  Federals,  numbering  33,000,  and  expected  7000  more 
under  Buell  to  join  him.  His  line  extended  two  miles  along  Lick  Creek, 
Prentiss  holding  the  left,  McClernand  the  centre  and  William  T.  Sherman 
the  right.  The  Confederates,  40,000  strong,  W2re  led  by  Albert  Sidney 
Johnston  with  Beauregard,  Bragg  and  Hardee  as  his  chief  lieutenants.  The 
Confederates,  in  a  three-line  formation,  attacked  heavily  Sherman's  and 
McClernand's  divisions,  and  drove  them  back,  though  with  great  loss.  In 
the  afternoon  Johnston  was  shot  and  Beauregard  assumed  command  of  the 
Confederates.  They  surrounded  and  captured  Prentiss'  command,  and  were 
victorious  on  the  first  day,  though  sustaining  heavy  loss,  and  perhaps  not 
fully  pressing  their  advantages.  The  next  morning  Grant,  now  joined  by 
Buell,  assumed  the  offensive.  Throughout  the  day  the  advantage  lay  with 
the  Federals.  A  charge  led  by  Grant  himself  in  the  afternoon  began  the 
rout,  but  the  roads  were  too  rough  to  permit  pursuit.  The  Federal  losses  were 
about  13,000,  the  Confederate  were  officially  reported  to  be  about  11,000. 

Shimonoseki,  a  town  of  Japan  commanding  the  straits  leading  from  the 
inland  sea  to  the  Sea  of  Japan.  June  25,  1863,  the  American  steamer  Pem- 
broke was  fired  upon  by  the  Japanese  for  attempting  to  enter  the  straits, 
which  had  been  ordered  closed  by  the  Mikado.  July  16,  the  United  States 
ship  "  Wyoming  "  destroyed  two  vessels  and  attacked  the  batteries  in  retalia- 
tion. September  5,  1864,  a  combined  squadron  of  American,  British, 
French  and  Dutch  ships  attacked  the  forts  and  destroyed  them.  The  Mikado 
was  forced  to  pay  an  immense  indemnity  to  each  nation,  the  United  States 
receiving  $785,000.  This  sum,  vastly  beyond  the  real  damage,  was  paid 
1864-1874.  In  1883  it  was  returned  to  Japan,  but  without  the  interest. 

Shipbuilding.  This  was  in  the  colonial  period  one  of  the  foremost 
branches  of  manufacturing  industry  in  the  colonies,  especially  in  New  Eng- 
land. In  Massachusetts  the  business  began  in  the  first  years.  In  1698  it 
was  enacted  that  no  vessel  of  more  than  thirty  tons  should  be  built  save 
under  the  supervision  of  a  competent  shipwright.  The  first  schooner,  an 
American  invention,  was  built  at  Gloucester,  in  1713.  The  American  ships 
competed  powerfully  with  those  of  England,  and  were  thought  the  best  and 
cheapest  in  the  world.  They  formed  America's  chief  manufacture  for  export. 

Shiras,  George,  of  Pennsylvania,  was  born  in  1832,  and  was  appointed  to 
succeed  Justice  Bradley  in  the  U.  S.  Supreme  Court  in  1892. 

Shires.  In  1643  tne  General  Court  of  Massachusetts  Bay  colony  ordered 
that  the  whole  colony,  which  then  included  the  present  State  of  New  Hamp- 
shire, be  divided  into  four  "shires":  Essex,  Middlesex,  Suffolk  and  Norfolk. 
In  all  the  colonies  the  name  was  used  for  "  county." 

Shirley,  William  (1693-1771),  Governor,  came  to  Massachusetts  from 
England  in  1734.  He  was  Royal  Governor  of  Massachusetts  from  1741  to 
1749.  He  planned  the  successful  expedition  against  Cape  Breton  in  1745. 
He  was  again  Governor  of  Massachusetts  from  1753  to  1756,  and  was  com- 
mander of  the  forces  in  British  North  America  at  the  outbreak  of  the  French 
War  in  1755. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  599 

Shogeoquady  Creek  (near  Buffalo).  A  British  force  which  had  crossed 
the  Niagara  to  capture  American  batteries  and  vessels  was  here  defeated 
with  heavy  loss,  August  3^1814,  by  the  Americans  under  Major  Morgan. 

Shoshones,  or  Snake  Indians,  consisted  of  various  bands,  chief  among 
which  were  the  Buffalo  Eaters,  on  Wind  River,  and  the  Tookarika,  on  the 
Salmon.  Some  of  the  bands  near  Humboldt  River  and  Great  Salt  Lake 
began  hostilities  in  1849.  In  1862  California  volunteers  nearly  exterminated 
the  Hokandikah.  Treaties  with  various  bands  followed  in  1863,  1864  and 
1865.  Hostilities  were  afterward  renewed  for  a  period.  The  Government 
attempted  to  collect  the  whole  nation,  and  they  were  assigned  various  reser- 
vations. 

Shubrick,  William  B.  (1790-1874),  served  on  the  "Constitution"  in  the 
defence  of  Norfolk  and  in  the  capture  of  the  British  ships  "  Cyane  "  and 
"  Levant "  in  the  War  of  1812.  He  commanded  the  Pacific  squadron  during 
the  Mexican  War. 

Shute,  Samuel,  (1653-1742)  was  colonial  Governor  of  Massachusetts  from 
1716  to  1723.  He  was  continuously  engaged  in  controversy  with  the  Legis- 
lature regarding  the  prerogative. 

Siam.  Treaties  of  amity  and  commerce  were  concluded  between  the 
United  States  and  Siam  in  1833  and  1856,  the  latter  of  which  was  modified 
in  1867.  The  liquor  traffic  was  regulated  by  an  agreement  in  1884. 

Sibley,  Henry  H.  (1811—1891),  was  a  delegate  from  Wisconsin  Territory 
to  Congress  in  1849.  He  represented  Minnesota  in  the  U.  S.  Congress  as  a 
Democrat  from  1849  to  I^53>  an(^  was  Governor  in  1858. 

Sibley,  Henry  H.  (1816—1886)  engaged  in  the  important  operations  during 
the  Mexican  War.  He  commanded  the  Confederate  forces  which  defeated 
Colonel  Canby  at  Valverde,  in  New  Mexico.  He  subsequently  commanded 
a  brigade  under  General  Taylor  and  General  Smith. 

Sibley,  John  L.  (1804-1885)  was  assistant  librarian  at  Harvard  from  1841 
to  1856  and  librarian  from  1856  to  1877.  He  published  "  Biographical 
Sketches  of  Graduates  of  Harvard  University,"  in  three  volumes. 

Sickles,  Daniel  Edgar,  born  in  1823,  was  prior  to  the  war  a  lawyer,  Demo- 
cratic member  of  the  New  York  Legislature,  Secretary  of  Legation  at  Lon- 
don, and  Congressman  from  1857  to  1861.  He  had  command  of  a  brigade  in 
the  Peninsula  campaign  and  at  Antietam,  a  division  at  Fredericksburg,  and 
a  corps  at  Chancellorsville  and  at  Gettysburg,  where  his  services  were  con- 
spicuous. After  the  war  he  was  sent  abroad  on  a  mission,  and  retired  from 
the  army  with  the  rank  of  major-general  in  1869.  From  1869  to  1873  he  was 
U.  S.  Minister  to  Spain.  In  1893  he  re-entered  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives as  a  Democrat  from  New  York  City. 

Sigel,  Franz,  general,  born  in  1824,  was  prominent  in  the  insurrection  in 
Baden  in  1848  and  1849.  He  came  to  the  United  States  in  1852.  He 
ardently  upheld  the  National  cause  during  the  Civil  War.  He  captured 
Camp  Jackson  in  Missouri,  fought  the  battle  of  Carthage,  and  was  second  in 


600  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

command  at  Wilson's  Creek  in  1861.  He  commanded  the  right  wing  at 
Pea  Ridge  in  1862,  and  led  a  corps  at  Cedar  Creek  and  the  second  battle  of 
Bull  Run.  He  was  defeated  by  General  Breckinridge  at  New  Market  in 
1864. 

'•  Signers."     (See  Declaration  of  Independence,  and  Convention  of  1787.) 

Sigourney,  Lydia  H.  (1791—1865),  of  Connecticut,  was  a  writer  of  grace- 
ful prose  and  poetry  of  elevated  moral  tone.  She  wrote  "Traits  of  the 
Aborigines  of  America  "  and  "  Pocahontas." 

Silliman,  Benjamin  (1779-1864),  "  The  Nestor  of  American  Science,"  pro- 
fessor in  Yale  College  from  1802  to  1853,  founded  the  "American  Journal 
of  Science  "  in  1818,  and  was  sole  editor  until  1838.  He  exerted  his  influence 
for  the  Union  and  the  abolition  of  slavery. 

Silver.  Under  the  law  of  April  2, 1792,  first  of  the  coinage  laws,  the  ratio 
between  silver  and  gold  was  made  one  to  fifteen.  Silver  bullion  could  te 
presented  for  coinage  into  lawful  money,  1485  parts  pure  to  179  parts  alloy, 
one-ninth  being  retained  for  coinage  expense.  The  law  of  March  3,  1795, 
caused  two  cents  per  ounce  to  be  charged  for  coining  silver  bullion  below 
the  standard.  April  21,  1800,  it  was  enacted  that  a  sum  equivalent  to  the 
expense  of  refining  should  be  retained  for  coining  silver  below  the  standard. 
May  19, 1828,  the  law  provided  for  coining  silver  below  the  standard  a  charge 
equal  to  expense  of  materials  and  a  charge  for  wastage.  June  28,  1834,  a 
certain  deduction  (one-half  per  cent)  was  made  for  coining  standard  silver, 
if  paid  in  coin  five  days  after  deposit.  January  18,  1837,  the  standard  silver 
coin  was  made  nine-tenths  pure  and  one-tenth  alloy,  and  silver  coins  were  to 
be  legal  tender  for  any  amount.  The  dollar  weighed  412^  grains.  By  the 
law  of  February  21,  1853,  the  weight  of  the  half  dollar  was  reduced  from 
206^  to  192  grains,  and  it  was  made  legal  tender  to  the  amount  of  only  $5. 
No  private  deposits  for  such  coinage  were  to  be  received,  but  the  mint  was  to 
purchase  bullion  and  turn  out  coins  to  be  exchanged  with  gold  at  par  value 
in  sums  not  exceeding  $100.  February  12,  1873,  the  law  made  the  weight 
of  the  trade  dollar  420  grains,  the  half  dollar  193.75  grains.  Silver  bullion 
could  be  deposited  for  coinage  into  trade  dollars  only,  and  the  mint  was 
to  purchase  bullion  for  the  coinage  of  coins  less  than  $1.00.  By  the  law 
of  July  22, 1877,  the  trade  dollar  ceased  to  be  a  legal  tender.  By  the  law  of 
February  28,  1878,  silver  dollars  of  the  weight  of  412^  grains  were  made 
legal  tender  for  all  debts  and  the  treasury  was  to  purchase  and  coin  not  less 
than  $2,000,000  worth  of  bullion  per  month  and  not  more  than  $4,000,000. 
June  2,  1879,  silver  coins  less  than  $1.00  were  made  legal  tender  to  the 
amount  of  $10.  By  the  law  of  July  14,  1890,  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury 
was  directed  to  purchase  at  market  price  silver  bullion  to  the  amount  of 
4,500,000  ounces  per  month,  issuing  in  payment  treasury  notes,  to  be  a  legal 
tender  for  debt.  So  much  bullion  was  to  be  coined  as  might  redeem  these 
notes,  and  the  Act  of  1878  was  repealed.  In  1893  the  silver-purchase  clause 
of  this  act  was  repealed.  (For  the  history  of  the  individual  silver  coins  see 
Dollar,  Trade  Dollar,  Half  Dollar,  Quarter  Dollar,  Twenty-Cent  Piece,  Dime, 
Five-Cent  Piece  and  Three-Cent  Piece,) 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  601 

Silver,  Production  of.  The  silver  mines  of  the  United  States  were  dis- 
covered in  1859.  The  production  rose  to  $2,000,000  in  1861;  to  $11,250,000 
in  1865;  to  $16,000,000  in  1870;  to  $32,000,000  in  1875;  to  $38,500,000  in 
1880;  to  $51,600,000  in  1885,  and  to  $75,000,000  in  1892. 

Silver  Greys,  a  nickname  applied  to  the  conservative,  element  of  the 
Whig  party,  because  many  of  them  withdrew  from  a  meeting  owing  to  a 
disagreeable  measure.  Some  one  remarked:  "  There  go  the  '  Silver  Greys,'  " 
(they  were  gray-haired  respectabilities),  and  the  expression  became  a  sobri- 
quet. 

Simcoe,  John  G.  (1752-1806),  came  to  America  as  a  British  soldier  and 
commanded  a  regiment  at  Brandywine.  He  organized  the  "  Queen's  Ran- 
gers," \vhich  were  active  in  the  South  and  surrendered  with  Cornwallis  at 
Yorktown. 

Simms,  William  Gilmore  (1806-1870),  of  South  Carolina,  wrote  a  num- 
ber of  poems,  the  best  of  which  is  "Atlantis,  a  Tale  of  the  Sea."  He  is 
best  known  for  his  romances,  illustrative  of  Southern  life,  and  founded  on 
Revolutionary  and  border  incidents  in  South  Carolina.  Life  by  Trent. 

Sims  Case  (1851),  a  famous  fugitive  slave  case,  which  illustrates  a  com- 
mon method  of  the  seizure  of  negroes  under  the  law  of  1850.  Sims  was 
arrested  in  Boston  on  a  false  charge,  and  immediately  claimed  as  the  property 
of  a  Mr.  Potter,  of  Virginia.  He  was  sent  back  to  Virginia  on  a  certificate 
signed  by  the  United  States  Commissioner,  despite  the  intense  indignation 
of  the  people,  which  ran  so  high  that  the  court  house  was  surrounded  with 
chains  and  guarded  by  a  company  of  armed  men  called  afterward  "  Sims 
Brigade." 

Simsbury,  Conn.,  worthy  of  note  because  of  the  old  copper  mine  which 
was  used  as  a  prison  for  captured  Tories  by  the  colonial  sympathizers  during 
the  Revolution.  The  prison  was  used  until  1827. 

Sinking  Fund.  A  sinking  fund  was  created  by  act  of  August  12,  1790,  to 
apply  the  surplus  of  income  from  imports  and  tonnage  to  the  reduction  of 
the  debt.  An  act  of  1795  put  the  entire  matter  of  the  public  debt  and  its 
extinction  in  the  hands  of  the  Commissioners  of  the  Sinking  Fund. 

Sioux,  or  Dakota  Indians,  first  dwelt  near  the  head  waters  of  the  Missis- 
sippi. Later  several  bands  wandered  to  the  Missouri,  and  some  remained 
near  the  St.  Peter's.  They  aided  the  English  in  1812,  but  soon  after  made 
peace  with  the  Government.  In  1837  they  ceded  to  the  United  States  all 
their  lands  east  of  the  Mississippi,  and  in  1851  made  further  grants.  Hostili- 
ties arose  in  1854,  but  the  Indians  were  defeated  in  1855,  and  peace  followed. 
In  1862  a  general  uprising  took  place,  and  a  large  number  of  whites  and 
Indians  were  killed.  They  were  finally  conquered,  and  many  bands  fled  to 
Dakota.  In  1863  the  Minnesota  Sioux  were  removed  to  Crow  Creek,  and 
some  bands  fled  to  British  territory.  A  few  bands  continued  hostilities.  An 
unsatisfactory  treaty  was  made  with  the  Sioux  by  General  Sherman  in  1868. 
Sitting  Bull  and  other  chieftains  were  unreconciled.  May  15,  1876,  General 
Custer  and  1 100  men  were  destroyed  at  Little  Big  Horn  River  by  a  force  of 
9000  Sioux. 


602  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Sitka,  or  New  Archangel,  capital  of  Alaska,  was  settled  in  1799  by  Bara- 
noflf,  but  dates  its  growth  from  the  time  of  the  transference  of  the  territory 
to  the  United  States  (1867). 

Sitting  Bull  (1837-1890),  was  chief  of  the  Sioux  Indians  who  massacred 
General  Custer's  party  on  Little  Big  Horn  River  in  1876.  He  escaped  to 
Canada,  but  surrendered  in  1880. 

Six  Nations.     (See  Iroquois.) 

"  Skinners,"  bands  of  marauders,  adherents  of  the  American  cause,  who 
infested  what  was  known  as  the  neutral  ground  in  New  York  State  during 
the  Revolution.  They  were  continually  skirmishing  with  the  "  Cowboys," 
the  British  camp  followers  and  adherents. 

Slater,  John  F.  (1815-1884),  of  Norwich,  Conn.,  gained  a  large  fortune 
in  cotton  manufacturing.  He  contributed  the  Slater  Fund  of  $1,000,000 
for  the  education  of  freedmen  in  the  South. 

Slater,  Samuel  (1768-1835),  came  to  America  from  England  in  1789  to 
introduce  cotton  machinery  in  the  American  States.  His  machinery  was 
constructed  from  memory,  as  communication  of  models  of  English  machin- 
ery was  forbidden.  He  started  his  new  cotton-spinning  machinery  at  Paw- 
tucket,  R.  I.,  in  1790,  which  was  the  beginning  of  cotton  manufacture  in 
America.  He  established  mills  at  Webster  and  Slaterville,  Mass. 

Slaughter  House  Cases,  three  in  number  (at  first  five,  but  two  dismissed 
on  compromise).  These  cases  arose  out  of  an  act  of  the  Louisiana  Legis- 
lature of  1869  to  protect  the  health  of  New  Orleans  and  to  incorporate  the 
"Crescent  City  Live-stock,  Landing  and  Slaughter  House  Company."  The 
Butchers'  Benevolent  Association  of  New  Orleans  protested  against  this  act 
as  creating  a  monopoly.  Suit  was  also  brought  against  the  State  by  Paul 
Esteben  and  others,  on  ground  that  their  business  was  injured.  It  was 
claimed  by  the  plaintiffs  that  the  creation  of  a  monopoly  of  this  sort  by  a 
State's  Legislature  was  directly  opposed  to  that  clause  of  the  Fourteenth 
Amendment  to  the  Constitution,  which  prohibits  State  Legislatures  from 
enforcing  laws  "  which  shall  abridge  the  privileges  or  immunities  of  the 
citizens  of  the  United  States."  The  Supreme  Court  of  Louisiana  decided 
that  this  act  did  not  conflict  with  the  Fourteenth  Amendment,  and  the 
Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States  confirmed  the  decision,  thus  decidedly 
limiting  the  scope  of  that  Amendment. 

Slave  Representation.  One  of  the  chief  subjects  of  dispute  in  the  Con- 
vention of  1787,  as  in  the  case  of  previous  attempts  to  make  a  constitution, 
was  that  of  representation  of  that  part  of  the  population  of  certain  States 
which  consisted  of  slaves.  It  was  contended  on  the  one  hand  that,  being 
persons,  they  should  be  represented,  and  on  the  other  hand  that,  being 
property,  they  should  be  made  the  object  of  taxation.  The  compromise 
which  was  reached,  and  which  continued  in  force  until  the  abolition  of 
slavery,  provided  that,  for  purposes  of  reckoning  alike  a  State's  proportion 
of  representatives  and  its  proportion  of  direct  taxes,  its  population  should 
be  computed  by  adding  to  the  whole  number  of  free  persons,  exclusive  of 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  603 

un taxed  Indians,  "  three-fifths  of  all  other  persons,"  i.  e.,  of  slaves.  This 
mode  of  counting  population  was  first  suggested  in  1783,  by  the  Conti- 
nental Congress,  as  a  basis  for  the  apportionment  of  contributions  from 
the  States,  to  be  agreed  upon  as  an  amendment  to  the  Articles  of  Confede- 
ration. 

Slave  Trade.  The  importation  of  negro  slaves  into  the  American  colo- 
nies began  with  the  year  1619,  when  a  Dutch  vessel  brought  a  cargo  of 
slaves  into  James  River.  In  1713,  by  the  Treaty  of  Utrecht,  Great  Britain 
obtained  the  contract  for  supplying  slaves  to  the  Spanish  West  Indies.  This 
stimulated  the  general  slave  trade.  Some  colonies  desired  to  prohibit  the 
importation  of  slaves,  but  Great  Britain  forced  it  upon  them.  Virginia 
passed  several  such  acts,  but  they  were  vetoed.  Pennsylvania  passed  bills 
prohibiting  slave  trading  in  1712,  1714  and  1717,  but  they  were  vetoed. 
Massachusetts  passed  a  similar  bill  in  1774,  which  was  vetoed.  It  was  pro- 
hibited by  Rhode  Island  in  1774,  by  Connecticut  the  same  year  and  by  the 
non-importation  covenant  of  the  colonies  October  24,  1774.  It  was  forbid- 
den by  nearly  all  the  States  during  the  Revolution.  The  slave  trade  ques- 
tion was  an  important  one  in  the  formation  of  the  Constitution.  The 
Southern  States,  except  Virginia  and  Maryland,  demanded  it,  hence  it  was 
compromised  by  allowing  Congress  to  prohibit  it  after  1808.  The  act  of 
March  22,  1794,  prohibited  the  carrying  of  slaves  by  American  citizens 
from  one  foreign  country  to  another.  That  of  May  10,  1800,  allowed  United 
States  warships  to  seize  vessels  engaged  in  such  traffic.  That  of  February 
28,  1803,  prohibited  the  introduction  of  slaves  into  States  which  had  for- 
bidden slavery.  In  1808  the  importation  of  slaves  into  the  United  States 
was  forbidden.  The  acts  of  April  20,  1818,  and  March  3,  1819,  authorized 
the  President  to  send  cruisers  to  Africa  to  stop  the  slave  trade.  Various 
projects  for  renewing  the  trade  arose  in  the  fifties.  It  was  in  reality  never 
given  up  until  1865.  No  restrictions  were  placed,  upon  domestic  slave 
trading. 

Slave  Trade  Tribunals.  By  the  treaty  of  1862  with  Great  Britain 
respecting  the  slave  trade,  it  was  agreed  that  when  vessels  suspected  of  being 
engaged  in  that  traffic  were  detained  by  public  vessels  of  either  government, 
they  should  be  brought  for  trial  before  one  of  three  mixed  courts  established 
for  that  purpose  at  Sierra  Leone,  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  New  York. 
That  at  New  York  was,  as  the  treaty  permitted,  removed  to  Washington, 
where  it  was  reckoned  a  branch  of  the  Department  of  the  Interior.  By  the 
treaty  of  1870  the  system  was  abolished. 

Slavery.  Slavery  in  the  American  colonies  began  with  the  importation 
of  a  cargo  of  slaves  into  Virginia  by  a  Dutch  ship  in  1619.  In  the  other 
colonies  it  was  gradually  introduced.  The  slave  trade  was  favored  by  the 
British  Government  during  the  eighteenth  century.  Meantime  a  sentiment 
unfavorable  to  it  began  to  develop  in  the  colonies.  The  Germantown 
Quakers  drew  up  a  memorial  against  it  in  1688,  Boston  town-meeting  in 
1701.  Woolman  and  other  Quakers  preached  against  it.  Slaves  were  few 
iu  the  North,  but  numerous  in  the  South,  where  their  increase  and  the  dan- 
ger felt  from  them  caused  severe  laws  respecting  them.  The  Revolution,  as 


604  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

a  movement  for  liberty,  with  its  declaration  proclaiming  all  men  free  and 
equal,  joined  with  the  humanitarian  spirit  of  the  close  of  the  century  to 
increase  anti-slavery  sentiment  The  Northern  States  either  abolished  slav- 
ery or  provided  for  gradual  emancipation.  All  the  States  but  the  southern- 
most forbade  the  importation  of  slaves  from  abroad.  But  the  sentiment  soon 
declined.  In  the  Constitution  of  1787,  States  were  given  representation  in 
the  House  of  Representatives  for  three-fifths  of  their  slaves,  and  Congress 
was  forbidden  to  prohibit  the  slave  trade  until  1808.  The  invention  of  the 
cotton-gin  made  slave  labor  more  profitable  than  ever  before,  and  the  South 
began  to  defend  slavery  as  a  positive  good,  in  spite  of  its  obvious  economic 
disadvantages.  Abolition  societies,  first  formed  about  1793,  languished  after 
1808.  The  Missouri  Compromise  of  1820  arranged  that  the  area  west  of  the 
Mississippi  and  north  of  36°  30'  should  not  be  open  to  slavery,  except  in  the 
case  of  Missouri.  The  Ordinance  of  1787  had  forbidden  slavery  in  the 
region  north  of  the  Ohio.  The  American  Colonization  Society  tried  to  pal- 
liate the  evils  of  slavery  by  emancipation  and  deportation.  About  1830  the 
agitation  against  slavery  took  on  a  more  ardent  phase,  and  henceforth  for 
thirty  years  slavery  was  the  most  absorbing  of  political  themes.  Slave  labor 
demanded  more  and  more  new  land,  and  the  Government  was  led  to  the 
annexation  of  Texas  and  the  war  with  Mexico  largely  by  this  need.  After 
bitter  disputes,  the  territory  so  acquired  was  thrown  open  to  slavery  if  the 
settlers  desired  it;  this  was  done  by  the  Compromise  of  1850.  The  Kansas- 
Nebraska  Act  of  1854  extended  the  same  permission  to  territory  north  of 
36°  30',  repealing  the  Missouri  Compromise;  and  the  Supreme  Court  (case 
of  Dred  Scott)  sustained  such  repeal.  The  question  of  slavery  in  the  terri- 
tories proved  the  crucial  question.  Many  in  the  North  who  had  no  desire 
for  the  abolition  of  slavery  in  States  where  it  was  already  existent  and  legal 
were  unwilling  to  see  it  extended,  while  slave-owners  claimed  Constitutional 
right  to  protection  of  their  property  in  slaves,  as  essential  if  they  were  to 
have  any  share  in  the  common  territories.  The  Fugitive  Slave  Law  of  1850 
and  the  unwillingness  of  Northern  people  to  execute  it  assisted  to  precipi- 
tate conflict.  Finally,  in  1860,  the  election  of  Lincoln  was  taken  by  the 
South  as  proof  that  their  claims  were  to  be  disregarded,  and  secession  and 
Civil  War  resulted.  As  a  means  of  crushing  rebellion,  President  Lincoln, 
on  January  i,  1863,  issued  his  Emancipation  Proclamation.  The  Thirteenth 
Amendment  (1865)  abolished  slavery. — In  1790  there  were  698,000  slaves  in 
the  United  States  (40,000  in  the  North,  293,000  in  Virginia,  107,000  in 
South  Carolina,  103,000  in  Maryland,  101,000  in  North  Carolina);  in  1800, 
894,000;  in  1810,  1,191,000;  in  1820,  1,538,000;  in  1830,  2,009,000;  in 
1840,  2,487,000;  in  1850,  3,204,000;  in  1860,  3,954,000,  the  last  being  about 
one-fourth  of  the  total  population  of  the  Southern  States. 

Slidell,  John  (born  about  1793,  died  1871),  a  Louisiana  lawyer,  and  Con- 
gressman from  that  State  in  1843-45.  He  was  sent  as  U.  S.  Minister  to 
Mexico  in  1845,  but  was  not  received.  From  1853  to  1861  he  was  a  prominent 
member  of  the  U.  S.  Senate,  on  the  State-rights  side.  Having  joined  the 
Confederacy,  Slidell  was  despatched  as  commissioner  to  France.  With  the 
other  Confederate  commissioner,  Mason,  he'  was  seized  en  route  by  the 
American  naval  commander,  Wilkes.  (See  Trent  Affair.)  Having  been 


DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  605 

released,  he  continued  his  voyage  to  France,  but  did  not  induce  the  Gov- 
ernment to  side  openly  with  the  South.  He  settled  in  England  after  the 
war. 

Slocum,  Henry  Warner  (1827-1894),  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1852.  He 
was  a  colonel  in  the  first  battle  of  Bull  Run,  and  continued  with  the  Army 
of  the  Potomac  as  brigade  and  division  commander,  serving  in  the  Peninsula 
and  Antietam  campaigns.  In  the  great  contests  of  Fredericksburg,  Chan- 
cellorsville  and  Gettysburg  he  had  charge  of  a  corps,  and  in  the  last-named 
struggle  he  directed  the  right  wing.  As  commander  of  the  left  wing  he 
made  the  march  with  Sherman  to  the  sea  and  through  the  Carolinas.  He 
was  a  Congressman  from  New  York  1869-1873  and  1885-1887,  and  was 
at  different  times  mentioned  as  Democratic  candidate  for  President. 

Smalley,  George  W.,  born  in  1833,  won  distinction  as  a  war  correspond- 
ent of  the  New  York  Tribune  during  the  Civil  War,  and  has  for  some  years 
past  been  its  representative  in  England. 

Small-Pox.  This  disease  raged  at  Boston  in  1722-24.  Cotton  Mather 
advised  the  Turkish  method  of  inoculation,  and  asked  Dr.  Zabdiel  Boyl- 
ston  10  make  a  trial  of  it.  It  was  generally  opposed  by  government  and 
people,  and  Mather  had  a  grenade  thrown  through  his  window  in  conse- 
quence. 

Smallwood,  William  (1732-1792),  commanded  the  Maryland  battalion  at 
Brooklyn  Heights,  White  Plains,  Fort  Washington  and  Germantown.  He 
distinguished  himself  at  Camden.  He  was  Governor  of  Maryland  from 
1785  to  1788. 

Smith,  Andrew  J.,  born  in  1815,  commanded  a  Federal  brigade  at  Corinth, 
Vicksburg  and  Pleasant  Hill.  He  commanded  the  force  which  captured 
Fort  de  Russy  and  a  corps  at  Nashville  and  Mobile. 

Smith,  Buckingham  (1810-1871),  was  U.  S.  Secretary  of  Legation  in 
Mexico  from  1850  to  1852,  and  at  Madrid  from  1855  to  1858.  He  made 
valuable  researches  concerning  the  colonial  history  of  Florida  and  Louisi- 
ana. 

Smith,  Caleb  B.,  (1808-1864),  represented  Indiana  in  the  U/S.  Congress 
as  a  Whig  from  1843  to  1849.  He  was  Secretary  of  the  Interior  in  Lincoln's 
Cabinet  from  1861  to  1862,  when  he  became  a  U.  S.  District  Judge. 

Smith,  Charles  Emory,  born  in  1842,  became  editor  of  the  Albany 
Express  in  1865,  and  of  the  Albany  Journal  in  1870.  Since  1880  he  has 
conducted  the  Philadelphia  Press.  He  was  Minister  to  Russia  from  1890  to 
1892.  Became  Postmaster-General  in  President  McKinley's  Cabinet  1898. 

Smith,  Charles  F.  (1807-1862),  was  brevetted  colonel  for  gallant  service 
during  the  Mexican  War.  He  fought  at  Monterey,  Vera  Cruz,  Cerro  Gordo, 
San  Antonio,  Contreras,  Churubusco  and  the  City  of  Mexico.  The  four 
companies  in  his  command  were  known  as  "  Smith's  Light  Battalion."  He 
was  assigned  command  in  Kentucky  at  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War,  and 
distinguished  himself  by  his  skill.  He  fought  at  Fort  Henry  and  led  a 


606  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

division  at  Fort  Donelson,  which  stormed  and  captured  the  high  ground 
which  commanded  the  fort.  He  died  while  preparing  to  advance  upon 
Shiloh. 

Smith,  Edmund  Kirby  (1824-1893),  distinguished  himself  at  Cerro  Gordo 
and  Contreras  during  the  Mexican  War.  He  was  appointed  brigadier- 
general  in  the  Confederate  army,  fought  ,at  Bull  Run  in  1861,  led  the 
advance  in  General -Bragg's  Kentucky  campaign,  defeated  the  National  forces 
at  Richmond,  Ky.,  and  fought  at  Perryville  and  Murfreesboro.  In  1863  he 
received  command  of  the  Trans-Mississippi  Department,  where  he  organized 
a  government,  established  factories  for  supplying  the  troops  with  muni- 
tions of  war,  and  rendered  the  district  self-supporting.  His  forces  were  the 
last  to  surrender  in  the  Civil  War. 

Smith,  Erasmus  P.  (1814-1882),  was  adviser  in  international  law  to  the 
Mikado  of  Japan  from  1871  to  1876.  He  has  published  a  "  Political  Econ- 
omy," which  is  based  on  purely  physical  laws. 

Smith,  Francis  (1720  7-1791),  colonel,  came  to  America  as  a  British 
soldier,  and  commanded  the  troops  sent  to  Concord  in  1775.-  He  fought  at 
Lexington  and  Concord,  and  commanded  a  brigade  at  Long  Island,  and  at 
Quaker  Hill  in  1778. 

Smith,  Gerrit  (1797-1874),  was  prominent  for  his  philanthropy  in  every 
good  cause.  He  represented  New  York  in  the  U.  S.  Congress  as  an  Ultra- 
Abolitionist  from  1853  to  1854.  He  identified  himself  with  the  anti-slavery 
party,  and  did  all  in  his  power  for  emancipation.  He  contributed  liberally 
to  the  national  cause  during  the  Rebellion.  He  signed  the  bail-bond  of 
Jefferson  Davis  with  Horace  Greeley. 

Smith,  Goldwin,  born  in  1823,  came  to  America  from  England  in  1868, 
and  settled  in  Canada  in  1871.  He  had  been  a  prominent  champion  of  the 
U.  S.  Government  during  the  Civil  War.  He  has  advocated  the  annexation 
of  Canada  to  the  United  States.  He  has  written  "The  Civil  War  in 
America,"  "  Experience  of  the  American  Commonwealth,"  and  "  The  United 
States,  an  Outline  of  Political  History  "  (1893). 

Smith,  Green  C.,  born  in  1832,  commanded  a  regiment  at  Lebanon,  Tenn. 
He  represented  Kentucky  in  the  U.  S.  Congress  as  a  Unionist  from  1863  to 
1866,  and  was  Governor  of  Montana  from  1866  to  1869.  In  1876  he  was 
the  Presidential  candidate  of  the  Prohibition  party.  Died  1895. 

Smith,  Hoke,  born  in  1855,  organized  and  became  president  of  the 
Atlanta,  Ga.,  Evening  Journal  in  1887.  He  became  Secretary  of  the 
Interior  in  Cleveland's  Cabinet  in  1893. 

Smith,  James  (i72o?-i8o6),  came  to  America  from  Ireland  in  1729.  He 
raised  the  first  Pennsylvania  company  in  1774  for  resisting  Great  Britain. 
He  aided  the  patriotic  cause  by  "  An  Essay  on  the  Constitutional  Power  of 
Great  Britain  over  the  Colonies  in  America."  He  represented  Pennsylvania 
in  the  Continental  Congress  from  1776  to  1778,  and  signed  the  Declaration 
of  Independence. 


DICTIONARY  OK  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  607 

Smith,  John  (1579-1632),  a  noted  explorer  and  historical  writer,  was  of 
English  birth,  and  led  a  most  adventurous  early  life.  He  traveled  exten- 
sively, though  the  narratives  of  his  various  exploits  are  somewhat  apocry- 
phal. He  was  in  the  Netherlands,  fought  against  the  Turks,  and  joined 
Newport's  expedition,  which  founded  Virginia  in  1607.  In  the  outward 
voyage  Smith  was  imprisoned.  He  soon  after  his  release  became  the  prac- 
tical head  of  the  struggling  colony.  He  explored  the  Chickahominy  region 
and  was  taken  prisoner  by  Powhatan  (to  which  epoch  belongs  the  famous 
Pocahontas  legend).  The  next  year  he  made  a  long  exploration  of  the 
Chesapeake  Bay  and  its  tributaries.  He  was  president  of  the  colony,  but  in 
1609  met  with  an  accident  and  returned  to  England.  In  1614  he  was  on 
the  New  England  coast,  engaged  in  discoveries.  He  wrote  voluminously, 
but  is  suspected  of  romantic  exaggeration  and  coloring.  His  chief  works 
were:  "  A  True  Relation,"  "  Generall  Historic  of  Virginia,"  and  a  "  Descrip- 
tion of  New  England." 

Smith,  John  (1735-1816),  represented  Ohio  in  the  U.  S.  Senate  as  a  Dem- 
ocrat from  1803  to  1808.  He  was  charged  with  being  connected  with  Burr 
and  Blennerhasset,  but  it  was  not  proved. 

Smith,  John  Cotton  (1765-1845),  was  a  member  of  the  Connecticut  Legis- 
lature from  1796  to  1800,  and  represented  Connecticut  in  the  U.  S.  Congress 
as  a  Federalist  from  1800  to  1806.  He  was  Judge  of  the  State  Supreme 
Court  in  1809,  Lieutenant-Governor  in  1810  and  Governor  from  1813  to 
1818.  He  was  president  of  the  American  Bible  Society  from  1831  to 
1845. 

Smith,  John  E.,  born  in  1816,  led  a  regiment  at  Forts  Henry  and  Dpnelson, 
and  at  Shiloh  and  Corinth.  He  commanded  a  division  in  the  Vicksburg 
campaign  and  fought  also  at  Missionary  Ridge. 

Smith,  Joseph  (1805-1844),  claimed  to  have  visions  of  a  new  religious 
faith  about  1823,  and  from  the  revelations  he  produced  the  Book  of  Mor- 
mon. A  church  was  founded  in  1830,  and  in  1831  they  emigrated  from 
New  York  to  Kirtland,  Ohio,  thence  to  Missouri.  They  were  driven  away 
by  the  citizens  in  1838  and  settled  Nauvoo,  111.  The  colony  increased 
rapidly,  and  a  charter  was  obtained.  Smith  gained  almost  unlimited  power, 
and  in  1843  sought  to  establish  polygamy  as  an  essential  feature  of  their 
religion.  Dissensions  occurred  and  Smith  was  arrested.  A  mob  surrounded 
the  jail,  and  he  was  shot. 

Smith,  Joshua  Toulmin  (1816-1869),  of  England,  visited  America  from 
1837  to  1842,  and  published  his  "  Discovery  of  America  by  the  Northmen  in 
the  Tenth  Century,"  which  is  regarded  as  an  important  authority. 

Smith,  Melancthon  (1724-1798),  was  a  member  of  the  first  New  York  Pro- 
vincial Congress  in  1775.  In  1777  he  was  a  commissioner  for  detecting  and 
defeating  conspiracies  in  the  State.  He  was  a  delegate  from  New  York  to 
the  Continental  Congress  from  1785  to  1788.  In  the  New  York  convention 
in  1788  to  consider  the  ratification  of  the  Constitution,  he  supported  the 
Anti-Federal  party. 


608  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITBD  STATES  HISTORY. 

Smith,  Melancthon,  born  in  1810,  commanded  the  u  Massachusetts  "  at  the 
capture  of  Biloxi.  He  destroyed  the  Confederate  ram  "  Manassas  "  when 
commanding  the  "  Mississippi  "  at  New  Orleans,  and  served  at  Port  Hudson 
and  Fort  Fisher. 

Smith,  Meriwether  (1730-1790),  was  a  member  of  the  Virginia  House 
of  Burgesses  in  1770  and  of  the  Revolutionary  conventions  of  1775  and 
1776.  He  was  a  delegate  to  the  Continental  Congress  from  1778  to  1782, 
and  a  member  of  the  convention  that  ratified  the  Federal  Constitution  in 
1788. 

Smith,  Morgan  L.  (1822-1874),  fought  at  Forts  Henry  and  Donelson,  and 
led  a  brigade  at  Shiloh  and  Corinth.  He  commanded  a  division  at  Vicks- 
burg,  Missionary  Ridge,  Kuoxville  and  Chattanooga. 

Smith,  Nathan  (1762-1822),  represented  Connecticut  in  the  U.  S.  Con- 
gress as  a  Federalist  from  1795  to  1799.  He  was  a  Judge  of  the  Connecticut 
Supreme  Court  from  1806  to  1819.  He  was  a  leader  at  the  Hartford  conven- 
tion in  1814. 

Smith,  Persifer  F.  (1798-1858),  served  with  distinction  throughout  the 
Mexican  War,  commanding  a  brigade  at  Monterey,  Chumbusco,  Contreras, 
Chapultepec  and  the  City  of  Mexico.  He  was  commissioner  of  armistice 
with  Mexico  in  1847.  '•.,''.,' 

Smith,  Richard,  born  in  1823,  came  to  America  from  Ireland  in  1841. 
He  became  an  editor  of  the  Cincinnati  Gazette  in  1854,  and  in  1880  vice- 
president  of  the  consolidated  Gazette  and  Commercial,  and  has  had  an 
important  part  in  politics. 

Smith,  Robert  (1757-1842),  of  Maryland,  served  as  a  volunteer  at  the 
battle  of  Brandywine.  He  was  one  of  the  Presidential  electors  in  1789,  and 
was  the  last  surviving  member.  He  served  in  the  Maryland  Senate  in  1793, 
and  was  a  member  of  the  House  of  Delegates  from  1796  to  1800.  He  was 
Secretary  of  the  Navy  in  Jefferson's  Cabinet  from  1802  to  1805,  and  though 
appointed  Attorney-General  in  1805,  really  served  as  Secretary  of  the  Navy 
from  1805  to  1809.  He  was  Secretary  of  State  in  Madison's  Cabinet  from 
1809  to  1811,  when  he  was  succeeded  by  Monroe. 

Smith,  Samuel  (1752-1839),  of  Maryland,  fought  at  Long  Island,  Harlem 
and  White  Plains,  and  was  distinguished  at  Brandywine  and  Fort  Mifflin, 
which  he  commanded.  He  also  fought  at  Monmouth.  He  represented 
Maryland  in  the  U.  S.  Congress  as  a  Democrat  from  1793  to  1803,  in  the 
U.  S.  Senate  from  1803  to  1815,  and  again  in  the  House  from  1816  to  1822. 
He  was  again  U.  S.  Senator  from  1833  to  1835.  He  attempted,  with  his 
brother  Robert,  to  control  Madison's  administration. 

Smith,  Samuel  F.,  of  Massachusetts,  born  in  1808,  is  the  author  of  the 
national  hymn,  "My  Country,  'tis  of  Thee."  Died  1895. 

Smith,  Thomas  K.  (1820-1887),  commanded  a  Federal  regiment  at  Pitts- 
burgh Landing,  Corinth  and  Vicksburg.  He  led  a  division  in  the  Red  River 
expedition  in  1863. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  609 

Smith,  Truman  (1791-1884),  represented  Connecticut  in  the  U.  S.  Con- 
gress as  a  Whig  from  1839  to  1843  and  fr°m  l845  to  l849>  and  in  the  U.  S. 
Senate  from  1849  to  1854. 

Smith,  William  (1762-1840),  represented  South  Carolina  in  the  U.  S. 
Congress  as  a  Democrat  from  1797  to  1799.  He  was  a  circuit  judge  from 
1799  to  1816.  He  served  in  the  South  Carolina  Senate  from  1806  to  1808. 
He  was  a  U.  S.  Senator  from  1817  to  1823  and  from  1826  to  1831.  He  was 
a  strict  State-rights  advocate,  but  opposed  nullification. 

Smith,  William  (1796-1887),  represented  Virginia  in  the  U.  S.  Congress 
as  a  Democrat  from  1841  to  1843.  He  was  Governor  of  Virginia  from  1845 
to  1848,  and  again  a  Congressman  from  1853  to  1861. 

Smith,  William  F.,  born  in  1824,  was  engaged  at  the  battle  of  Bull  Run 
on  the  staff  of  General  McDowell.  He  commanded  a  division  at  Yorktown, 
Williamsburg,  Fair  Oaks,  Savage  Station  and  Malvern  Hill  in  1862.  He 
led  a  division  at  South  Mountain  and  Antietam.  He  commanded  a  corps  at 
Fredericksburg.  He  engaged  in  the  operations  about  Chattanooga  in  1863, 
and  fought  at  Missionary  Ridge.  He  rendered  valuable  services  by  placing 
a  bridge  across  the  Tennessee  at  Brown's  Ferry,  which  made  possible  the 
victories  at  Chattanooga.  He  commanded  a  corps  at  Cold  Harbor  and 
Petersburg  in  1864,  and  has  written  extensively  on  the  war. 

Smith  College,  Northampton,  Mass.,  a  college  for  girls  founded  by  Sophia 
Smith,  was  chartered  in  1871,  but  opened  first  in  1875. 

Smithson,  James  (1754-1829),  of  England,  bequeathed  his  estate  of 
$500,000  for  founding  the  Smithsonian  Institution  which  was  erected  at 
Washington  in  1846  "for  the  increase  and  diffusion  of  knowledge  among 
men." 

Smithsonian  Institution,  a  scientific  establishment  in  Washington,  was 
organized  by  Act  of  Congress  August,  1846,  under  the  provisions  of  the 
will  of  James  Smithson,  which  bequeathed  $515,169  to  the  United  States 
Government. 

Smuggling.  The  British  navigation  laws  and  laws  protective  to  manufac- 
tures caused  bold  and  extensive  smuggling  throughout  the  colonies  during 
the  latter  part  of  the  seventeenth  and  half  of  the  eighteenth  centuries. 
Respectable  merchants  and  prominent  public  men  felt  no  qualms  of  con- 
science in  cheating  the  revenue  officers  by  illicit  trade  with  pirates  and  with 
West  India  merchants.  New  York  was  the  principal  port  for  smugglers, 
though  Boston,  Philadelphia  and  Charleston  were  also  enriched  by  smuggled 
goods.  Governor  Bellomont,  of  New  York,  found  in  1700,  that  a  "  lycen- 
cious  trade  with  pyrats,  Scotland  and  Curasao  "  had  sprung  up  and  the  prov- 
ince of  New  York  "grew  rich,  but  the  customes,  they  decreased."  All  this 
led  to  the  attempt  of  the  British  Government  to  enforce  the  Acts  of  Trade, 
which  did  much  to  precipitate  the  Revolution. 

Smyth,  Alexander  (1765-1830),  came  to  America  from  Ireland  in  1775. 
He  represented  Virginia  in  the  U.  S.  Congress  as  a  Democrat  from  1817  to 
1825  and  from  1827  to  1830.  He  wrote  "Regulations  for  the  Infantry." 

39 


fllo  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Socialistic  Labor  Party,  organized  at  Baltimore  by  a  congress  of  social- 
ists in  1^83.  A  manifesto  was  issued  setting  forth  their  demands  and  prin- 
ciples, but'  being  moderate.  The  party  is  composed  of  local  sections  in 
nearly  every  city,  these  sections  being  divided  into  branches. 

Softs,  or  Softshells,  the  name  given  to  a  faction  of  the  Democratic  party 
in  New  York  from  1852  to  1860,  partly  identical  with  the  "  barnburners  "  of 
the  preceding  period,  and  disinclined  to  alliance  with  the  pro-slavery  democ- 
racy of  the  South. 

Sojourner  Truth  (1775-1883),  was  freed  from  slavery  in  New  York  in 
1817.  She  was  an  effective  lecturer  upon  politics,  temperance,  women's 
rights  and  slavery. 

Soley,  James  Russell,  born  in  1850,  professor  at  Annapolis,  has  superin- 
tended the  governmental  publication  of  the  naval  records  of  the  Civil  War 
since  1883.  He  has  been  Assistant  Secretary  of  the  Navy  from  1890  to  1893. 
He  published  "The  Boys  of  1812,"  the  "Autobiography  of  Commodore 
Morris,"  and  several  books  of  naval  history. 

Somers,  Richard  (1778—1804),  was  given  command  of  the  "Nautilus"  in 
Treble's  squadron  during  the  Tripolitan  War  from  1803  to  1804.  He 
commanded  a  division  of  gunboats,  and  was  distinguished  for  gallantry. 
He  attempted  to  destroy  the  Tripolitan  fleet  by  exploding  a  bomb-vessel  in 
their  midst.  All  on  board  were  killed  by  the  premature  explosion  of  the 
vessel. 

Sommersett  Case.  Sommersett  was  a  slave,  brought  to  London  from 
Boston  in  October,  1769.  In  October,  1771,  he  escaped  from  his  master,  but 
was  soon  secured  and  brought  before  Lord  Mansfield.  The  negro  was  dis- 
charged on  the  ground  that  in  England  slavery  could  exist  only  by  positive 
law,  and  in  the  absence  of  such  law  a  person  could  not  be  deprived  of  liberty 
on  the  ground  that  he  was  a  slave.  This  decision  determined  the  future 
course  of  England  in  the  delivery  of  fugitives. 

Sonoma,  a  Californian  stronghold,  taken  June  14,  1846,  without  an  engage- 
ment, by  Ezekiel  Merritt  and  twenty  American  soldiers  of  Captain  Fremont's 
command.  It  is  to  be  remembered  in  connection  with  the  Bear  Flag  revolt 
in  California,  partially  incited  by  Fremont.  The  fort,  at  the  time  of  its 
capture,  was  ungarrisoned,  being  inhabited  only  by  Colonel  Vallejo,  an  old 
Mexican  officer. 

Sons  of  the  American  Revolution,  a  society  of  the  male  descendants  of 
soldiers,  sailors  and  conspicuous  patriots  during  the  Revolution,  originally 
organized  in  California  July  4,  1876.  It  has  now  thirty  State  branches. 

Sons  of  Liberty.  The  name  was  first  assumed  by  a  society  organized  in 
Connecticut,  in  1755,  to  advance  theological  liberty.  Barre',  in  his  speech 
in  Parliament  February  6,  1765,  applied  the  words  to  the  whole  body  of 
American  patriots.  They  advocated  non-importation,  aided  in  the  hanging 
in  effigy  of  the  stamp  distributor,  Oliver,  in  1765,  and  proposed,  in  1774,  the 
organization  of  a  Continental  Congress.  They  embraced  mainly  the  younger 
and  more  ardent  element 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  611 

Sons  of  the  Revolution,  an  organization  of  the  same  nature  as  the  Sons 
of  the  American  Revolution,  first  established  in  New  York  in  1875.  It  has 
now  seventeen  State  branches. 

Soule,  Pierre  (1802-1870),  was  driven  from  France  on  account  of  his 
extreme  liberal  ideas  and  his  attacks  on  the  ministry  of  Charles  X.  He 
came  to  the  United  States  in  1826.  After  studying  law  at  New  Orleans,  he 
represented  Louisiana  in  the  U.  S.  Senate  as  a  Democrat  in  1847  and  from 
1849  to  1853.  He  was  Minister  to  Spain  from  1853  to  1855,  and  was  one 
of  the  ministers  who  framed  the  celebrated  "  Ostend  Manifesto  "  in  1854. 
He  was  an  able  and  eloquent  defender  of  the  Southern  cause  while  in  public 
life. 

South,  University  of  the,  Sewanee,  Tenn.,  was  chartered  by  Episco- 
palians in  1858,  but  not  opened  for  ten  years  on  account  of  the  war.  The 
theological  department  was  opened  in  1876. 

South  American  Republics,  Recognition  of.  As  early  as  1817  Henry 
Clay  had  ardently  advocated  in  Congress  the  appropriation  of  money  for 
sending  an  accredited  minister  to  the  self-liberated  State  of  Buenos  Ayres. 
His  motion  was,  however,  rejected.  By  1822,  through  the  efforts  of  Bolivar 
and  other  patriotic  South  American  liberators,  Chili,  Peru,  New  Grenada 
and  Venezuela  had  been  practically  freed  from  Spanish  dominion.  In  March, 
1822,  President  Monroe,  in  a  special  message  to  Congress,  recommended  the 
recognition  of  these  republics  and  the  establishment  of  international  relations 
with  them.  Congress  passed  an  almost  unanimous  resolution  to  this  effect 
in  the  same  year,  and  by  1825  arrangements  had  been  made  for  an  exchange 
of  ministers. 

South  Carolina  was  one  of  the  original  thirteen  States  of  the  American 
Union.  It  was  partially  explored  by  the  Spaniards  in  1525,  who  named  it 
Chicora.  French  Huguenots  under  Ribaut  attempted  to  plant  a  colony  at 
Port  Royal  in  1562,  but  the  colonists  soon  abandoned  the  undertaking  and 
returned  to  France.  In  1670  William  Sayle  and  a  party  of  Englishmen 
founded  Charleston.  Charles  II.  gave  the  territory  between  29°  north  lati- 
tude and  36°  30'  north  latitude  to  eight  of  his  favorites  (1663),  and  in  1665 
he  issued  a  charter  to  the  proprietors  by  which  the  virtual  control  of  the 
colony  was  placed  in  their  hands.  They  employed  Locke,  the  philosopher, 
to  draw  up  a  constitution  which  should  provide  an  ideal  government. 
Locke's  Fundamental  Constitutions,  or  the  "Grand  Model,"  attempted  in 
vain  to  set  up  the  feudal  system  and  was  formally  abandoned  by  the  pro- 
prietors in  1693.  In  1700  the  colony  was  separated  from  North  Carolina,  the 
boundary  being  fixed  in  1732.  South  Carolina  became  a  royal  colony  in 
1729.  The  Southern  boundary  caused  a  dispute  with  Georgia  which  was 
settled  in  1787  in  favor  of  Georgia.  South  Carolina  then  ceded  her  western 
territory,  consisting  of  a  strip  twelve  miles  wide,  to  the  general  government. 
During  the  Revolution  the  important  battles  of  Fort  Moultrie,  Cowpens, 
King's  Mountain,  Camden  and  Eutaw  Springs  were  fought  in  South  Caro- 
lina. The  first  constitution  was  made  in  1776,  the  present  in  1868.  The 
National  Constitution  was  ratified  May  23,  1788,  by  a  vote  of  149  to  73.  For 
some  vears  the  Federalists  retained  control  of  the  State  because  of  the 


axa  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

wealth  and  influence  of  their  leaders.  In  1800  Pinckney  refused  the  offer 
of  the  Democrats  in  the  Legislature  to  choose  electors  favorable  to  Jefferson 
and  himself  and  stood  by  his  colleague,  Adams,  in  his  defeat.  From  this 
time  the  State  was  solidly  Democratic.  By  the  famous  compromise  of  1808 
the  apportionment  of  representatives  was  made  according  to  population  and 
taxes.  The  State  protested  against  the  gross  inequality  of  the  tariff  of  1828 
by  the  "  South  Carolina  Exposition,"  in  which  the  doctrine  of  nullification 
was  defended.  In  1832  the  tariff  of  1828,  the  "  tariff  of  abominations,"  was 
modified,  but  the  principle  of  protection  still  retained,  whereupon  South 
Carolina  in  convention  at  Columbia  on  November  24,  1832,  declared  the 
tariff  acts  of  1828  and  1832  null  and  void  and  prohibited  payment  of  duties 
after  February  i,  1833.  Henry  Clay's  compromise  tariff  was  passed  in  1833 
and  at  the  same  time  a  force  bill  became  law;  on  March  11,  1833,  the  nulli- 
fication ordinance  was  repealed.  South  Carolina  was  the  mother  of  secession 
and  after  1850  she  was  ready  to  secede  at  any  time  when  she  could  rely  upon 
the  aid  of  the  other  States.  December  20,  1860,  an  ordinance  of  secession 
was  passed,  to  sustain  which  the  State  furnished  60,000  troops  out  of  a  popula- 
tion including  only  47,000  voters.  April  12,  1861,  Fort  Sumter  was  fired  on. 
South  Carolina  was  re-admitted  June  25,  1868.  From  1868  to  1873  the 
("carpet-bag")  State  government  was  exceedingly  corrupt.  In  1870  and 
1871  the  Ku  Klux  Klan  aimed  at  the  suppression  of  the  negro  vote  by  out- 
rage. In  1876  the  Republicans  carried  the  State  in  a  disorderly  election. 
Since  that  time  the  State  has  been  steadily  Democratic.  The  population 
of  South  Carolina  in  1790  was  249,033;  in  1890  it  was  1,151,149. 

South  Carolina,  University  of,  at  Columbia,  was  chartered  as  a  college  in 
1801,  organized  as  a  university  in  1865. 

"South  Carolina  Gazette."  There  were  four  "gazettes"  published  in 
South  Carolina  during  the  early  years  of  journalism.  The  first  was  estab- 
lished at  Charleston,  January  8,  1732,  by  Thomas  Whitmarsh,  it  being  the 
first  newspaper  of  the  colony.  Publication  was  suspended  within  a  year. 
In  February,  1734,  Lewis  Timothy  began  in  Charleston  the  second  "  gazette." 
This  was  suspended  several  times,  and  finally  ceased  to  exist  in  1800.  Rob- 
ert Wells  founded,  in  1758,  the  third,  called  the  South  Carolina  and  Ameri- 
can General  Gazette.  Publication  suspended  1780.  The  fourth,  called  the 
South  Carolina  Gazette  and  Country  Journal,  was  published  1765,  by  Charles 
Crouch.  Publication  suspended  at  the  Revolution. 

South  Carolina  Historical  Society,  founded  at  Charleston  in  1855.  It 
has  a  small  library,  including  some  important  manuscripts.  It  has  pub- 
lished three  volumes  of  collections  and  a  part  of  a  fourth. 

South  Company  (Sodre  Compagnie,  Cornpagnia  Australis,  Suyder  Com- 
pagnie,  General-Handels-Compagnie).  See  Swedish  West  India  Company. 

South  Dakota  was  originally  a  part  of  the  Louisiana  cession.  Before  the 
settlement  of  the  boundary  between  the  United  States  and  Canada  the  terri- 
tory was  under  British  rule.  Dakota  was  organized  as  a  territory  in  1861, 
and  in  1889,  November  2,  the  two  Dakotas  were  admitted  as  States.  The 
manufacture  or  sale  of  intoxicating  liquors  was  prohibited  by  an  act  of  1890. 
The  State  is  Republican.  Its  population  in  1890  was  328,808. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  613 

South  Mountain,  Md.,  an  engagement,  during  Lee's  expedition  into 
Maryland,  which  continued  throughout  the  day,  September  14,  1862, 
between  the  main  body  of  Lee's  army  and  several  divisions  of  Burnside's 
column  of  McClellan's  army.  Jackson  had  been  dispatched  by  Lee  to 
capture  Harper's  Ferry,  he  himself  moving  toward  South  Mountain,  whither 
he  was  pursued  by  McClellan's  troops.  The  engagement  was  opened  by  an 
attempt  by  the  Confederates,  under  Hill,  to  oppose  the  Union  troops'  passage 
of  Catoctin  Creek.  This  was  unsuccessful,  and  the  Confederates  retired 
farther  up  the  mountain,  guarding  all  passages  with  batteries.  Cox,  Reno, 
Hooker  and  Ricketts  forced  their  way  up  the  right  and  left  country  roads 
and  succeeded  in  carrying  the  eminence,  outflanking  the  Confederates  on  the 
right  and  left.  The  latter  were  forced  to  retreat  in  the  night,  leaving  their 
dead. 

South  Sea.  So  near  was  the  South  Sea  or  Pacific  Ocean  thought  to  be 
to  the  Atlantic  at  the  time  of  the  granting  of  the  colonial  charters  that 
several  of  them  granted  lands  extending  to  the  South  Sea.  Such  were  the 
charter  of  the  Virginia  Company,  granted  in  1609,  and  the  charters  of 
Massachusetts  Bay,  Connecticut  and  Carolina. 

Southampton,  Henry  Wriothesley,  Earl  of  (1573-1624),  was  active  in 
the  colonization  of  America,  sending,  among  others,  expeditions  under  Bar- 
tholomew Gosnold  in  1602,  and  under  Lord  Arundel  in  1605.  He  was 
treasurer  (z.  £.,  president)  of  the  Virginia  Company  from  1620. 

Southampton  Insurrection.     (See  Turner,  Nat.) 

Southard,  Samuel  L.  (1787-1842),  represented  New  Jersey  in  the  U.  S. 
Senate  as  a  Democrat  from  1821  to  1823.  He  was  Secretary  of  the  Navy  in 
the  Cabinets  of  Monroe  and  Adams  from  1823  ^°  J829.  He  was  acting  Sec- 
retary of  the  Treasury,  March  to  July,  1825,  and  U.  S.  Senator,  1833  to  1842. 

Southwest  Territory,  a  territory  of  the  United  States,  comprising  all  the 
region  ceded  by  North  Carolina  (now  Tennessee)  and  the  narrow  strip  ceded 
by  South  Carolina.  This  was  organized  in  1 790  as  the  Southwest  Territory, 
with  institutions  resembling  those  of  the  Northwestern,  except  for  the  admis- 
sion of  slavery.  With  the  admission  of  Tennessee  in  1796  and  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  Mississippi  Territory  in  1798,  this  Territory  went  out  of  existence. 

Spain,  Spain  was  an  ally  of  France  and  the  United  States  from  1778  to 
1782.  From  1783  she  possessed  all  to  the  south  and  west  of  the  United 
States.  By  the  treaty  of  October  27,  1795,  between  the  United  States  and 
Spain,  the  southern  boundary  of  the  United  States  was  defined,  the  naviga- 
tion of  the  Mississippi  was  granted,  and  New  Orleans  made  a  port  of  deposit. 
A  claims  convention  was  concluded  in  1802,  but  Spain  did  not  ratify  it  until 
1818.  The  cession  of  Louisiana  in  1803  and  the  occupation  of  West  Florida 
in  1810  caused  some  trouble  with  Spain.  By  the  treaty  of  1819  the  Floridas 
were  ceded  to  the  United  States,  and  the  Sabine  agreed  upon  as  the  western 
boundary  of  Louisiana;  the  United  States  assumed  claims  of  $5,000,000  due 
from  Spain  to  United  States  citizens.  Soon  after,  Mexico  and  the  Central 
and  South  American  States  secured  their  independence  of  Spain.  Claims 


5I4  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

conventions  were  concluded  in  1834  and  1871.  An  extradition  convention 
was  concluded  in  1877,  which  was  amended  by  the  convention  of  1882.  A 
reciprocity  agreement  was  made  February  13,  1884.  A  reciprocity  treaty, 
relative  to  American  trade  with  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico,  was  concluded  in  1891. 
Spanish- American  War  of  1898.  In  1895  a  new  rebellion  broke  out  in 
Cuba.  Capt.-Gen.  Weyler  attempted  in  vain  to  suppress  it  by  measures  so 
cruel 'and  so  destructive  that  intervention  by  the  United  States  was  frequently 
suggested.  Pres.  McKinley's  message  of  Dec.,  1897,  counselled  further  for- 
bearance. The  Sagasta  ministry,  acting  through  Capt.-Gen.  Blanco,  made 
proposals  of  home-rule  for  Cuba,  but  without  real  prospect  of  success.  On 
Feb.  15  the  U.  S.  S.  "Maine"  was  blown  up  in  Havana  harbor,  under  cir- 
cumstances which  made  it  probable  that  some  Spanish  officials  were  respon- 
sible. The  nation  showed  remarkable  self-control,  but  determined  that 
Spain's  misrule  in  Cuba  must  end.  Pres.  McKinley  attempted  to  bring  this 
about  by  diplomacy.  By  a  message  of  April  n  he  admitted  his  failure,  and 
recommended  forcible  intervention.  On  April  19,  Congress  declared  Cuba 
independent  and  authorized  intervention.  Spain  declared  our  action  a  declara- 
tion of  war,  Apr.  21.  Havana  blockaded,  Apr.  22  First  naval  action,  Apr. 
27,  at  Matanzas,  Cuba.  May  i,  battle  of  Manila  (which  see).  First  .land 
skirmish,  May  n,  near  Cabanas,  Cuba.  Spanish  Admiral  Cervera's  fleet 
reported  at  Santiago,  Cuba,  May  19.  Shut  in,  May  29,  by  Com.  Schley, 
joined  by  Acting  Admiral  Sampson,  June  i.  Ladrone  Islands  captured  June 
21.  Land  and  naval  battles  of  Santiago  (which  see)  July  i  to  17.  Gen.  Miles 
landed  on  Porto  Rico  (which  see)  July  25.  Aug.  12,  peace  protocol  signed  at 
Washington.  Admiral  Dewey  and  Gen.  Merritt  jointly  took  Manila,  Aug.  13. 
(See  also  Cuba,  Peace  Commission,  1898,  and  Philippine  Islands.) 

Sparks,  Jared  (1789-1866),  an  American  historical  writer,  was  graduated 
at  Harvard  in  1815,  and  after  a  short  experience  as  a  Unitarian  clergyman, 
became  the  editor  of  the  North  American  Revieiv  in  1824;  this  position  he 
held  until  1831.  Afterward  he  was  professor  in  Harvard,  and  president  of 
that  college  in  1849-1853.  His  voluminous  works  include  the  edition  of 
the  "  Diplomatic  Correspondence  of  the  American  Revolution  "  in  twelve 
volumes;  the  writings  of  Washington  with  a  life,  in  twelve  volumes;  the 
"  Library  of  American  Biography  "  (of  which  Sparks  himself  wrote  the 
lives  of  Arnold,  Allen  and  others),  an  edition  of  Franklin's  works,  and  a 
biography  of  Gouverneur  Morris.  His  life  and  letters  have  been  edited  by 
H.  B.  Adams  in  1893. 

Speaker.  After  the  model  of  the  English  House  of  Commons,  the  popular 
branch  of  each  colonial  legislature  had  its  speaker.  When,  at  the  time  of 
the  Revolution,  the  State  constitutions  were  formed,  some  States  gave  this 
same  title  to  the  presiding  officers  of  their  upper  houses.  The  Constitution 
of  1787  provides  for  the  office  of  speaker  of  the  House  of  Representatives, 
in  saying  "  The  House  of  Representatives  shall  choose  their  Speaker  and 
other  officers; "  but  that  the  Speaker  should  be,  as  he  now  is,  the  most 
important  and  influential  official  of  the  Federal  Government,  next  after  the 
President,  was  not  contemplated  by  the  framers  of  the  Constitution.  This 
has  come  about  gradually,  as  a  consequence  of  the  development  of  the 
system  of  standing  committees  (see  art.  Committees)  and  of  the  entrusting 
of  their  appointment  to  the  Speaker.  The  first  speaker  of  the  modern  kind, 
more  a  leader  of  the  House  than  a  mere  presiding  officer,  was  Speaker  Cla>. 


NAVAL  COMMANDERS   OF   WAR     1898. 


William  T.  Sampson 


Charles   D.  Sigsbee. 

John   D    Long. 

(Secretary  of  Navy.) 

George   Dewey. 


Winfield  S.  Schley. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 


615 


Speakers  of  the  House  of  Representatives. 

refer  to  the  successive  Congresses. 


The  numbers  at  the  left 


Congress. 

Name. 

State. 

Term. 

2 

3 

4 
5 
6 

7 
8 

9 
10 
ir 

12 

I3« 

13* 
14 

15 

i6a 
16* 
17 
18 

F.  A.  Muhlenberg  .... 
Jonathan  Trumbull    .    .    . 
F.  A.  Muhlenberg  .... 
Jonathan  Dayton     .... 
Jonathan  Dayton     .... 
Theodore  Sedgwick    -    .    . 
Nathaniel  Macon    .... 
Nathaniel  Macon    .... 
Nathaniel  Macon    .... 
Joseph  B.  Varnum  .... 
Joseph  B.  Varnum  .... 
Henry  Clay  
Henry  Clay  
Langdon  Cheves  
Henry  Clay  
Henry  Clay  
Henry  Clay  
John  W.  Taylor  .    . 
Philip  P.  Barbour   .... 
Henry  Clay 

Pennsylvania  .... 
Connecticut  
Pennsylvania  .... 
New  Jersey  
New  Jersey  
Massachusetts  .... 
North  Carolina    .    .    . 
North  Carolina    .    .    . 
North  Carolina    .    .    . 
Massachusetts  .... 
Massachusetts  . 
Kentucky  
Kentucky  
South  Carolina    .    .    . 
Kentucky  
Kentucky  
Kentucky  
New  York     .       ... 
Virginia     .    . 

April  i,  1789,  to  March  4,  1791. 
October  24,  1791,  to  March  4,  1793. 
December  2,  1793,  to  March  4,  1795. 
December  7,  1795,  to  March  4,  1797. 
May  15,  1797,  to  March  4,  1799. 
December  2,  1799,  to  March  4,  1801. 
December  7,  1801,  to  March  4,  1803. 
October  17,  1803,  to  March  4,  1805. 
December  2,  1805,  to  March  4,  1807. 
October  26,  1807,  to  March  4,  1809. 
May  22,  1809,  to  March  4,  1811. 
November  4,  1811,  to  March  4,  1813. 
May  24,  1813,  to  January  19,  1814. 
January  19,  1814,  to  March  4,  1815. 
December  4,  1815,  to  March  4,  1817. 
December  i,  1817,  to  March  4,  1819. 
December  6,  1819,  to  May  15,  1820. 
November  15,  1820,  to  March  4,  1821. 
December  4,  1821,  to  March  4,  1823. 
December  i    1823  to  March  4   1825 

19 

John  W.  Taylor  . 

New  York                 .    . 

December  5,  1825,  to  March  4,  1827. 

23 

Andrew  Stevenson 

Virginia                    .    . 

December  3,  1827,  to  March  4,  1829. 

21 
22 

2VZ 

Andrew  Stevenson  .... 
Andrew  Stevenson  .... 
Andrew  Stevenson 

Virginia     
Virginia     

December  7,  1829,  to  March  4,  1831. 
December  5,  1831,  to  March  4,  1833. 
December  2,  1833,  to  June  2,  1834. 

?3* 

John  Bell  .  . 

June  2    1834   to  March  4,  1835. 

24. 

James  K  Polk 

December  7    1835   to  March  4   1837. 

25 

James  K  Polk 

September  5    1837  to  March  4    1839 

26 

27 
28 

Robert  M.  T.  Hunter  .  . 
John  White  
John  W.  Jones  .  . 

Virginia     ...... 
Kentucky  
Virginia 

December  16,  1839,  to  March  4,  1841. 
May  31,  1841,  to  March  4,  1843. 
December  4,  1843,  to  March  4,  1845. 

29 
30 

31 

John  W.  Davis  
Robert  C.  Winthrop  .  .  . 
Howell  Cobb 

Indiana      
Massachusetts  .... 

December  i,  1845,  to  March  4,  1847. 
December  6,  1847,  to  March  4,  1849. 
December  22,  1849,  to  March  4,  1851. 

32 

Linn  Boyd 

December  I    1851    to  March  4    1853. 

33 
34 
35 
36 

3 

39 

Linn  Boyd  ...  .  .".•-,.. 
Nathaniel  P.  Banks  .  .  . 
James  L.  Orr  
William  Pennington  .  .  . 
Galusha  A.  Grow  .... 
Schuyler  Colfax  
Schuyler  Colfax 

Kentucky  
Massachusetts  .... 
South  Carolina    .    .    . 
New  Jersey  
Pennsylvania  .... 
Indiana  

December  5,  1853,  to  March  4,  1855. 
February  2,  1856,  to  March  4,  1857. 
December  7,  1857,  to  March  4,  1859. 
February  i,  1860,  to  March  4,  1861. 
July  4,  1861,  to  March  4,  1863. 
December  7,  1863,  to  March  4,  1865. 
December  4,  1865   to  March  4,  1867. 

40 

Schuyler  Colfax  

Indiana  

March  4,  1867,  to  March  4,  1869. 

4i 
42 

James  G.  Blaine  
James  G  Blaine 

Maine    

March  4,  1869,  to  March  4,  1871. 
March  4    1871   to  March  4   1873 

43 

James  G.  Blaine  .  . 

Maine        

December  i,  1873,  to  March  4,  1875. 

44'* 
44* 

8 

47 
48 

49 
5° 

Michael  C.  Kerr  
Samuel  J.  Randall  .... 
Samuel  J.  Randall  .... 
Samuel  J.  Randall  .... 
J.  Warren  Keifer  .... 
John  G.  Carlisle  
John  G.  Carlisle  
John  G.  Carlisle  .  .  . 

Indiana  
Pennsylvania  .... 
Pennsylvania  .... 
Pennsylvania  .... 
Ohio       
Kentucky  
Kentucky  

December  6,  1875,  to  August  20,  1876. 
December  4,  1876,  to  March  4,  1877. 
October  15,  1877,  to  March  4,  1879. 
March  18,  1879,  to  March  4,  1881. 
December  5,  1881,  to  March  4,  1883. 
December  3,  1883,  to  March  4,  1885. 
December  7,  1885,  to  March  4,  1887. 
December  5    1887,  to  March  4    1889 

51 

Thomas  B  Reed  .  .  . 

December  2    1889   to  March  4    iiSgi 

52 

53 

Charles  F.  Crisp  
Charles  F.  Crisp  .  . 

Georgia  

December  8,  1891,  to'  March  4,  1893. 
August  7,  1893,  to  March  4    1895. 

54 

Thomas  B,  Reed  

December,  1895,  to  March  4,  1899. 

6i6  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Specie  Circular,  a  treasury  circular  drafted  by  Senator  Benton  and  issued 
at  President  Jackson's  orders,  July  n,  1836,  which  directed  that  nothing 
but  gold  and  silver  should  be  received  in  payment  for  the  public  lands.  This 
was  Jackson's  last  financial  exploit.  The  circular  was  issued  quite  in  oppo- 
sition to  the  sentiment  or  will  of  Congress.  The  next  Congress  passed  a 
bill  to  rescind  this  specie  circular,  but  Jackson  killed  it  by  a  pocket  veto. 
The  circular  created  much  indignation  throughout  the  country,  and  con- 
tributed greatly  to  the  financial  crash  of  1837. 

Specie  Resumption.  In  1861,  after  the  breaking  out  of  the  Civil  War, 
the  banks  of  New  York  suspended  coin  payments,  and  their  example  was 
followed  by  most  of  the  banks  through  the  country.  Congress  authorized 
the  issue  of  large  quantities  of  United  States  notes,  to  be  a  legal-tender. 
January  14,  1875,  an  act  was  passed  by  Congress  ordering  the  resumption 
of  specie  payments  of  Government  contracts  to  begin  January  i,  1879.  To 
this  end  the  purchase  of  bullion  and  the  manufacture  of  subsidiary  coin  was 
at  once  begun  for  the  redemption  of  fractional  notes.  These  notes  were 
rapidly  presented  for  redemption,  compelling  the  Government  to  run  its 
mints  over  business  hours. 

Speed,  James  (1812-1887),  was  prominent  in  urging  Kentucky  to  refrain 
from  disunion,  and  was  active  in  the  national  cause.  He  was  U.  S. 
Attorney-General  from  1864  to  1866  in  the  Cabinets  of  Lincoln  and  Johnson. 

"  Speedwell,"  the  ship  which  was  to  have  sailed  with  the  "Mayflower" 
in  1620,  and  which  joined  her  at  Southampton  for  that  purpose,  having 
brought  the  Pilgrims  from  Delfthaven  thither.  Twice  she  started  and  twice 
she  put  back,  first  to  Dartmouth  and  then  to  Plymouth;  finally  the  "  May- 
flower" sailed  alone. 

Spencer,  John  C.  (1788-1855),  represented  New  York  in  the  U.  S.  Con- 
gress as  a  Democrat  from  1817  to  1819.  He  served  in  Tyler's  Cabinet  as 
Secretary  of  War  from  1841  to  1843  and  as  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  from 
1843  to  1844. 

Spencer,  Joseph  (1714-1789),  was  appointed  brigadier-general  in  the  Con- 
tinental army  in  1775.  He  served  at  Boston  and  New  York  and  commanded 
the  unsuccessful  Rhode  Island  expedition.  He  represented  Connecticut  in 
the  Continental  Congress  in  1779. 

Spies,  August  V.  T.  (1855-1887),  Anarchist,  came  to  the  United  States 
from  Germany  in  1871.  He  was  hanged  as  one  of  the  instigators  of  the 
Hay  market  massacre  in  Chicago  in  1886,  when  sixty-two  policemen  were 
wounded. 

Spinner,  Francis  E.  (1802-1890),  represented  New  York  in  the  U.  S. 
Congress  as  an  anti-slavery  Democrat  from  1855  to  1861.  He  was  U.  S. 
Treasurer  from  1861  to  1875,  and  ended  his  service  without  the  discrepancy 
in  his  accounts  of  a  penny. 

Spiritualists,  a  name  applied  to  the  believers  in  the  theory  that  spirits 
can  and  do  act  through  sensitive  organizations  known  as  mediums.  It  first 
came  into  prominence  in  the  United  States  through  the  manifestations  of 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  617 

the  Fox  Sisters,  at  Hydeville,  N.  Y.,  1848.  The  phenomena  consist  of  the 
moving  of  physical  objects,  rappings,  spirit  -  photographing,  etc.  The 
believers  in  these  manifestations  are  not  yet  completely  organized  into  a 
separate  body,  but  issue  periodicals  aud  books  in  great  numbers. 

Spofford,  Ainsworth  R.,  born  in  1825,  and  was  librarian  of  Congress 
1864  to  1897.  He  has  published  "The  American  Almanac"  (annual)  and 
"A  Practical  Manual  of  Parliamentary  Rules." 

Spoils  System.  The  system  of  partisan  use  of  the  offices,  as  a  means  of 
rewarding  those  who  have  worked  for  the  election  of  the  appointer  and  of 
punishment  for  those  who  have  not,  was  earlier  developed  in  New  York  and 
Pennsylvania  than  elsewhere,  largely  because  of  the  existence  in  those 
States  of  a  large  body  of  apathetic  non-English  voters.  In  New  York  the 
ill-devisecl  council  of  appointment  had  much  to  do  with  the  growth  of  the 
system,  and  so  had  Aaron  Burr.  In  the  Federal  Government,  Jefferson  car- 
ried out  the  system  to  a  considerable  extent.  The  Act  of  1820  prescribing 
a  four-years'  term  for  many  officers  favored  its  growth.  Finally,  the  politi- 
cians who  surrounded  Jackson  brought  it  to  its  full  development  as  an  engine 
of  party  warfare.  It  has  since  been  a  regular  reature  of  American  politics 
in  every  administration,  tempered  of  late  by  the  provisions  of  the  Civil  Ser- 
vice Act  of  1883.  The  phrase  was  derived  from  a  statement  of  Senator  W. 
L.  Marcy,  of  New  York,  in  a  speech  in  the  Senate  in  1832.  Speaking  of 
the  New  York  politicians,  he  said:  "  They  see  nothing  wrong  in  the  rule 
that  to  the  victor  belong  the  spoils  of  the  enemy." 

Spotswood,  Alexander  (1676-1740),  was  Governor  of  Virginia  from  1710 
to  1723,  and  greatly  improved  the  condition  of  the  colony  by  wise  laws  and 
careful  administration.  He  was  Deputy  Postmaster-General  of  the  colonies 
from  1730  to  1739. 

Spottsylvania  Court  House,  Va.,  an  indecisive,  but  hard-fought  and 
sanguinary  engagement  during  the  Civil  War  (1864).  Grant  led  the  Union 
army  of  about  100,000  men.  The  Confederates  engaged  numbered  about 
50,000.  After  the  battle  of  the  Wilderness,  Grant  wished  to  cut  off  Lee's 
communications  with  Richmond,  and  with  this  intention  he  hurried  forward 
toward  Spottsylvania  Court  House.  Lee  hastened  in  the  same  direction  and, 
by  obstructing  the  Federal  route  with  felled  trees  and  skirmishers,  managed 
to  arrive  first,  Warren's  advance  corps  of  Grant's  army  being  detained  on 
the  road.  On  May  7,  1864,  there  was  some  slight  skirmishing.  May  8, 
Grant  sent  Sheridan's  cavalry  corps  to  ride  around  the  Confederate  army, 
tearing  up  bridges  and  railroads  and  demolishing  trains.  This  corps  engaged 
J.  E.  B.  Stuart's  Confederate  cavalry,  defeating  them  and  killing  their 
leader.  The  National  line  was  formed  with  Hancock  holding  the  right, 
Warren  and  Sedgwick  the  centre,  and  Burnside  the  left.  On  the  9th  and 
loth,  assaults  were  made  upon  a  salient  or  weak  point  in  the  Confederate 
defences  by  Hancock,  and  then  by  Upton,  but  the  Confederates  remained 
firm.  It  rained  on  the  nth  and  there  was  no  fighting.  On  the  I2th  a  des- 
perate charge  by  Hancock  captured  the  coveted  salient.  The  Confederate 
Edward  Johnston  and  4000  men  were  taken.  This  captured  point  the  Con- 
federates charged  again  and  again,  and  there  was  frightful  slaughter  on  both 
sides.  From  this  "  death  angle,"  the  Confederates  retired  at  midnight. 


5!g  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATKS  HISTORY. 

Sprague,  Charles  (1791-1875),  poet,  was  cashier  of  the  Globe  Bank,  Bos- 
ton, from  1824  to  1865.  He  won  distinction  by  his  poems.  He  wrote  a 
"  Shakespeare  Ode,"  "  The  Brothers  "  and  "  The  Family  Meeting,"  etc. 

Sprague,  Peleg  (1793-1880),  represented  Maine  in  the  U.  S.  Congress  as 
a  National  Republican  from  1825  t°  J829,  and  in  the  U.  S.  Senate  from  1829 
to  1835.  He  was  U.  S.  Judge  for  the  Massachusetts  district  from  1841  to 
1865. 

Sprague,  William,  born  in  1830,  was  Governor  of  Rhode  Island  from 
1860  to  1863.  He  represented  Rhode  Island  in  the  U.  S.  Senate  as  a 
Republican  from  1863  to  1875. 

Spring  Hill,  Tenn.,  scene  of  a  defeat  of  2600  Federal  troops,  led  by 
Colonel  Coburn,  by  General  Van  Dorn,  commanding  20,000  Confederates, 
March  5,  1863.  Coburn  had  been  sent  thither  by  Rosecrans  to  co-operate 
with  Sheridan,  who  was  making  demonstrations  against  Forrest  toward  the 
South.'  Van  Dorn  fell  upon  him  when  quite  unprepared  for  battle.  Coburn 
fought  gallantly  during  one  entire  day,  despite  the  fact  that  he  was  com- 
pletely surrounded  by  Van  Dorn's  superior  numbers.  In  the  evening  his 
ammunition  had  given  out  and  his  forces  were  greatly  reduced,  so  he  had  to 
surrender  1300  of  his  infantry.  Later,  November  29,  1864,  a  brief  battle 
was  fought  here  during  Hood's  campaign  in  Tennessee,  between  a  small 
detachment  of  Hood's  army  and  a  company  of  Federals  from  Thomas'  force 
under  Stanley.  The  latter  was  guarding  a  baggage-train  when  the  Confed- 
erates came  upon  him.  There  was  no  decisive  victory. 

Springer,  "William  M.,  born  in  1836,  was  secretary  of  the  Illinois  Constitu- 
tional Convention  in  1862.  He  has  represented  Illinois  in  the  U.  S.  Congress 
as  a  Democrat  since  1875.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Potter  committee  on 
the  Presidential  election  of  1876,  and  of  the  joint  committee  which  reported 
the  Electoral  Commission  Bill.  He  has  been  prominent  in  tariff  legislation 

Springfield,  111.,  became  the  State  capital  in  1837.  It  was  laid  out  in 
1822,  and  was  incorporate  as  a  city  in  1840.  It  was  the  residence  of  Lin- 
coln before  he  became  President. 

Springfield,  Mass.,  was  settled  in  1635  by  emigrants  from  Roxbury.  In 
1675  the  settlement  was  burned  by  Indians.  Springfield  dates  its  import- 
ance from  the  opening  of  the  Boston  and  Albany  Railroad  in  1838.  It 
received  a  city  charter  in  1852. 

Springfield,  Mo.,  occupied  by  Brown  with  2400  Federal  militia  in  1862-63. 
Marmaduke,  commanding  4000  Confederates,  appeared  suddenly  January  8, 
1863,  fr°m  Arkansas,  and  fell  upon  Brown's  outposts.  The  latter's  five 
earthworks  were  speedily  destroyed.  Brown  fought  gallantly  from  ten 
o'clock  till  dark.  Marmaduke  then  withdrew,  having  lost  over  200  men. 
Brown's  loss  was  even  more  severe.  He  himself  lost  his  right  arm. 

Springfield,  N.  J.,  Battle  of,  June  23,  1780.  In  June,  1780,  General 
Clinton  advanced  to  seize  the  American  stores  at  Morristown,  N.  J.  On  the 
twenty-third  his  army  of  about  5000  men  met  the  Americans  at  Springfield. 
The  Americans  were  unable  to  resist  and  were  driven  back  to  the  Short 
Hills.  Here  Greene  formed  them  again  and  the  British  could  not  force 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  619 

their  position.     The  British  then  fired  the  village  and  retreated.     The  loss 
of  the  Americans  was  estimated  at  about  sixty,  that  of  the  British  about  300. 

"  Squatter  Sovereignty."  A  term  derisively  used  as  a  substitute  for  the 
phrase  "  popular  sovereignty,"  which  Douglas  and  others  used  to  character- 
ize their  plan  of  leaving  it  to  the  inhabitants  of  each  territory  to  decide, 
without  Congressional  interference,  whether  it  should  become  a  free  State  or 
a  slave  State. 

Squier,  Ephraim  G.  (1821-1888),  was  charge  d'affaires  to  the  Central 
American  States  in  1849,  and  U.  S.  Commissioner  to  Peru  in  1863.  He  made 
valuable  historical  and  geographical  investigations  in  Central  and  South 
America. 

Stamp  Act.  In  1765  George  Grenville,  Chancellor  of  the  English 
Exchequer,  proposed  a  bill  for  taxing  the  colonies  through  a  stamp  duty. 
No  serious  opposition  was  expected.  But  the  measure  aroused  great  excite- 
ment in  America  as  an  attempt  at  taxation  without  representation. 

Stamp  Act  Congress,  a  body  of  delegates  from  all  the  colonies  except 
New  Hampshire,  Virginia,  North  Carolina  and  Georgia,  which  met  at  New 
York  October  7,  1765,  and  adjourned  October  25.  The  action  of  this  Con- 
gress consisted  of  an  address  to  the  king,  petitions  to  Parliament  and  a 
declaration  of  the  rights  and  grievances  of  the  colonies.  It  protested  that 
the  colonies  could  only  be  taxed  by  their  own  representatives  in  the  colonial 
assemblies;  claimed  the  inherent  right  of  trial  by  jury,  and  declared  the 
Stamp  Act  to  have  a  manifest  tendency  to  subvert  the  rights  and  liberties  of 
the  colonies.  The  House  of  Commons  objected  to  the  declaration  as  that  of 
an  unconstitutional  gathering. 

Stanbery,  Henry  (1803-1881),  was  Attorney-General  in  Johnson's  Cabinet 
from  1866  to  1868,  when  he  resigned  to  become  leading  counsel  for  the 
President  in  the  impeachment  trial. 

Standish,  Myles  (1584  7-1656),  came  to  America  with  the  Pilgrims  in 
1620.  He  led  the  exploring  expeditions  to  discover  a  suitable  place  for 
settlement.  He  was  appointed  military  captain  in  1621,  being  the  first  com- 
missioned military  officer  in  New  England.  He  rendered  valuable  service 
in  repelling  Indian  hostilities.  He  visited  England  in  1625  as  agent  for 
the  colony  and  returned  with  supplies  in  1626.  He  founded  Duxbury  in 
1632.  He  was  a  member  of  the  executive  council,  and  for  many  years 
treasurer  of  the  colony.  His  courtship  of  Priscilla  Mullens  was  commemo- 
rated by  Longfellow,  in  his  "  Courtship  of  Miles  Standish." 

Stanford,  Leland  (1824-1893),  became  a  successful  merchant  in  Cali- 
fornia. He  was  Governor  of  California  from  1861  to  1863.  As  president 
of  the  Central  Pacific  Railroad  he  superintended  its  construction  over  the 
mountains.  He  served  in  the  U.  S.  Senate  as  a  Republican  from  1884 
to  1893.  He  founded  Leland  Stanford,  Jr.,  University  in  California  with 
$20,000,000,  which  offers  all  branches  of  education. 

Stanley,  David  S.,  born  in  1828,  led  a  division  at  Island  No.  10  and 
Corinth  in  1862.  He  was  active  in  Sherman's  Georgia  invasion.  He  fought 
at  Murfreesboro,  Nashville  and  Franklin. 


62©  DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Stanley,  Henry  M.,  explorer,  born  in  1840,  came  to  the  United  States 
from  Wales  in  1855.  He  has  made  exploring  expeditions  in  Africa  in 
1870-72,  1874-77,  1879-82  and  1887-89,  accounts  of  which  he  has  published. 

Stannard,  George  J.  (1820-1886),  fought  at  Bull  Run  and  Harper's  Ferry. 
He  led  a  brigade  at  Gettysburg  in  1863.  He  led  the  advance  on  Petersburg 
and  Richmond,  and  captured  Fort  Harrison  in  1864. 

Stanton,  Edwin  McMasters  (1814-1869),  the  great  War  Secretary  of  the 
Civil  War,  built  up  a  large  legal  business  in  Ohio  and  Pennsylvania  before 
the  Rebellion,  but  held  no  offices  except  reporter  to  the  Ohio  Supreme 
Court.  President  Buchanan  called  him  to  his  Cabinet  as  Attorney-General  in 
1860.  In  1862  President  Lincoln  selected  him  to  succeed  Cameron  as  Secre- 
tary of  War.  His  conduct  of  this  department  was  very  energetic;  he  was,  how- 
ever, embroiled  at  times  with  politicians  and  officers;  especially  notable  were 
his  controversies  with  McClellan  and  Sherman.  Continuing  in  Johnson's 
Cabinet,  he  differed  seriously  with  the  President,  and  was  suspended  in 
August,  1867.  This  action  brought  to  a  head  the  quarrel  between  Congress 
and  the  President.  Stanton  was  restored  in  January,  1868,  removed  in 
February.  The  President's  impeachment  followed.  By  President  Grant 
Stanton  was  nominated  as  Justice  of  the  Supreme  Court,  but  he  died  soon 
afterward. 

Stanton,  Elizabeth  Cady,  born' in  1815,  has  been  prominent  as  an  advo- 
cate of  woman  suffrage.  She  has  addressed  legislatures,  committees  and 
conventions.  She  was  a  candidate  for  Congress  in  New  York  in  1868. 

Stanwix,  John  (1690—1765),  came  to  America  from  England  in  1756  as 
commander  of  a  battalion  and  was  assigned  command  in  the  Southern  Dis- 
trict. In  1758  he  constructed  the  important  fortress  called  Fort  Stanwix  at 
the  Oneida  carrying-place  on  the  Mohawk  River.  In  1759  he  repaired  old 
Fort  Du  Quesne  at  Pittsburgh.  He  returned  to  England  in  1760. 

Stanwix,  Fort,  erected  in  1758  on  the  Mohawk  River,  at  what  was  called 
"  the  great  carrying  place,"  by  Brigadier-General  Stanwix.  The  name  was 
afterward  changed  to  Fort  Schuyler.  It  was  built  to  protect  the  country 
from  the  depredations  of  the  Six  Nations,  and  treaties  were  concluded  there 
between  those  Indians  and  the  English,  determining  the  boundaries  of  the 
Indian  Territory  in  1768.  In  1777  Peter  Gansevoort  was  placed  in  command 
of  the  fort  and  was  besieged  for  nearly  a  month  by  the  English  under  St. 
Leger.  He  refused  to  capitulate,  however,  and  St.  Leger  was  compelled  to 
withdraw.  The  fort  was  abandoned  in  1781,  being  partially  destroyed  by 
the  floods  of  that  year. 

"  Star  of  the  West,"  a  steamer  sent  by  the  Federal  Government  from 
New  York,  January  5,  1861,  laden  with  reinforcements  and  supplies  for  Fort 
Sumter.  She  appeared  off  the  Charleston  bar  January  9,  but  was  promptly 
fired  upon  by  the  batteries  of  Fort  Moultrie  and  Morris  Island,  and  being 
struck  by  a  shell  put  back  to  New  York.  She  was  afterward,  April  20, 
1861,  seized  by  the  Confederates  in  the  harbor  of  Indianola. 

Star  Routes,  the  name  applied  to  postal  lines  over  which  the  mail  cannot 
be  carried  by  railroad  or  steamboat.  In  1881  the  second  assistant  Postmaster 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  6«i 

General,  Thomas  J.  Brady,  and  others,  including  Senator  S.  W.  Dorsey, 
of  Arkansas,  were  accused  of  combining  with  certain  mail  contractors  to 
defraud  the  Government.  The  combination  had  originally  134  routes,  upon 
which  the  compensation  for  service  under  the  contract  amounted  to  $143,169. 
By  increasing  the  number  of  trips  per  week,  shortening  the  contract  time 
for  each  trip  and  allowing  therefor,  the  compensation  was  raised  to  $622,808. 
Dorsey  was  brought  to  trial  in  1882.  Dorsey  denied  all  charges  and  the  first 
jury  failed  to  bring  a  decision.  A  second  trial  took  place  in  1883  and  Dor- 
sey was  acquitted.  Brady's  trial  was  postponed,  and  no  decision  was  found 
against  him.  But  the  corrupt  combination  was  broken  up. 

"  Star-Spangled  Banner."  This  song  was  composed  September  13,  1814, 
during  the  bombardment  of  Fort  McHenry,  by  Francis  S.  Key,  a  young 
Baltimorean,  who  had  gone  down  the  harbor  in  a  cartel  vessel.  It  was  pub- 
lished and  sung  at  the  theatres  to  the  air  of  "  Anacreon  in  Heaven,"  and 
immediately  became  popular. 

Stark,  John  (1728—1822),  a  noted  Revolutionary  general,  was  a  native  of 
New  Hampshire.  He  was  a  hero  of  the  Indian  border  warfare,  and  was  at 
one  time  captured.  He  fought  in  the  French  and  Indian  War,  and  was 
active  in  the  Revolution,  being  one  of  the  principal  leaders  at  Bunker  Hill. 
He  served  in  Canada,  at  Trenton  and  Princeton,  and  resigned  in  1777.  But 
the  danger  of  Burgoyne's  invasion  called  out  the  New  Hampshire  militia, 
and  they  demanded  Stark  as  a  commander.  At  Bennington,  August  16, 
1777,  Stark  overthrew  the  Hessian  detachment,  and  in  this  way  powerfully 
contributed  to  the  catastrophe  of  Saratoga.  He  was  made  a  brigadier-gen- 
eral, and  served  until  the  close  of  the  war.  His  life  has  been  written  by 
Everett. 

Stars  and  Bars,  the  flag  of  the  Confederacy.  March  5,  1861,  the  Flag 
Committee  appointed  in  the  Provisional  Senate  of  the  Southern  States 
recommended  that  "  the  flag  of  the  Confederate  States  shall  consist  of  a  red 
field  with  a  white  space  extending  horizontally  through  the  centre,  and 
equal  in  width  to  one-third  the  width  of  the  flag."  It  was  first  displayed 
March  4,  1861,  simultaneously  with  the  inauguration  of  Lincoln,  being 
unfurled  over  the  State  House  at  Montgomery,  Ala.  In  1863  the  Confeder- 
ate Senate  adopted  a  white  flag  with  one  blue  star  in  the  centre,  the  Stars 
and  Bars  bearing  too  close  a  resemblance  to  the  Stars  and  Stripes.  Johnston 
and  Beauregard  also  adopted  a  "battle  flag,"  a  red  ground  with  a  blue 
diagonal  cross  and  white  stars. 

"  Starving  Time."  In  1609,  after  the  departure  of  Captain  John  Smith 
for  England,  the  settlers  of  Jamestown,  Va.,  were,  during  many  months, 
reduced  to  the  last  extremities,  being  obliged  to  eat  rats,  snakes,  toads  and 
even  dead  bodies  to  prevent  starvation.  This  was  known  as  the  "  starving 
time." 

State,  Department  of.  Under  the  Continental  Congress,  foreign  affairs 
were  at  first  managed  by  a  committee.  January  10,  1781,  the  office  of  Sec- 
retary for  Foreign  Affairs  was  instituted.  Livingston  held  it  till  1783,  Jay 
from  1784  to  1789.  In  the  First  Congress  a  Department  of  Foreign  Affairs 


622  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

and  a  Home  Department  were  at  first  planned,  but  on  July  27,  1789,  the 
Department  of  State  was  formed,  uniting  the  functions  of  the  two. 

Staten  Island,  N.  Y.,  was  bought  from  the  Indians  by  Michael  Pauw  in 
1631  and  later  transferred  to  the  Dutch  West  India  Company.  It  was  set- 
tled by  colonists  under  De  Vries  in  1637,  and  two  years  later  burned  and 
ravaged  by  the  Raritan  Indians.  The  West  India  Company  acquired  the 
patroon  titles  on  the  island,  but  in  1665  it  was  confiscated  by  the  Duke  of 
York. 

States.  The  Declaration  of  Independence  declared  "  that  these  united 
colonies  are,  and  of  right  ought  to  be,  free  and  independent  States."  Thir- 
teen States  thenceforth  existed.  Whether  they  were  from  the  beginning 
independent  and  sovereign,  or  whether  the  primary  allegiance  of  the  citizen 
was  from  the  first  due  to  the  United  States,  has  been  much  debated.  The 
fact  is,  that  both  views  can  find  countenance  in  public  and  official  expres- 
sions of  that  early  time,  and  that  the  Union  has  come  to  be  supreme  in  all 
men's  minds  only  by  historic  processes.  Ardent  advocacy  of  "  State-rights  " 
was  associated  with  the  theory  that  the  Constitution  was  a  voluntary  com- 
pact, and  led  to  the  doctrines  of  nullification  and  secession. — The  States  at 
once  organized  governments  modeled  on  those  of  the  colonial  period,  with 
strict  severance  of  the  legislative,  executive  and  judiciary  departments.  It 
has  been  one  of  the  chief  causes  of  the  success  of  the  American  Union  that, 
from  the  beginning,  its  scheme  provided  for  the  admission  of  new  States. 
On  October  10,  1780,  the  Continental  Congress  resolved  that  the  western 
territory  to  be  ceded  to  the  United  States  "shall  be  settled  and  formed  into 
distinct,  republican  States,  which  shall  become  members  of  the  Federal 
Union,  and  have  the  same  rights  of  sovereignty,  freedom  and  independence, 
as  the  other  States."  The  first  States  so  admitted  were  Vermont  and  Ken- 
tucky. The  act  admitting  Kentucky  was  passed  on  February  4,  1791,  to 
take  effect  June  i,  1792;  that  admitting  Vermont  was  passed  February  18, 
1791,  to  take  effect  March  4,  1792.  The  date  usually  regarded  as  the  date 
of  admission  of  a  State  is  that  on  which  the  act  took  effect. 

States,  Admission  of.  (The  date  given  is  that  when  admission  took 
effect) 


Delaware          ratified  the  O 
Pennsylvania          do. 
New  Jersey             do. 
Georgia                   do. 
Connecticut             do. 
Massachusetts         do. 
Maryland                 do. 
South  Carolina        do. 
New  Hampshire     do. 
Virginia                  do. 
New  York               do. 
North  Carolina       do. 
Rhode  Island          do. 
Vermont           was  admitted 
Kentucky                do. 
Tennessee               do. 

institution     ... 
do. 
do. 

.    .    .    .    '.    .    .  December 
December 
December 

7,  1787 
12,  1787 
18,  1787 
2,  1788 
9,  1788 
6,  1788 
28,  1788 
23,  1788 

21,    1788 
25,    1788 
26,    1788 
21,    1789 
29,   1790 

4,  i79i 

I,  1792 

I.    I7o6 

do. 

January 

do.             ... 
do.            .    . 
do  
do.             ... 
do. 
do. 
do. 

....'..  January 
February 
April 
May 

June 
June 
Tulv 

do. 

November 

do. 

May 

to  the  Union    . 
do. 
do. 

March 
June 
.  Tune 

DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATUS  HISTORY. 


623 


November  29,  1802 
April  30,  1812 

December 
December 
December 
December 
March 
August 
June 
January- 
March 

December  29,  1845 
December  28,  1846 
May  29,  1848 

September  9,  1850 
May  ii,  1858 

February    14,  1859 


ii,  1816 

10,  1817 

3,  1818 

14,  1819 

15,  1820 
10,  1821 
15,  1836 
26,  1837 

3,  1845 


29, 
19- 


1861 
1863 


31,  1864 
i, 
i 


Ohio  was  admitted  to  the  Union    ...... 

Louisiana  do.  do. 

Indiana  do.  do. 

Mississippi  do.  do. 

Illinois  do.  do. 

Alabama  do.  do.  

Maine  do.  do.  .    .     •  .    .    . 

Missouri  do.  do.  

Arkansas  do.  do.  

Michigan  do.  do.  '   . 

Florida  do.  do.  

Texas  do.  do.  

Iowa  do.  do.  

Wisconsin  do.  do.  

California  do.  do.  

Minnesota  do.  do.  

Oregon  do.  do.  

Kansas  do.  do.  January 

West  Virginia         do.  do.  June 

Nevada  do.  do.  October 

Nebraska  do.  do.  March 

Colorado  do.  do.  August 

North  Dakota         do.  do.  

South  Dakota          do.  do.  

Montana  do.  do. 

Washington  do.  do.  

Idaho  do.  do.  

Wyoming  do.  do.  

Utah  do.  do.  

States'  Rights.  All  parties  have,  of  course,  professed  to  be  friendly  to 
all  the  rights  of  the  States  under  the  Constitution.  But  the  term  "States* 
rights  "  as  a  political  watchword  in  U.  S.  history  has  meant  the  rights  of  the 
States  as  interpreted  by  those  who  have  held  the  theory  that  the  States  are 
partners  to  a  constitutional  compact,  that  their  rights  include  essential  rights 
of  sovereignty,  and  that  the  paramount  allegiance  of  the  citizen  is  due  to 
his  State  rather  than  to  the  Federal  Government.  It  was  State  rights  con- 
ceived in  this  sense  which  were  made  the  basis  of  the  movements  for  nullifi- 
cation and  secession. 

Steamboat.  Rumsey  and  Fitch  invented  the  steamboat  before  Fulton,  but 
he  was  the  first  to  make  a  practical  success  of  it.  His  boat,  the  "  Clermont," 
made  a  successful  trip  up  the  Hudson  in  1807.  The  "  Clermont "  was  a 
paddle-wheel  boat,  of  twenty  horse-power.  Fulton  and  R.  R.  Livingston 
obtained  from  the  State  of  New  York  a  monopoly  of  the  use  of  this  inven- 
tion on  New  York  waters  during  thirty  years.  (See  Gibbons  vs.  Ogden.) 
In  1819  the  steamboat  "Savannah"  sailed  from  America  to  Liverpool. 
Almost  immediately  steamboats  began  to  be  used  on  the  Mississippi  and 
other  Western  rivers,  and  contributed  enormously  to  the  development  of 
population  and  agriculture  in  the  great  central  valley.  In  1818  the  first 
steamer  appeared  on  the  Great  Lakes, — the  "Walk-in-the-Water."  By  1830 
there  was  a  daily  line  from  Buffalo  to  Detroit  Steam  navigation  across  the, 
Atlantic  was  established  in  1838. 


1867 
1876 

November  2,  1889 
November  2,  1889 
November  8,  1889 
November  n,  1889 
July  3,  1890 

July  10,  1890 

January        4,  1896 


624  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Stedman,  Edmund  Clarence,  born  in  1833,  contributed  many  poems  to 
the  New  York  Tribune  after  1859.  He  was  war  correspondent  of  the  New 
York  World from  1861  to  1863.  Since  1865  he  has  been  a  stock-broker  in 
New  York.  He  wrote  "  The  Diamond  Wedding,"  "  How  Old  John  Brown 
took  Harper's  Ferry,"  "Alice  of  Monmouth,"  "  Poets  of  America,"  "  Gettys-- 
burg,"  and  edited  a  "  Library  of  American  Literature." 

Stedman,  Fort,  Va.,  garrisoned  in  1865  by  troops  from  Grant's  army, 
then  operating  around  Richmond  and  Petersburg.  It  was  assailed  on  the 
night  of  March  25  by  two  divisions  of  Lee's  army  under  Gordon.  The 
assault  was  a  surprise,  and  the  fort  was  quickly  captured.  The  assault  was 
intended  as  a  ruse,  under  cover  of  which  Lee  planned  to  retreat  from  Peters- 
burg. The  plan  failed,  however,  for  the  Federals,  quickly  recovering  them- 
selves, retook  the  fort,  March  27. 

Steedman,  Charles  (1811-1890),  in  command  of  the  "  Bienville,"  led  a 
column  of  vessels  at  Port  Royal.  He  commanded  the  "  Paul  Jones  "  at  Fort 
McAllister  in  1862,  and  the  "  Ticonderoga  "  at  Fort  Fisher  in  1864. 

Steedman,  James  B.  (1818-1883),  commanded  a  regiment  with  distinc- 
tion at  Philippi  and  Perry ville.  He  led  a  brigade  at  Chickamauga,  and  a 
division  in  the  Atlanta  campaign  in  1864.  He  served  at  Nashville. 

Steel.     (See  Iron.) 

Steele,  Frederick  (1819-1868),  served  with  distinction  during  the  Mexi- 
can War  at  Contreras  and  Chapultepec.  He  commanded  a  brigade  at  Dug 
Spring  and  Wilson's  Creek  in  1861.  He  led  a  division  at  Round  Hill  and 
Helena,  and  a  corps  in  the  Yazoo  Expedition,  and  captured  Arkansas  Post 
in  1863.  He  commanded  a  division  at  Vicksburg,  and  served  at  Little  Rock 
and  Mobile. 

Stephens,  Alexander  Hamilton  (February  11,  i8i2-March  4,  1883),  Vice- 
President  of  the  Southern  Confederacy,  was  born  in  Georgia,  and  graduated 
at  Franklin  College  in  1832.  He  practiced  law,  served  in  the  Legislature 
of  Georgia,  and  from  1843  to  1859  was  a  Whig  member  of  the  national 
House  of  Representatives.  He  supported  Douglas  in  his  slavery  policy,  but 
opposed  secession  strongly  in  1860.  Nevertheless,  when  the  step  had  once 
been  taken,  he  sided  with  the  Confederacy,  and  was  its  Vice-President,  1861- 
1865.  He  differed  with  President  Davis  as  the  war  progressed.  In  1864, 
he  favored  peace,  and  in  1865  he  took  part  in  the  Hampton  Roads  Confer- 
ence. He  was  imprisoned  in  1865,  but  was  shortly  afterward  released.  Hav- 
ing been  elected  U.  S.  Senator,  he  was  refused  a  seat.  From  1875  to  1882, 
Stephens  was  again  a  Congressman  from  Georgia.  In  the  latter  year  he  was 
elected  Governor  of  his  State,  but  died  soon  after  entering  upon  the  duties 
of  the  office.  Of  his  works  the  most  valuable  is  his  "  Constitutional  View 
of  the  War  Between  the  States,"  in  two  volumes.  Life  by  Johnston  and 
Browne. 

Stephenson,  Fort  (Fremont,  O.),  garrisoned  by  160  men  under  Major 
Croghan,  was  attacked  August  i,  1813,  by  General  Proctor  and  Tecumtha 
with  4000  men.  After  a  heavy  bombardment,  a  charge  was  made  but  gal- 
lantly repulsed.  The  British  lost  121,  the  Americans  only  one  killed. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  625 

Sterett,  Andrew  (i76o?-i8o7),  was  executive  officer  of  the  "Constella- 
tion," which  captured  the  French  frigate  "  L'Insurgente "  in  1799  and 
"La  Vengeance"  in  1800.  In  command  of  the  "Enterprise,"  he  captured 
"  L' Amour  de  la  Patrie  "  and  a  Tripolitan  cruiser  after  a  desperate  encounter. 
The  Tripolitan  vessel  three  times  renewed  the  conflict  after  surrendering, 
and  was  completely  dismantled,  while  the  "Enterprise"  did  not  lose  a 
man. 

Sterne,  Simon,  born  in  1839,  has  been  prominent  in  political  reform  in 
New  York.  He  has  written  "Representative  Government  and  Personal 
Representation,"  and  a  "  Constitutional  and  Political  History  of  the  United 
States." 

Steuben,  Friedrich  Wilhelm  August  Heinrich  Ferdinand  von,  called 
Baron  Steuben  (1730-1794),  the  disciplinarian  of  the  American  Revolu- 
tionary army,  was  born  at  Magdeburg.  He  fought  in  the  war  of  the  Aus- 
trian Succession  and  through  the  Seven  Years'  War.  He  was  then  an  aide 
to  Frederick  the  Great  and  held  a  lucrative  position,  which  he  exchanged  in 
1778  for  service  on  the  side  of  the  Americans.  Congress  appointed  him 
inspector-general,  and  his  services  in  drilling  the  troops  were  invaluable. 
He  commanded  the  left  wing  at  the  battle  of  Monmouth,  and  took  part  in 
the  siege  of  Yorktown.  He  was  a  member  of  the  board  which  decided  the 
fate  of  Andre".  He  identified  himself  even  more  than  Lafayette  with  the 
country  to  which  he  had  given  his  aid,  settling  in  New  York  and  receiving 
from  Congress  in  his  last  years  a  grant  of  land  near  Utica. 

Stevens,  Henry  (1819—1886),  of  Vermont,  was  an  authority  on  the  early 
colonial  history  of  America.  In  1845  he  went  from  Vermont  to  England 
in  search  of  Americana,  and  remained  there  until  his  death.  He  was  agent 
of  the  British  Museum  for  procuring  books  of  all  kinds  regarding  America, 
and  assisted  in  forming  libraries  in  America.  He  wrote  ' '  Bibliotheca  Amer- 
icana," "Notes  on  the  Earliest  Discoveries  in  America,"  and  other  such 
books. 

Stevens,  Isaac  I.  (1818-1862),  was  Governor  of  Washington  Territory 
from  1853  to  1857,  when  he  became  a  delegate  to  the  U.  S.  Congress,  serv- 
ing till  1 86 1.  He  commanded  a  division  at  Newport  News,  and  fought  at 
Manassas  and  Chantilly,  where  he  was  killed. 

Stevens,  John  (1749-1838),  made  valuable  discoveries  in  steam  naviga- 
tion. He  constructed  a  boat  propelled  by  screws  in  1804.  He  conceived 
the  idea  of  a  railroad  system  and  devised  the  first  locomotive  in  America. 

Stevens,  John  Austin,  of  New  York,  born  in  1827,  was  founder  of  the 
Magazine  of  American  History.  He  wrote  "  Colonial  Records  of  the  New 
York  Chamber  of  Commerce "  and  "  Albert  Gallatin "  in  the  American 
Statesmen  Series. 

Stevens,  John  L.,  of  Maine,  was   envoy  extraordinary  to  Sweden    and 
Norway  from  1877  to  1883,  and  to   Hawaii   from    1889  to   1893.     He  was 
prominent  in  the  deposition  of  Queen  Liliuokalani,  and  in  the  negotiations 
for  the  annexation  of  Hawaii  to  the  United  States.     Died  1895. 
40 


626  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Stevens,  Thaddeus  (1792-1868),  a  Republican  politician  of  influence,  was 
graduated  at  Dartmouth,  and  settled  to  the  practice  of  law  in  Pennsylvania. 
He  was  a  Whig  member  of  the  Pennsylvania  Legislature,  and  as  Congressman 
in  1849-1853  he  opposed  the  Compromise  of  1850.  He  was  again  in  Congress 
from  1859  to  1868  as  a  Republican,  of  the  radical  type,  and  advocated  drastic 
measures.  He  urged  emancipation  and  the  Fourteenth  Amendment,  as  well 
as  acts  of  confiscation;  he  was  chairman  of  the  important  Committees  of 
Ways  and  Means  and  of  Reconstruction,  proposed  the  impeachment  of  Presi- 
dent Johnson,  and  was  chairman  of  the  board  of  managers  of  the  impeach- 
ment proceedings. 

Stevens,  Thomas  H.,  born  in  1819,  fought  at  Port  Royal  and  commanded 
the  leading  vessel  at  Fort  Clinch.  He  captured  many  prizes,  and  was  engaged 
at  Petersburg,  Charleston  and  Mobile.  Died  1896. 

Stevenson,  Adlai  Ewing,  born  in  1835,  Vice-President  of  the  United  States, 
was  a  lawyer,  practising  at  Bloomington,  111.  From  1875  to  1877  and  1879 
to  1881  he  was  a  Democratic  Congressman  from  Illinois,  and  from  1885  to 
1889  he  was  First  Assistant  Postmaster-General  in  President  Cleveland's 
first  administration.  He  received,  in  1892,  the  Democratic  nomination  for 
the  second  place  on  the  ticket  with  Cleveland,  was  elected,  and  entered  office 
in  1893. 

Stevenson,  Andrew  (1784—1857),  was  a  member  of  the  Virginia  Legis- 
lature from  1804  to  1820.  He  represented  Virginia  in  the  U.  S.  Congress  as 
a  Democrat  from  1823  to  I^34,  when  he  resigned.  He  served  as  Speaker 
of  the  House  from  1827  to  l834-  He  was  Minister  to  England  from  1836 
to  1841. 

Stevenson,  John  W.  (1812-1886),  represented  Kentucky  in  the  U.  S. 
Congress  as  a  Democrat  from  1857  to  1861.  He  was  Governor  of  Kentucky 
from  1867  to  J87i,  and  a  U.  S.  Senator  from  1871  to  1877. 


Stewart,  Alexander  (1740  7-1794),  born  in  England,  served  in  the  Southern 
campaign  during  the  Revolution.  He  was  defeated  by  General  Greene  at 
Eutaw  Springs  in  1781,  and  retreated  to  Charleston. 

Stewart,  Alexander  T.  (1803-1876),  came  to  America  from  Ireland  in 
1823.  He  conducted  at  New  York  the  most  extensive  dry  goods  business  in 
the  world. 

Stewart,  Alvan  (1790-1849),  of  New  York,  won  distinction  as  an  advocate 
of  temperance  and  slavery  reform.  He  was  the  first  to  earnestly  advocate  a 
political  party  to  promote  the  abolition  of  slavery. 

Stewart,  Charles  (1778-1869),  entered  the  U.  S.  navy  in  1798.  He  cap- 
tured the  French  ships,  "  Deux  Amis,"  "  Diana  "  and  "  Louisa  Bridger," 
while  commanding  the  "  Experiment  "  in  1800.  During  the  Tripolitan  War 
he  was  executive  officer  of  the  "  Constitution,"  and  commanded  the  "  Siren  " 
from  1803  to  l8°6.  While  commanding  the  "  Constitution  "  he  captured 
the  "Pictou"and  the  British  brigs  "  Catherine  "  and  "Phoenix  "in  1813. 
In  1814  he  captured  the  "Lord  Nelson  "  and  the  "Susan."  In  1815  he 
took  the  British  ships  of  war,  "Cyane"  and  "Levant"  He  received  the 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  627 

sobriquet  of  "  Old  Ironsides,"  and  died  a  rear-admiral.     He  was  the  grand- 
father of  Charles  Stewart  Parnell. 

Stewart,  Gideon  T.,  born  in  1824,  was  active  in  .organizing  the  Pro- 
hibition party,  and  has  been  prominent  in  Ohio  politics.  He  was  the  Pro- 
hibition candidate  for  the  Vice-Presidency  on  the  ticket  with  G.  C.  Smith  in 
1876. 

Stewart,  William  M.,  born  in  1827,  discovered  the  celebrated  Eureka 
diggings  in  California.  He  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Nevada  Territorial 
Council  in  1861,  and  represented  Nevada  in  the  U.  S.  Senate  as  a  Republi- 
can from  1864  to  1875.  In  1887  he  was  again  elected  to  the  U.  S.  Senate. 
His  present  term  expires  in  1899.  He  has  been  prominent  in  coinage  legis- 
lation. 

Stiles,  Ezra  (1727-1795),  was  president  of  Yale  College  from  1778  to 
1795.  He  was  one  of  the  most  learned  Americans  of  his  time.  He  wrote  an 
"  Account  of  the  Settlement  of  Bristol,  R.  I.,"  and  a  history  of  the  regicides 
in  America. 

Stille,  Charles  J.,  of  Pennsylvania,  born  in  1819,  has  written  "How  a 
Free  People  Conduct  a  Long  War,"  "  Northern  Interest  and  Southern  Inde- 
pendence," "The  Historical  Development  of  American  Civilization,"  a 
"  History  of  the  U.  S.  Sanitary  Commission,"  and  lives  and  letters  of  John 
Dickinson  and  General  Anthony  Wayne.  Died  1899. 

Stillwater.     (See  Saratoga.) 

Stirling,  Lord.     (See  Alexander,  Sir  William.) 

Stockbridge,  Mass.,  was  formerly  the  home  of  the  Stockbridge  or  Housa- 
tonic  Indians,  among  whom  an  interesting  mission  was  established,  and  who 
removed  westward  in  1788. 

Stockbridge  Indians,  a  band  of  Connecticut  Mohegans,  who  were  col- 
lected by  Rev.  Mr.  Sargeant  at  Stockbridge  in  1736.  Like  the  rest  of  their 
tribe,  they  always  continued  in  friendly  relations  with  the  English  colonists. 
Between  1820  and  1830  they  emigrated  from  New  York  to  Wisconsin;  here 
the  majority  soon  became  citizens. 

Stockton,  John  P.,  born  in  1826,  was  U.  S.  Minister  to  Rome  from  1857 
to  1 86 1.  He  represented  New  Jersey  in  the  U.  S.  Senate  as  a  Democrat 
from  1865  to  1866  (when  his  election  was  declared  illegal),  and  from  1869  to 
1875. 

Stockton,  Richard  (1730-1781),  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1754  and 
attained  great  reputation.  He  became  a  member  of  the  New  Jersey  Execu- 
tive Council  in  1768  and  a  Judge  of  the  Provincial  Supreme  Court  in  1774. 
He  hoped  for  a  reconciliation  between  the  colonies  and  England,  and  wrote 
"  An  Expedient  for  the  Settlement  of  the  American  Disputes,"  in  which  he 
proposes  a  plan  of  colonial  self-government.  He  was  a  delegate  from  New 
Jersey  to  the  Continental  Congress  from  1776  to  1777,  and  signed  the  Dec- 
laration of  Independence.  He  was  appointed  to  inspect  the  Northern  army, 
but  was  captured  by  Loyalists.  He  never  recovered  from  the  effects  of  the 
ill-usage  he  received. 


628 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 


Stockton,  Robert  Field  (1795-1866),  grandson  of  Richard  Stockton,  was 
in  the  navy  in  the  War  of  1812,  and  was  distinguished  in  the  ensuing  Alge- 
rine  War.  He  was  engaged  in  the  establishment  of  Liberia  and  in  the 
capture  of  slavers  and  pirates.  He  was  the  chief  promoter  of  the  Delaware 
and  Raritan  Canal.  As  captain  he  commanded  a  squadron  on  the  California 
coast  in  the  Mexican  War,  and  co-operated  with  Fremont  in  the  conquest  of 
that  province.  He  captured  Los  Angeles,  and  organized  a  government. 
Commodore  Stockton  left  the  navy  in  1850  and  was  U.  S.  Senator  from 
New  Jersey  in  1851-1853.  He  was  a  delegate  to  the  Peace  Congress  of  1861. 

Stoddard,  Richard  H.,  of  New  York,  was  born  in  1825.  He  has  been  a 
literary  reviewer  for  periodicals  since  1880.  His  reputation  as  a  poet  is  con- 
siderable. He  wrote  "  Abraham  Lincoln,"  an  ode;  "  Putnam  the  Brave,"  etc. 

Stoddert,  Benjamin  (1751-1813),  of  Maryland,  distinguished  himself  at 
the  battle  of  Brandywiue.  He  was  Secretary  of  the  Board  of  War  from 
1777  to  1781.  He  was  Secretary  of  the  Navy  in  Adams'  Cabinet  from  1798 
to  1801,  being  thus  the  first  Secretary  of  the  Navy. 

Stone,  Charles  P.  (1824-1887),  served  with  honor  during  the  Mexican 
War.  He  led  a  brigade  in  General  Patterson's  Shenandoah  campaign  in  1861. 
While  commanding  the  "  corps  of  observation  "  in  the  Army  of  the  Potomac 
from  1 86 1  to  1862,  he  was  defeated  at  Ball's  Bluff.  He  served  at  Port 
Hudson  in  1863,  and  was  chief  of  staff  to  General  Banks  from  1863  to  1864. 

Stone,  David  M.,  born  in  1817,  has  been  connected  with  the  New  York 
Journal  of  Commerce  since  1849,  an<^  its  editor-in-chief  since  1866.  He  is 
regarded  as  an  authority  on  commercial  matters.  Died  1895. 

Stone,  Lucy  (1818-1893),  was  prominent  as  an  ardent  anti-slavery  advo- 
cate. In  1869,  she  aided  in  forming  the  American  Woman's  Suffrage  Asso- 
ciation. She  edited  the  Womans*  Journal  in  Boston  from  1872  on. 

Stone,  Thomas  (1743-1787),  was  a  delegate  from  Maryland  to  the  Conti- 
nental Congress  from  1775  to  1779,  and  signed  the  Declaration  of  Independ- 
ence. From  1779  to  1783  he  was  a  prominent  member  of  the  Maryland 
Senate.  He  again  served  in  the  Continental  Congress  from  1784  to  1785. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  committee  to  draft  a  plan  of  confederation. 

Stone,  William  (16037-1695?),  was  appointed  Governor  of  Maryland  in 
1649,  and  founded  the  settlement  of  Providence,  now  Annapolis.  He  was 
removed  from  office  in  1653. 

Stone,  William  L.  (1792-1844),  an  editor  of  the  New  York  Commercial 
Advertiser  from  1821,  wrote  many  tales  of  border  life,  a  "History  of  the 
N.  Y.  Convention  of  1821  "  and  "  Border  Wars  of  the  American  Revolution." 

Stone  River.     (See  Murfreesboro.) 

Stoneman,  George,  born  in  1822,  graduated  at  the  U.  S.  Military  Academy 
in  1846.  He  refused  to  surrender  Fort  Brown  to  the  Secessionists  in  1861 
by  order  of  his  superior  officer,  General  Twiggs.  He  commanded  the  cavalry 
of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac  from  1861  to  1862.  He  led  a  division  at  the 


DICTIONARY*  otf  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY,  629 

second  battle  of  Bull  Run,  and  a  corps  at  Fredericksburg.  He  commanded 
a  cavalry  raid  toward  Richmond  in  1863;  was  engaged  in  the  Atlanta  cam- 
paign in  1864;  and  fought  at  Salisbury  and  Asheville.  He  was  Governor 
of  California  from  1883  to  1887.  Died  1894. 

Stono  Ferry,  Attack  upon,  June  20,  1779.  Lincoln's  first  attempt  to 
dislodge  the  British  at  Charleston  was  made  at  Stono  Ferry.  Maitland's 
800  men  offered  a  stout  resistance  to  Lincoln's  1200.  The  Americans 
retired,  losing  301.  The  British  loss  was  somewhat  less.  Three  days  later 
the  fort  was  evacuated. 

Stony  Creek,  Canada,  War  of  1812.  A  body  of  Americans  under 
General  Chandler,  while  pursuing  General  Vincent,  encamped  June  6,  1813, 
at  Stony  Creek.  During  the  gloom  of  night  they  were  surprised  and 
attacked  by  Vincent.  The  British,  after  severe  fighting,  were  repulsed  with 
the  loss  of  178  killed,  wounded  and  captured;  the  American  loss  was  154, 
including  the  capture  of  both  General  Chandler  and  General  Winder. 

Stony  Point,  Capture  of,  July  16,  1779.  While  the  Americans  were 
building  a  fort  at  Stony  Point  in  May,  1779,  Clinton  ascended  the  Hudson, 
captured  it  and  increased  its  strength.  Washington  detailed  General  Wayne 
to  regain  this  position.  With  1200  men  he  undertook  the  task.  Not  a  gun 
was  loaded.  The  troops  depended  solely  upon  a  bayonet  charge.  They  got 
so  near  the  fort  without  being  observed  that  with  one  rush  they  entered  the 
fort  and  soon  forced  the  garrison  to  surrender.  The  American  loss  was 
fifteen  killed  and  eighty-three  wounded.  The  British  lost  sixty-three  killed 
and  553  taken  prisoners.  The  humanity  of  the  Americans  contrasted  favor- 
ably with  the  reckless  brutality  of  the  British  in  their  surprises. 

Storrs,  Richard  S.,  born  in  1821,  was  pastor  of  the  Church  of  the  Pilgrims 
at  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  from  1846  to  1894.  He  was  one  of  the  most  eloquent  pulpit 
orators  in  America.  He  wrote  "  Early  American  Spirit,"  "  The  Declaration 
of  Independence  and  its  Effects,"  and  a  life  of  St.  Bernard. 

Story,  Joseph  (1779-1845),  jurist,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  at  Salem, 
Mass.,  in  1801.  He  represented  Massachusetts  in  the  U.  S.  Congress  as  a 
Democrat  from  1808  to  1809.  In  1811  he  was  appointed  an  Associate 
Justice  of  the  U.  S.  Supreme  Court  and  continued  in  that  office  until  his 
death.  He  was  professor  of  law  at  Harvard  from  1829  to  1845.  His  success 
as  a  teacher  and  his  ability  as  a  jurist  place  him  among  the  foremost  of 
Americans.  He  wrote  valuable  legal  treatises  including  his  famous  "  Com- 
mentaries on  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States,"  and  "  Commentaries 
on  the  Conflict  of  Laws."  Life  by  W.  W.  Story. 

Story,  William  W.,  born  in  1819,  has  written  several  legal  books.  He  is 
distinguished  as  an  artist  and  poet.  Among  his  best  known  works  are  statues 
of  his  father,  Joseph  Story,  Chief-Justice  Marshall,  and  George  Peabody.  He 
published  "  Life  and  Letters  of  Joseph  Story."  Died  1895. 

Stoughton,  William  (1632-1701),  was  an  agent  of  the  Massachusetts 
colony  in  England  from  1676  to  1679.  He  was  Lieutenant-Governor  and 
Chief  Justice  of  Massachusetts  from  1692  to  1701,  and  Acting  Governor  from 


630 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 


1694  to  1699.  He  was  Chief  Justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  during  the  witch- 
craft trials. 

Stowe,  Calvin  E.  (1802-1886),  was  professor  of  Biblical  literature  at  Lane 
Seminary  from  1830  to  1850,  nd  at  Andover  Seminary  from  1852  to  1864. 
He  was  sent  by  Ohio  to  examii:  the  European  school  system  in  1836.  He 
was  the  husband  of  Mrs.  H.  B.  Stowe. 

Stowe,  Harriet  Beecher,  born  in  1812,  was  the  daughter  of  Lyrnan 
Beecher,  a  clergyman  of  intense  intellectual  activity  and  joyous  disposition, 
whose  influence  upon  Mrs.  Stowe  was  very  marked.  In  1836  she  married 
Calvin  E.  Stowe.  During  her  residence  in  Ohio  she  acquired  some  knowledge 
of  Southern  life  and  of  the  condition  of  the  slaves.  The  passage  of  the 
fugitive  slave  law,  and  the  favor  with  which  it  was  received,  called  forth  her 
well-known  work,  "Uncle  Tom's  Cabin,"  in  1852.  (See  art.)  She  wrote 
"  Dred,"  "  The  Minister's  Wooing,"  and  other  novels.  Died  July  i,  1896. 

Stratford,  the  old  Lee  mansion  in  Westmoreland  County,  Va.  It  was 
erected  by  Richard  Lee,  an  Englishman,  who  came  to  Virginia  as  secretary 
to  one  of  the  king's  council.  It  was  the  birth-place  of  Robert  E.  Lee. 

Stringham,  Silas  H.  (1798-1876),  entered  the  U.  S.  navy  in  1809.  He 
served  in  the  "  President "  during  the  engagements  with  the  "  Little  Belt " 
and  "  Belvidere."  He  served  in  the  Algerine  War  in  1815.  He  was  execu- 
tive officer  of  the  "  Hornet"  from  1821  to  1824  and  captured  the  pirate  ship 
"  Moscow."  He  commanded  the  "  Ohio  "  at  the  bombardment  of  Vera  Cruz 
in  1847,  and  the  squadron  which,  assisted  by  the  military  force  under  Gen- 
eral Butler,  reduced  Forts  Hatteras  and  Clark  in  1861. 

Strong,  Caleb  (1745-1819),  Governor,  was  a  member  of  the  Massachusetts 
Committee  of  Correspondence  and  Safety  from  1774  to  1775,  and  of  the 
Massachusetts  general  court  from  1776  to  1778.  He  aided  in  drafting  the 
State  constitution  in  1779.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Massachusetts  Senate 
from  1780  to  1789.  In  1787  he  was  a  member  of  the  convention  that  framed 
the  Constitution  of  the  United  States.  He  was  a  Federalist  U.  S.  Senator 
from  1789  to  1796,  and  Governor  of  Massachusetts  from  1800  to  1807  and 
from  1812  to  1816. 

Strong,  William,  born  in  1808,  represented  Pennsylvania  in  the  U.  S. 
Congress  as  a  Democrat  from  1847  to  I^5i.  He  was  a  Justice  of  the  Supreme 
Court  of  Pennsylvania  from  1857  to  1868,  and  a  Justice  of  the  U.  S.  Supreme 
Court  from  1870  to  1880,  when  he  retired.  He  was  a  member  of  the  electoral 
commission  in  1877.  Died  1895. 

Stuart,  Alexander  H.  H.  (1807-1891),  represented  Virginia  in  the  U.  S. 
Congress  as  a  Whig  from  1841  to  1843.  He  was  Secretary  of  the  Interior 
in  Fillmore's  Cabinet  from  1850  to  1853.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Virginia 
Senate  from  1857  to  *86i,  and  zealously  opposed  the  policy  of  secession. 
He  was  a  delegate  to  the  National  Union  Convention  at  Philadelphia  in 
1866. 

Stuart,  Gilbert  (1755-1828),  born  in  Rhode  Island,  studied  painting  in 
Europe  and  painted  portraits  of  many  distinguished  Europeans.  He  returned 
to  America  in  1793  and  painted  several  portraits  of  Washington,  the  first  of 


,        DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  631 

which  was  destroyed,  and  the  second  is  in  the  Boston  Athenaeum.    His  pictures 
are  very  numerous  and  exhibit  rare  genius  in  portraying  individual  character. 

Stuart,  James  E.  B.  (1833-1864),  Confederate  cavalry  general,  was  gradu- 
ated at  the  U.  S.  Military  Academy  in  1854.  He  commanded  the  Confederate 
cavalry  at  Bull  Run  in  1861.  In  1862  he  conducted  a  daring  reconnaissance 
of  McClellan's  army  on  the  Chickahominy.  He  fought  at  the  second  battle 
of  Bull  Run,  and  led  the  advance  of  Jackson's  Maryland  invasion.  He 
fought  at  South  Mountain  and  Antietam.  His  command  formed  the  Con- 
federate extreme  right  at'  Fredericksburg.  He  temporarily  commanded 
Jackson's  corps  at  Chancellorsville.  He  was  mortally  wounded  at  Yellow 
Tavern,  where  he  attempted  to  check  Sheridan's  advance. 

Stuart,  Moses  (1780-1852),  was  professor  of  sacred  literature  at  Andover 
Seminary  from  1810  to  1848.  He  was  an  enthusiastic  Hebrew  scholar,  and 
has  been  called  the  father  of  Biblical  science  in  America. 

Sturgeon,  Daniel  (1789-1878),  was  treasurer  of  Pennsylvania  in  1838  and 
1839.  He  represented  Pennsylvania  in  the  U.  S.  Senate  as  a  Democrat  from 
1839  to  1851,  and  was  treasurer  of  the  U.  S.  Mint  from  1853  to  1858. 

Sturges  vs.  Crowninshield,  an  action  brought  against  the  defendant, 
before  the  Circuit  Court  of  Massachusetts,  1811,  for  payment  of  two  promis- 
sory notes.  Transferred  to  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States  in  1819. 
The  defendant  had  pleaded  a  discharge  by  the  insolvency  law  of  New  York 
before  the  Circuit  Court,  but  judgment  was  found  against  him.  This  judg- 
ment was  reversed  by  the  Supreme  Court,  which  recognized  the  insolvency 
law  of  New  York  as  constitutional,  but  with  certain  limitations. 

Sturgis,  Samuel  D.  (1822-1889),  served  in  the  Mexican  War.  He  com- 
manded a  division  at  South  Mountain,  Antietam  and  Fredericksburg,  and 
was  chief  of  cavalry  of  the  Ohio  Department  from  1863  to  1864. 

'Stuyvesant,  Peter  (1612-1682),  the  last  Dutch  Governor  or  director-gen- 
eral of  New  Netherlands,  arrived  in  1647.  Various  controversies  arose  with 
the  New  England  settlements,  and  with  the  patroons.  He  was  intolerant 
in  religious  affairs,  and  raised  a  vigorous  opposition  on  account  of  his  con- 
tempt for  popular  rights.  Trade,  however,  flourished  during  his  administra- 
tion. In  1655  he  attacked  the  Swedish  colony  of  Delaware,  and  annexed  it 
to  the  Dutch  possessions.  When  the  English  fleet  came  to  New  Amsterdam 
in  1664,  Stuyvesant  could  make  no  effective  resistance,  and  signed  a  treaty 
of  surrender  September  9.  He  continued  to  reside  in  New  York,  on  his 
extensive  farm  of  Great  Bouwerie,  and  died  there. 

Subsidies.  In  early  use  the  word  denoted  a  special  tax,  then  it  signified 
the  payment  made  to  an  ally  for  assisting  in  war.  It  is  now  the  term 
applied  to  pecuniary  aid  rendered  by  the  State  to  industrial  enterprises  of 
individuals.  The  granting  of  monopoly  rights  was  the  earliest  form  of  sub- 
sidies in  the  United  States.  National  aid  has  been  in  a  number  of  instances 
tendered  to  railroad  corporations,  chiefly  in  land  grants,  many  millions  of 
acres  being  granted  to  the  Northern  Pacific,  the  Union  Pacific,  the  Illinois 
Central,  the  Mobile  and  Ohio  and  the  Kansas  Pacific  Railroads.  In  the  case 
of  the  Union  Pacific,  in  addition  to  a  land  grant  of  33,000,000  acres,  the 


(&a  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

United  States  pledged  itself  to  $25,000  per  mile,  half  the  cost.  Subsidies 
have  been  granted  for  the  encouragement  of  the  United  States  steam  marine 
at  various  times  since  1850,  the  Pacific  Mail  Steamship  Company  being  the 
chief  of  these  contractors. 

Sub-Treasury.     (See  Independent  Treasury.) 

Suffrage.  Restricted  suffrage  was  the  rule  in  America  till  well  into  the 
present  century.  Massachusetts  and  New  Haven  colonies  for  a  time  gave 
the  suffrage  to  none  but  church  members.  In  most  of  the  colonies  a  free- 
hold qualification  prevailed,  sometimes  the  "  forty-shilling  freehold  "  of  Eng- 
lish law,  sometimes  a  freehold  of  so  many  acres.  The  constitutions  made  in 
the  Revolutionary  period  mostly  provided  for  the  former  in  the  Northern 
States,  for  the  latter  in  the  Southern,  while  New  Hampshire,  Pennsylvania, 
Delaware  and  Georgia  had  simply  a  requirement  of  tax-paying.  The  Con- 
stitution of  1787  left  this  matter  entirely  to  the  States,  allowing  all  to  vote 
for  Congressmen  in  a  given  State  who  could  vote  for  the  members  of  the 
State  House  of  Representatives.  After  1789,  the  influence  of  democratic 
principles  led  to  the  abolition  of  property  qualifications  in  Georgia  in  1798; 
in  Maryland  in  1801  and  1809;  in  Massachusetts  in  1821;  in  New  York  in 
1821;  in  Delaware  in  1831;  in  New  Jersey  in  1844;  in  Connecticut  in  1845; 
in  Virginia  in  1850;  in  North  Carolina  in  1854  and  1868;  in  South  Carolina 
in  1865;  in  Rhode  Island,  except  in  some  municipal  elections,  in  1888.  The 
Fifteenth  Amendment  forbids  any  State,  or  the  United  States,  to  deny  the 
suffrage  to  any  citizen  because  of  race,  color  or  previous  condition  of  servi- 
tude. The  new  States  have  mostly  provided  for  manhood  suffrage  from  the 
first,  often  even  for  the  suffrage  of  aliens  in  process  of  naturalization.  For 
the  extension  of  the  suffrage  to  women,  (see  art.  Woman  Suffrage.) 

Sugar  Act,  an  act  passed  by  Parliament  in  1733  and  renewed  in  1763, 
by  which  heavy  duties  were  laid  upon  all  sugar  and  molasses  imported  into 
the  American  colonies  from  foreign  colonies.  It  was  one  of  the  direct  causes 
of  the  Revolution. 

Sullivan's  Island,  Battle  of.     (See  Fort  Moultrie.) 

Sullivan,  James  (1744-1808),  born  in  Maine,  was  a  member  of  the  Massa- 
chusetts Provincial  Congress  in  1775.  He  was  a  Judge  of  the  Massachusetts 
Supreme  Court  from  1776  to  1782,  a  delegate  to  the  Continental  Congress 
from  1784  to  1785,  and  Attorney-General  of  Massachusetts  from  1790  to 
1807.  He  was  Governor  of  Massachusetts  from  1807  till  his  death.  Life 
by  Amory. 

Sullivan,  John  (1740-1795),  a  Revolutionary  general,  was  a  native  of  Maine 
and  a  major  of  militia  before  the  war.  He  was  a  New  Hampshire  delegate  to 
the  First  Continental  Congress,  and  was  appointed  brigadier-general  in  1775. 
He  was  engaged  in  the  siege  of  Boston  and  in  Canada  in  the  unsuccessful 
attack  on  Three  Rivers.  Sullivan  became  a  major-general  in  1776,  was  one 
of  the  principal  commanders  in  the  battle  of  Long  Island  and  in  the  autumn 
campaign  of  1776,  fought  at  Trenton  and  Princeton,  and  made  a  raid  on 
Staten  Island.  He  led  the  right  wing  at  Brandywine  and  Germantown,  and 
won  the  battle  of  Butts  Hill  in  Rhode  Island  in  1778.  The  next  year  he 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  633 

ravaged  the  country  of  the  Six  Nations.      He  served  in  Congress,  and  was  a 
Federalist  in  New  Hampshire  in  the  contest  of  1788.     Life  by  Amory. 

Sully,  Thomas  (1783-1872),  came  to  America  from  England  in  1792.  He 
is  famous  for  his  paintings,  ''Washington  Crossing  the  Delaware,"  Thomas 
Jefferson,  Fanny  Kemble,  Queen  Victoria,  Lafayette  and  "  The  Capture  of 
Major  Andre." 

Summit  Point,  Va.,  a  battle  of  the  Civil  War  during  Sheridan's  campaign 
in  the  Shenandoah  Valley  and  Early's  sortie  against  Washington.  Sheri- 
dan was  retreating  toward  Halltown  with  the  intention  of  strengthening  his 
position  there,  for  he  had  heard  that  Early  was  expecting  reinforcements 
under  Anderson  and  that  others  might  come.  On  the  road  through  Summit 
Point,  i*e  fell  in  with  several  detachments  of  Early's  troops.  Rodes's  and 
Ramseur's  infantry  were  advanced  to  the  attack,  and  a  fierce  skirmish 
occurred.  The  Federals  lost  quite  heavily  and  were  decidedly  worsted. 
Getty's  division  of  the  Sixth  Corps  lost  250  killed  and  wounded. 

Sumner,  Charles  (January  6,  i8n-March  n,  1874),  an  American  states- 
man and  orator,  was  born  at  Boston,  graduated  in  1830  at  Harvard,  and 
studied  law.  On  returning  from  an  extended  European  tour,  1837-1840,  he 
became  profoundly  interested  in  the  anti-slavery  question.  Without  entering 
into  active  politics,  he  became  noted  as  an  orator.  Among  his  speeches  at 
this  period  were  those  on  the  "  True  Grandeur  of  Nations  "  in  1846,  and  on 
the  "  Scholar,  Jurist,  etc.,"  in  1846.  Sumner,  who  had  been  a  moderate 
Whig,  helped  organize  the  Free-Soil  party  in  1848,  and  was  defeated  for 
Congress  the  same  year.  In  1851,  after  a  prolonged  struggle  of  three  months 
in  the  Massachusetts  Legislature,  he  was  elected  U.  S.  Senator  by  a  coalition 
of  Democrats  and  Free-Soilers.  He  speedily  became  the  chief  advocate  in 
the  Senate  of  the  anti-slavery  sentiment.  His  speech,  "  Freedom  National, 
Slavery  Sectional,"  gave  the  signal  of  his  course.  That  on  the  "  Crime 
against  Kansas,"  in  May,  1856,  provoked  a  personal  assault  from  a  Southern 
Representative,  Preston  Brooks.  Sumner  was  severely  injured,  and  did  not 
resume  his  seat  until  1859.  He  was  meanwhile  re-elected  Senator  as  a 
Republican,  and  re-elected  twice,  serving  until  his  death.  In  1861  he  became 
chairman  of  the  Committee  of  Foreign  Affairs  and  was  one  of  the  chief 
friends  and  advisers  of  President  Lincoln.  He  opposed  Johnson,  but  sup- 
ported the  Alaska  purchase.  In  1871  he  strongly  opposed  the  San  Domingo 
Treaty,  broke  with  President  Grant  and  the  Republican  Senators,  and  was 
removed  from  his  chairmanship.  He  supported  Greeley  in  1872,  and  gave 
his  closing  efforts  to  the  furtherance  of  the  civil  rights  of  colored  citizens. 
Complete  works  in  fifteen  volumes.  "  Memoir  and  Letters,"  by  E.  L.  Pierce. 

Sumner,  Edwin  V.  (1797-1863),  general,  led  the  cavalry  charge  at  Cerro 
Gordo  in  1847,  commanded  the  reserves  at  Contreras  and  Churubusco  and 
led  the  cavalry  at  Molipo  del  Rey.  He  was  Governor  of  New  Mexico  from 
1851  to  1853.  He  succeeded  General  Johnston  in  command  of  the  Pacific 
Department  from  1861  to  1862.  He  commanded  the  left  wing  at  the  siege 
of  Yorktown,  led  a  corps  at  Fair  Oaks,  was  twice  wounded  during  the  Seven 
Days'  battles,  and  commanded  a  corps  at  Antietam.  He  led  a  division  at 
Fredericksburg  and  retired  in  1863. 


634 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 


Sumner,  Increase  (1746-1799),  was  a  member  of  the  Massachusetts 
Legislature  from  1776  to  1780  and  of  the  Senate  from  1780  to  1782.  He 
was  a  Justice  of  the  Massachusetts  Supreme  Court  from  1782  to  1797.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  convention  that  adopted  the  Federal  Constitution  in 
1788,  and  was  Governor  of  Massachusetts  from  1797  to  1799. 

Sumner,  William  G.,  born  in  1840,  became  professor  of  political  economy 
at  Yale  College  in  1872.  He  has  written  a  "  History  of  American  Currency," 
a  "  History  of  Protection  in  the  United  States,"  a  life  of  Andrew  Jackson, 
and  "  The  Financier  and  Finances  of  the  American  Revolution." 

Sumter,  Thomas  (1734-1832),  soldier,  conducted  partisan  warfare  at  the 
beginning  of  the  Revolution.  He  defeated  a  force  of  British  and  Tories, 
made  an  unsuccessful  attack  on  Rocky  Mount  and  routed  the  British  at 
Hanging  Rock.  He  severed  the  communications  of  Cornwallis  and  captured 
his  supply  train.  He  was  severely  defeated  by  Colonel  Tarleton  at  Fishing 
Creek.  He  defeated  Major  Wemyss  at  Broad  River,  and  repelled  Colonel 
Tarleton  at  Blackstock  Hill.  He  represented  South  Carolina  in  the  U.  S. 
Congress  as  a  Democrat  from  1789  to  1793  and  from  1797  to  1801,  and  in 
the  Senate  from  1801  to  1809.  He  was  Minister  to  Brazil  from  1809  to 
1811. 

Sumter,  Fort,  Charleston  Harbor,  opening  engagement  of  the  Civil  War, 
April  12,  13,  1861,  Major  Anderson  commanding  the  fort  with  129  Union 
soldiers,  General  Beauregard  the  Confederate  forces  of  about  6000  volun- 
teers. During  the  early  period  of  secessionist  agitation  Anderson  had  com- 
manded the  whole  of  Charleston  harbor,  including  Forts  Sumter,  Moultrie, 
Johnson  and  Castle  Pinckney.  To  obtain  possession  of  these  was  the  chief 
solicitude  of  South  Carolina.  Anderson,  fearful  of  being  surprised  in  unfor- 
tified Fort  Moultrie,  where  he  was  stationed,  moved  his  forces  secretly  to 
Sumter  on  the  night  of  December  26,  1861.  On  that  day  a  commission  of 
three,  deputed  by  the  South  Carolina  Convention,  arrived  at  Washington 
to  treat  with  President  Buchanan  and  make  complaints  against  Anderson. 
Anderson's  move  caused  a  postponement  of  their  accorded  interview  with 
Buchanan  and,  upon  Governor  Pickens'  seizure  of  Fort  Moultrie,  Castle 
Pinckney,  the  Charleston  Arsenal,  Custom  House  and  Post  Office,  the  Presi- 
dent refused  their  demand  of  the  withdrawal  of  the  Federal  troops.  Pickens 
immediately  proceeded  to  assemble  volunteers  and  strengthen  the  captured 
forts.  Beauregard  was  chosen  to  command  the  Confederate  troops.  Mean- 
time "The  Star  of  the  West,"  a  merchant-steamer,  was  chartered  and 
stocked  with  provisions  for  Anderson's  relief.  She  sailed  from  New  York 
January  5,  1861,  with  250  recruits.  On  entering  Charleston  harbor  and 
showing  the  United  States  flag  she  was  fired  upon  from  Fort  Moultrie  and 
compelled  to  put  to  sea  again.  Pickens  demanded  Anderson's  surrender, 
which  was  refused.  On  April  8,  1861,  President  Lincoln  notified  Pickens 
and  Beauregard  that  an  attempt  would  be  made  to  supply  Anderson  with 
provisions.  This  decided  the  Confederates  for  war,  and  on  April  12,  Ander- 
son having  again  refused  to  evacuate  on  terms  agreeable  to  Beauregard,  the 
latter  commenced  to  fire  on  Fort  Sumter.  The  bombardment  continued  two 
days.  April  14  Anderson  surrendered  because  of  lack  of  provisions  and 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  635 

because  portions  of  the  fort  were  in  flames.  The  firing  upon  Fort  Sumter 
did  more  than  any  of  the  previous  acts  of  the  secessionists  to  rouse  the 
North  to  resistance.  Immense  enthusiasm  for  the  cause  of  the  Union  was 
immediately  awakened. — Fort  Sumter  was  assailed  by  Admiral  Dahlgren's 
fleet  on  the  night  of  September  8,  1863.  This  attack  was  led  by  Commo- 
dore Stephens  and  proved  an  utter  failure,  Beauregard's  batteries  easily 
driving  off  the  attacking  troops.  In  February,  1865,  the  Union  flag  was 
once  more  raised  over  Fort  Sumter. 

Sunbury.  In  the  autumn  of  1778,  Sunbury,  Ga.,  had  resisted  a  force  sent 
north  from  Florida  by  the  British  general  Prevost.  Early  in  January, 
1779,  Prevost  marched  to  Savannah,  and  on  his  way  captured  Sunbury  and 
its  garrison. 

Sunday  Laws.  In  the  New  England  colonies  laws  were  early  passed 
forbidding  labor,  travel  or  play  on  the  "  Sabbath."  A  Massachusetts  Act  of 
1649  provided  for  the  beginning  of  this  prohibition  on  the  evening  of  Satur- 
day. In  New  York  the  "Duke's  Laws"  (1665)  forbade  the  profanation  of 
the  Lord's  Day  by  travel  or  labor.  Pennsylvania  in  the  first  laws  (those  of  1682) 
forbade  labor.  South  Carolina,  in  1684,  forbade  profanation  of  the  Sabbath. 
Virginia,  in  1692,  forbade  travel  or  profanation.  All  the  colonies,  Puritan 
or  not,  seem  to  have  had  such  laws,  and  these  continued  in  existence  after 
the  Revolution. 

Sunday  Newspapers.  The  first  started  in  this  country  was  the  Sunday 
Courier,  which  appeared  in  New  York  in  1825  an(^  lived  but  a  few  months. 
Several  other  Sunday  journals,  however,  followed  the  Sunday  Courier. 
Of  these  the  Atlas,  started  in  1837  by  three  journeymen  printers,  was  the 
most  successful.  Prior  to  the  Civil  War  about  a  dozen  of  these  Sunday 
papers  were  begun  and  discontinued  after  a  short  time.  They  gradually 
became  more  successful,  many  of  the  dailies  issuing  a  Sunday  edition.  The 
public  sentiment  was  strongly  against  them  at  first.  By  1880  there  were 
225  Sunday  papers,  half  that  number  being  Sunday  editions  of  dailies. 

Superintendent  of  Finance,  an  office  established  by  Act  of  the  Contin- 
ental Congress,  February  7,  1781,  to  supersede  the  Treasury  Board,  which 
was  suspected  of  carelessness.  Robert  Morris  filled  this  office.  He  was 
authorized  to  examine  the  state  of  the  finances  and  report  plans  for  improve- 
ment; to  direct  the  execution  of  orders  respecting  revenue  and  expenditure 
and  control  the  public  accounts.  In  1784  Morris  resigned  and  the  office  was 
abolished. 

Supreme  Court.  The  Constitution  of  1787  provided  for  a  Supreme  Court. 
The  Judiciary  Act  of  1789  prescribed  its  times  of  session  and  its  rules  of 
procedure.  Washington  appointed  Jay  Chief  Justice  and  the  court  began  its 
sessions  in  1790.  For  a  dozen  years  it  had  little  business.  John  Marshall, 
Chief  Justice  from  1801  to  1835,  first  made  the  court  a  great  power  in  the 
Government.  The  influence  of  his  decisions  in  strengthening  and  national- 
izing the  Government  cannot  be  over-estimated.  For  the  court's  power  to 
set  aside  State  and  Federal  laws  as  unconstitutional  see  art.  Unconstitution- 
ality.  The  court  continued  to  be  composed  of  Federalists  long  after  the 
Federalists  lost  control  of  Congress  and  the  -executive.  At  first  it  consisted 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 


of  the  Chief  Justice  and  five  Associate  Justices.  A  sixth  was  added  in  1807, 
two  more  in  1837,  a  ninth  in  1863.  From  1836  to  1864,  under  Chief  Justice 
Taney,  the  court  was  Democratic,  and  more  inclined  to  the  support  of  State 
rights.  In  the  important  Dred-Scott  case  it  gave  a  decision  favorable  to 
slavery.  During  the  war  the  Supreme  Court  was  made  Republican.  During 
the  conflict  between  Congress  and  President  Johnson,  Congress,  to  prevent 
him  from  appointing  any  judges,  enacted  laws  which  reduced  the  number 
of  Associate  Justices  to  seven.  In  1870  an  eighth  was  added,  by  reason  of 
which  the  court  reversed  its  decision  in  the  Legal  Tender  cases.  The  court 
has  been  throughout  its  history  the  most  powerful  tribunal  of  this  century. 
The  leading  cases  which  have  appeared  before  it  are  treated  in  separate 
articles.  A  list  of  the  Justices  follows.  History  by  Carson.  (For  the  reports 
see  next  art) 

Supreme  Court,  Chief  Justices  and  Associate  Justices. 


Chief  Justices. 

Associate  Justices. 

State. 

Term  of  Service. 

New  York     .           .   . 

John  Rutledge                .    . 

South  Carolina 

William  Gushing    .... 
Robert  H  Harrison 

Massachusetts  .... 

1789  to  1  8  10. 

James  Wilson 

John  Blair     

Virginia 

1789  to  1796 

James  Iredell   
Thomas  Johnson     .... 

North  Carolina    .    .    . 
Maryland              .    . 

179010  1799. 

William  Paterson    .   .    . 

New  Jersey 

I793  to  1806 

(Not  confirmed) 

South  Carolina 

William  Gushing  .... 

Samuel  Chase  

Maryland      ... 

1796  to  1811 

Oliver  Ellsworth  .... 

Bushrod  Washington     .    . 
Alfred  Moore               .    .    . 

Virginia     
North  Carolina 

1798  to  1829. 

John  Jay    

New  York 

John  Marshall  

William  Johnson    .... 
Brockholst  Livingston  .    . 
Thomas  Todd  

South  Carolina    .    .    . 
New  York     
Kentucky          .... 

1804  to  1834. 
1807  to  1823. 
1807  to  1826 

Levi  Lincoln    
John  Quincy  Adams  .    .    . 
Joseph  Story    

Massachusetts  .... 
Massachusetts  .... 
Massachusetts 

1811.     Declined. 
1811.     Declined. 
1811  to  1845 

Gabriel  Duvall 

Maryland 

1811  to  1835 

Smith  Thompson 

New  York     . 

1823  to  1843 

Robert  Trimble   .    .    . 

1826  to  1828 

John  McLean  
Henry  Baldwin 

Ohio   

1829  to  1861. 

James  M.  Wayne    .... 

Georgia      .    .   . 

1815  to  1867 

Roger  B.  Taney    .... 

Maryland  .    . 

1836  to  1864 

Philip  P.  Barbour  .... 

Virginia     .... 

1836  to  1841 

William  Smith     .   . 

Alabama 

1837      Declined 

]ohn  Catron      

Tennessee 

1837  to  1865 

John  McKinley    
Peter  V.  Daniel   .    . 

Alabama    

1837  to  1852. 
1841  to  1860 

Samuel  Nelson            ,    .    . 

New  York 

LeviWoodbury  . 
Robert  C.  Grier  .           .   . 
Benjamin  R.  Curtis        .   . 
John  A.  Campbell           .    . 
Nathan  Clifford   .           .   . 

New  Hampshire 
Pennsylvania  . 
Massachusetts  . 
Alabama    ... 
Maine     

1845  to  1851. 
1846  to  1870. 
1851  to  1857. 
1853  to  1861. 
1858  to  1881 

Noah  H.  Swayne 

Ohio    . 

1862  to  1881. 

CHIEF  JUSTICES   OF   SUPREME   COURT. 


John  Jay.  Salmon    P.  Chase. 

Oliver  Ellsworth. 
John  Rutledge.  J.   Marshall. 


Melville  W.  Fulk 
M.    R.   Waite. 

R.   B.  Taney 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 


637 


Chief  Justices. 

Associate  Justices. 

State. 

Term  of  Service. 

Samuel  F.  Miller    .... 
David  Davis 
Stephen  J.  Field 

Iowa  
Illinois  
California 

1862  to  1890. 
1862  to  1877. 
1863  to  1897. 

Salmon  P.  Chase      .    .    . 
Morrison  R  Waite 

Edwin  M.  Stanton*  .  .  . 
William  Strong  .  ... 
Joseph  P.  Bradley  .  .  . 
Ward  Hunt  

Ohio  
Pennsylvania  .... 
Pennsylvania  .... 
New  Jersey  
New  York  
Ohio  .... 

1864  to  1873. 

1869. 

1870  to  1880. 
1870  to  1892. 
1872  to  1886. 
1874  to  1887 

John  M  Harlan 

Kentucky  .  .  . 

1877  to  

William  B  Woods 

1880  to  1887 

Stanley  Matthews  .  .  . 

Ohio  

1  88  1  to  1889. 

1881  to  •  — 

Melville  W   Fuller 

Samuel  Blatchford  .... 
Lucius  Q.  C.  L,amar  .  .  . 

New  York  
Mississippi  
Illinois  

1882  to  1893. 
1888  to  1893. 
X888  to  . 

David  J.  Brewer  
Henry  B  Brown 

Kansas  
Michigan                   .    - 

1889  to  . 
1891  to  . 

George  Shiras,  Jr  
Howell  E  Jackson  .  .  . 

Pennsylvania  .... 
Tennessee  .  . 

1892  to  . 
1893  to  l8qs- 

Edward  D.  White  .... 
Joseph  McKenna  .... 

Louisiana  
California  

1894  to  . 
1898  to  . 

*Die'l  before  his  commission  to<  k  enVct. 

Supreme  Court  Reports  begin  with  the  volume  numbered  2  Dallas,  and 
consist  of  the  following:  Dallas,  3  vols.,  1790-1800;  Cranch,  9  vols.,  1800- 
1815;  Wheaton,  12  vols.,  1816-1827;  Peters,  16  vols.,  1828-1842;  Howard, 
24  vols.,  1843-1860;  Black,  2  vols.,  1861-1862;  Wallace,  23  vols.,  1863- 
1875;  from  this  point  they  are  numbered  90  U.  S.,  91  U.  S.,  etc. 

Surplus,  Distribution  of.  The  distribution  of  the  treasury  surplus 
among  the  States  in  preference  to  appropriating  it  to  internal  improvements 
was  advocated  by  President  Jackson  in  1829,  tne  debt  having  been  paid, 
while  the  compromise  of  1832  forbade  the  reduction  of  the  tariff.  In  1836 
a  bill  to  this  effect  was  passed  by  Congress,  and  to  it  was  joined  a  bill  to 
regulate  the  public  deposits.  Afterward  an  attempt  was  made  to  separate 
the  two  bills,  but  this  failed.  The  bill  provided  that  all  the  money  in  the 
treasury,  January  i,  1837,  in  excess  of  $5,000,000,  was  to  be  deposited  with 
the  States  in  the  proportion  of  their  membership  in  the  electoral  college,  and 
in  four  installments.  The  States  were  to  give  certificates  of  deposits,  pay- 
able to  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  on  demand.  Jackson  defended  this 
step  on  the  ground  that  many  of  the  States  were  "  improvement  States," 
with  a  growing  money  market  and  a  large  debt,  and  therefore  in  urgent 
need  of  funds.  The  States  mostly  misused  the  money.  Only  three  of  the 
four  installments  were  paid,  when  the  crash  of  1837  came  upon  the  Federal 
Government,  and  no  more  was  paid.  History  by  Bourne. 

"  Susan  Constant,"  a  vessel  sent  with  colonists  to  Virginia  in  1606  by 
the  Virginia  Company.  She  was  commanded  by  Christopher  Newport,  and 
was  accompanied  by  the  "  God-Speed  "  and  the  "  Discovery."  The  colonists 
landed  May  13,  1607. 

Susquehanna  Company,  a  land  company  formed  in  1754,  chiefly  of 
Connecticut  farmers,  for  the  colonization  of  the  Wyoming  country.  By 


638  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

a  treaty  with  the  Five  Nations,  July  n,  1754,  an  enormous  tract  of  country 
was  purchased  for  ^2000.  It  began  at  the  southern  boundary  of  Connecti- 
cut and  followed  irTa  northerly  direction  the  course  of  the  Susquehanna  to 
northern  Pennsylvania.  In  1785-1786  many  disputes  arose  between  the 
Susquehanna  Company  and  the  Pennsylvania  claimants  of  the  territory. 
This  was  called  the  "  Pennamite  War."  (See  Wyoming  Controversy.) 

Susquehannas,  or  Conestogas,  an  extinct  tribe  of  Indians,  once  inhabit- 
ing lands  on  the  Susquehanna  River.  They  waged  fierce  wars  with  neigh- 
boring tribes,  and  became  so  troublesome  to  Maryland  that  they  were  pro- 
claimed public  enemies  in  1642.  In  1652  they  ceded  lands  to  the  colony.  In 
1675,  after  a  bitter  struggle  with  the  Iroquois,  they  were  overthrown.  Some, 
retreating  to  Maryland,  were  attacked  by  the  whites.  The  Indians  then 
ravaged  the  frontier  until  completely  cut  off.  A  remnant  of  the  tribe,  dur- 
ing a  period  of  excitement  against  the  Indians,  was  butchered  at  Lancaster, 
Pa.,  1763- 

Sutler,  John  A.  (1803-1880),  came  to  America  from  Baden  in  1834.  In 
1841  he  founded  a  settlement  on  the  present  site  of  Sacramento.  The  first 
gold  in  California  was  found  on  his  estate  in  1848. 

Swaanendael,  a  settlement  established  in  1632  on  the  Delaware  River  at 
the  site  of  the  present  town  of  Lewiston,  Del.,  by  Godyn,  Blommaert, 
De  Vries  and  others.  A  fort  was  also  built.  Trouble  soon  arose  with  the 
Indians  and  the  inhabitants  were  massacred. 

Swamp  Fight,  a  fight  in  the  Narragansett  country,  in  what  is  now  South 
Kingstown,  R.  I.,  on  December  19,  1675,  during  King  Philip's  War.  Philip 
and  his  allies,  entrenched  in  a  strong  palisade  in  the  midst  of  a  swamp,  were 
attacked  by  the  forces  of  Massachusetts,  Plymouth  and  Connecticut,  and  de- 
feated with  great  slaughter  ;  the  stockade  was  destroyed. 

Swamp  Lands.  In  1849  Congress  passed  a  resolution  which  led  to  the 
grant  of  enormous  tracts  of  overflowed  and  swamp  lands  to  the  States  for  their 
disposal.  These  were  in  many  instances  regranted  to  railroad  corporations. 

Swann,  Thomas  (1805-1883),  was  president  of  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio 
Railroad  from  1847  to  X853,  Governor  of  Maryland  from  1865  to  1869,  and 
a  Democratic  U.  S.  Congressman  from  1869  to 


Swansea,  Mass.,  was  attacked  by  the  Indians  on  June  20,  23,  25,  1675, 
during  King  Philip's  War.  Many  houses  were  burned  and  terrible  atrocities 
committed. 

Swayne,  Noah  H.  (1804  1884),  was  U.  S.  District  Attorney  for  Ohio 
from  1831  to  1841.  He  was  a  Justice  of  the  U.  S.  Supreme  Court  from  1862 
to  1  88  1,  when  he  resigned. 

Sweden  and  Norway.  Sweden  was  the  first  nation  to  offer  voluntarily 
ner  friendship  to  the  United  States.  A  treaty  of  amity  and  commerce  was 
concluded  in  1783.  With  Sweden  and  Norway  a  commercial  treaty  was  con- 
cluded in  1816,  and  another  in  1827.  An  extradition  convention  was  con- 
cluded in  1860,  and  a  naturalization  convention  in  1869.  A  new  extradition 
treaty  was  concluded  January  14,  1893. 


TJICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  639 

Swedenborgians  (New  Jerusalem  Church).  A  sect  named  after  its  founder, 
Emanuel  Swedenborg,  and  because  they  believe  that  his  teachings  super- 
seded the  old  form  of  Christianity  and  brought  in  the  "  New  Jerusalem." 
Swedenborg  himself  founded  no  church,  but  his  followers  organized  bodies 
in  sympathy  with  his  teachings.  The  first  church  in  the  United  States  was 
founded  at  Baltimore,  1792,  and  since  1817  a  general  convention  meets 
annually,  which  now  represents  some  five  thousand  members. 

Swedes.  The  Swedish  element  in  U.  S.  history  came  originally  in  the 
settlement  of  New  Sweden.  (See  Delaware.)  The  Swedish  language  was 
spoken  there  until  after  the  Revolution,  when  the  Swedish  king  ceased  to 
send  out  a  Swedish  pastor,  as  he  had  hitherto  done,  because  it  seemed  no 
longer  necessary.  Swedish  immigration  to  the  United  States  began  to  be 
important  about  1846,  and  increased  rapidly  after  1876.  Immigrants  from 
Sweden  and  Norway  have  constituted  six  per  cent  of  all  immigrants  since 
1820. 

Swedish  West  India  Company,  or  the  South  Company,  founded  in  Octo- 
ber, 1624,  by  Willem  Usselinx,  of  Antwerp,  under  a  charter  granted  by  Gus- 
tavus  Adolphus,  of  special  trading  privileges  with  America.  The  kin^' 
subscribed  400,000  daler,  and  stock  was  taken  by  other  Swedes,  among  them 
Chancellor  Oxenstjerna.  Combining  later  with  certain  Dutch  merchants, 
the  company  effected  settlements  along  the  Delaware  River.  The  chartei 
extended  to  1646. 

Sweeny,  Thomas  W.  (1820-1892),  came  to  the  United  States  from  Ire- 
land in  1832.  He  served  with  distinction  during  the  Mexican  War.  He 
served  at  Wilson's  Creek  and  Fort  Donelson,  and  led  a  brigade  at  Shiloh. 
He  commanded  a  division  in  the  Atlanta  campaign,  and  fought  at  Snake 
Creek  Gap,  Resaca,  Dallas,  Kenesaw  Mountain  and  Atlanta.  He  engaged 
in  the  Fenian  invasion  of  Canada  in  1866. 

Sweet,  Benjamin  J.  (1832-1874),  was  severely  wounded  at  Perryville  in 
1861.  In  1864  he  took  command  of  the  prison  at  Camp  Douglas,  Chicago, 
where  he  defeated  two  well-planned  attempts  to  liberate  the  prisoners  and 
burn  Chicago. 

Swett,  Samuel  (1782-1866),  of  Massachusetts,  served  on  the  staff  of  Gen- 
eral Izard  during  the  War  of  1812.  He  wrote  "History  of  the  Battle  of 
Bunker  Hill,"  "  Who  was  Commander  at  Bunker  Hill  ?  "  and  "  Defence  of 
Timothy  Pickering  against  Bancroft's  History." 

Swinton,  William  (1833—1892),  became  connected  with  the  New  York 
Times  in  1858  and  became  a  war  correspondent  in  1862.  He  traveled  in  the 
South  in  1867  and  collected  material  for  a  "  History  of  the  Civil  War." 
He  wrote  the  Times'  "  Review  of  McClellan,"  "  Campaigns  of  the  Army  of 
the  Potomac,"  "  The  Twelve  Decisive  Battles  of  the  War,"  and  an  excellent 
series  of  school  books. 

Swiss.  In  1711  a  number  of  Swiss  and  Germans  emigrated  to  South 
Carolina  led  by  Jean  Pierre  Purry,  and  in  1732  an  extensive  tract  was 
granted  to  a  new  body  from  Neufchatel,  along  the  Savannah  River. 


640 


DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 


Swiss  Confederation.  The  United  States  concluded,  in  1847,  with  the 
Swiss  Confederation  a  convention  for  the  mutual  abolition  of  droit  d'aubaine 
and  taxes  on  emigration.  In  1850  a  convention  of  friendship,  commerce  and 
extradition  was  concluded. 

Sykes,  George  (1822-1880),  served  with  distinction  during  the  Civil  War. 
He  commanded  a  battalion  at  Bull  Run.  He  had  charge  of  the  infantry  in 
the  defence  of  Washington  from  1861  to  1862.  He  led  a  division  at  Games' 
Mills  and  a  corps  at  Fredericksburg  and  Gettysburg.  He  commanded  a 
corps  in  the  Army  of  the  Potomac  till  1864,  when  he  was  sent  to  Kansas. 

Symmes  Purchase.  John  Cleves  Symmes  and  his  associates  bought  in 
1787  a  tract  of  land  along  the  Ohio  and  Miami  Rivers.  The  tract  originally 
contained  1,000,000  acres,  but  was  reduced  later  to  248,540  acres,  because  of 
the  partial  failure  of  the  colonization  plans.  The  first  pre-emption  law  was 
passed  in  1801  for  the  furtherance  of  this  scheme. 

T. 

Taft,  Alphonso  (1810-1891),  of  Ohio,  was  Secretary  of  War  in  Grant's 
Cabinet  from  March  to  May,  1876,  when  he  was  made  Attorney-General  and 
served  till  1877.  He  was  Minister  to  Austria  from  1882  to  1884,  and  to 
Russia  from  1884  to  1885. 

Talbot,  Silas  (1751-1813),  rendered  brilliant  service  in  the  navy  during 
the  Revolution,  capturing  many  British  vessels.  He  represented  New  York 
in  the  U.  S.  Congress  as  a  Federalist  from  1793  to  1795. 

Talcott,  John  (1630-1688),  was  treasurer  of  the  Connecticut  colony  from 
1660  to  1676.  He  was  one  of  the  patentees  named  in  the  charter  of  1662. 
He  commanded  the  colonial  army  during  the  Indian  wars. 

Taliaferro,  William  B.,  born  in  1822,  was  prominent  in  the  Confederate 
army  of  Northern  Virginia  from  1861  to  1863.  He  commanded  at  Morris 
and  James  Islands  in  1863.  In  1864  he  commanded  the  district  of  South 
Carolina.  Died  1898. 

Talladega,  a  village  of  the  Creek  Indians  of  Alabama  in  1813.  Novem- 
ber 7,  Andrew  Jackson,  then  conducting  a  campaign  against  the  Creeks, 
received  a  message  from  Talladega,  which  was  a  friendly  town,  begging  aid 
against  the  hostile  tribes.  Jackson  replied  by  marching  to  Talladega  and 
defeating  the  Creeks,  November  8. 

Tallahassee,  Fla.,  was  selected  as  the  seat  of  the  territorial  government 
in  1822.  It  was  laid  out  in  1824,  an^  became  a  city  in  1827.  Tallahassee 
was  occupied  May  10,  1865,  by  General  McCook  and  500  Federal  soldiers 
for  the  purpose  of  receiving  the  surrender  of  the  Confederates  in  that  sec- 
tion, who  were  commanded  by  Sam  Jones.  No  fighting  of  consequence 
occurred. 

Talleyrand-Pe'rigord,  Charles  Maurice,  Prince  de  (1754-1838),  the 
famous  French  diplomatist,  was  minister  of  foreign  affairs  in  France  when 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  641 

Pinckney,  Marshall  and  Gerry  were  sent  from  the  United  States  on  a  special 
mission  in  1797.  He  demanded  (i)  a  disavowal  of  President  Adams'  hostile 
expressions  toward  France;  (2)  a  loan,  and  (3)  douceurs,  which  the  Ameri- 
ican  envoys  refused  to  concede.  The  unofficial  French  negotiators,  Hot- 
tinguer,  Bellamy  and  Hauteval,  were  designated  as  X,  Y  and  Z  in  the  reports 
sent  to  the  United  States.  These  X,  Y,  Z  papers  aroused  great  indignation 
against  France.  Later,  Talleyrand  made  overtures  for  more  favorable  nego- 
tiations. He  had  visited  the  United  States  in  1794.  He  was  still  Minister 
at  the  time  of  the  Louisiana  cession  of  1803. 

Tallmadge,  Benjamin  (1754-1835),  commanded  detachments  during  the 
Revolution  at  Brandy  wine,  Germantown,  Monmouth,  Lloyd's  Neck  and  Fort 
George.  He  represented  Connecticut  in  the  U.  S.  Congress  as  a  Federalist 
from  1801  to  1817. 

Tallmadge,  James  (1778-1853),  represented  New  York  in  the  U.  S.  Con- 
gress as  a  Democrat  from  1817  to  1819.  He  proposed  the  exclusion  of  sla- 
very from  Missouri  as  a  condition  of  its  admission  to  the  Union  as  a  State, 
and  delivered  a  widely  popular  speech  in  opposition  to  slavery.  He  was 
Lieutenant-Governor  of  New  York  from  1826  to  1827.  He  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  American  Institute  at  New  York  and  its  president  from  1831 
to  1850. 

Talmage,  Thomas  DeWitt,  born  in  1832,  has  been  pastor  of  the  Central 
Presbyterian  Church  in  Brooklyn  since  1869.  He  is  a  popular  preacher  and 
lecturer. 

Tammany  (seventeenth  century),  was  chief  of  the  Delaware  Indians.  He 
was  a  brave  and  influential  chieftain  about  whom  there  are  many  traditions. 
He  is  the  patron  of  the  Democratic  organization  called  the  Tammany 
Society. 

Tammany.  In  1789  William  Mooney,  an  Irish-American  politician, 
founded  in  New  York  City  the  Columbian  Order,  a  secret  society,  which  in 
1805  was  incorporated  as  the  Tammany  Society,  named  after  the  Indian 
Tammany,  and  wearing  Indian  insignia,  especially  a  buck's  tail.  In  1800,  by 
careful  work  under  Aaron  Burr,  the  order  controlled  New  York  City  politics. 
Next,  under  Daniel  D.  Tompkins,  it  became  the  administration  wing  of  the 
Democratic  party  in  New  York  City,  upholding  Madison  and  opposing  the 
Clintons.  The  Bucktails  and  the  Albany  Regency  controlled  the  State  for 
a  long  period.  In  1822  the  power  over  the  society  had  gone  into  the  hands 
of  its  general  committee.  Stricter  and  stricter  organization  followed,  and 
Tammany  developed  into  a  machine  for  securing  success  in  elections  and 
power  and  plunder  for  its  chieftains.  Always  indifferent  to  principles,  it 
grew  worse  after  the  influx  of  foreigners  into  the  city,  till  after  the  war  its 
corruption  culminated  in  the  scandalous  performances  of  the  Tweed  Ring. 
(See  art.)  Since  the  defeat  of  the  Tweed  Ring  in  1871,  Tammany,  under 
the  control  of  John  Kelly,  Richard  Croker  and  others,  has  been  famous  for 
strict  control  over  a  large  body  of  voters,  strict  devotion  to  the  spoils  system, 
looseness  of  allegiance  to  the  Democratic  party,  and  indifference  to  the  wel- 
fare and  interests  of  the  great  city  which  it  has  almost  constantly  ruled. 

41 


642  DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Taney,  Roger  Brooke  (1777-1864),  Chief  Justice  of  the  U.  S.  Supreme 
Court,  was  graduated  at  Dickinson  College,  became  a  member  of  the  Mary- 
land Legislature,  and  settled  in  Baltimore.  Lawyer  and  politician,  at  first 
Federalist  and  later  Jacksonian  Democrat,  he  was  Attorney-General  1831- 
1833,  and  was  appointed  by  President  Jackson  as  Secretary  of  the  Treasury 
in  1833,  to  take  the  place  of  a  less  subservient  official.  Taney  was  not 
confirmed  by  the  Senate,  but  in  his  few  months  of  service  he  ordered  the 
removal  of  the  Government  deposits  from  the  bank.  The  President  nomi- 
nated him  as  Chief  Justice  of  the  U.  S.  Supreme  Court  in  1835,  and  he  was 
confirmed  in  the  following  year.  In  his  long  service,  until  his  death,  various 
important  questions  were  decided,  chief  of  which  in  interest  was  the  Dred 
Scott  case  in  1857.  Life  by  Tyler. 

Tappan  Patent,  a  grant  of  land  in  what  is  now  Orange  County,  N.  Y., 
made  in  1686  by  Governor  Dongan,  of  New  York,  to  six  Dutch  patentees. 
The  land  was  to  be  held  in  free  and  common  socage  of  King  James  II. 

Tariff.  Before  1789  colonies  and  States  occasionally  levied  tariffs  on 
imports,  sometimes  of  a  protective  nature.  The  diversity  of  these  tariffs 
and  the  consequent  hindrances  to  commerce  formed  one  cause  of  the  cement- 
ing of  a  stronger  union  in  1787.  The  new  Constitution  gave  Congress  power 
to  regulate  commerce.  In  1789  the  First  Congress  passed  a  tariff  act  which 
imposed  on  imports  duties  averaging  about  eight  per  cent  ad  valorem.  In 
1790,  and  again  in  1792,  the  rates  were  slightly  increased.  They  were  in 
large  part  so  adjusted  as  to  give  protection  to  American  industries.  This 
policy  Hamilton  and  the  Federalists  constantly  advocated,  largely  for  politi- 
cal reasons.  The  War  of  1812  gave  artificial  stimulus  to  American  manu- 
factures, which  was  accordingly  continued  by  the  tariff  of  1816,  which 
imposed  duties  of  about  twenty-five  per  cent  on  leading  manufactures,  the 
agricultural  South  and  commercial  New  England  protesting.  In  1824  a 
new  tariff  act  was  passed,  increasing  duties  on  metals  and  agricultural  pro- 
ducts. Clay  now  made  himself  the  leader  in  advocacy  of  the  "American 
system,"  so-called,  the  combination  of  a  higher  protective  tariff  with  Federal 
expenditures  for  internal  improvements.  A  protectionist  convention  at  Har- 
risburg  urged  higher  duties.  In  1828  a  tariff  called  the  "  tariff  of  abomina- 
tions "  imposed  duties  on  raw  materials.  It  was  passed  by  reason  of  political 
intrigues,  rather  than  by  reason  of  economic  considerations.  The  South 
protested  violently,  urging  not  only  the  injustice  of  a  high  tariff  from  which 
exporting  States  received  no  benefit,  but  also  its  unconstitutionality.  Cal- 
houn  and  South  Carolina  took  the  lead  in  this  remonstrance.  Though  the 
tariff  of  1832  went  back  nearly  to  the  rates  of  1824,  it  retained  the  principle 
of  protection.  South  Carolina  then  proceeded  to  nullify  the  act.  Though 
Jackson  met  nullification  with  vigorous  repression,  Congress  compromised 
in  the  tariff  of  1833,  which  provided  for  a  gradual  reduction  of  duties  to  a 
uniform  revenue  rate,  to  be  reached  in  1842.  In  1846  a  new  tariff  was 
•enacted,  which,  though  not  quite  a  tariff  "  for  revenue  only,"  was  rather  a 
revenue  than  a  protective  tariff.  A  still  lower  tariff  came  in  in  1857.  This 
remained  until  1861,  when  the  Morrill  Tariff  went  into  effect,  in  accordance 
with  the  policy  of  the  Republicans,  now  in  power,  who  favored  high  protec- 
tive duties.  The  Civil  War  caused  large  increase  of  the  rates  to  meet 


DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  643 

Government  expenses  and  stimulate  manufactures.  These  continued  long 
after  the  war.  In  1882  a  Tariff  Commission  was  appointed  to  consider  readjust- 
ments, and  the  Republicans  made  some  slight  reductions.  Since  then  they 
have  returned  to  advocacy  of  high  protection,  while  the  Democrats,  since 
President  Cleveland's  message  of  1887,  have  favored  reduction  of  the  rates. 
The  McKinley  Act  of  1890  maintained  and  strengthened  the  protective 
system.  A  Democratic  bill  for  moderate  reduction  was  introduced  into  the 
House  in  December,  1893.  History  by  Taussig. 

Tariff  Commission,  a  commission  appointed  by  an 'Act  of  Congress  of 
March  28,  1882,  to  consist  of  nine  members  appointed  from  civil  life  by  the 
President.  The  duty  of  this  commission  was  to  investigate  questions  relating 
to  the  commercial,  mercantile,  agricultural,  manufacturing  and  mining  inter- 
ests of  the  United  States  and  make  suggestions  for  the  establishment  of  a 
judicious  tariff,  or  a  revision  of  the  existing  tariff  and  the  internal  revenue 
laws. 

Tarleton,  Sir  Bannastre  (1754—1833),  colonel,  came  to  America  from  Eng- 
land with  Lord  Cornwallis  in  1776.  He  engaged  in  Colonel  Harcourt's  raid 
upon  Baskingridge,  N.  J.  In  1779  he  organized  the  "British  Legion,"  or 
"  Tarleton's  Legion,"  in  South  Carolina,  with  which  he  conducted  partisan 
warfare.  He  slaughtered  Colonel  Buford's  regiment  at  Waxhaw  Creek  and 
fought  bravely  at  Camden  and  Fishing  Creek.  He  was  defeated  at  Black- 
stock  Hill  by  General  Sumter  and  his  force  was  almost  annihilated  at  Cow- 
pens  by  General  Morgan.  He  surrendered  with  Cornwallis  at  Yorktown.  He 
wrote  "  A  History  of  the  Campaigns  of  1780  and  1781  in  the  Southern  Prov- 
inces of  North  America." 

Tattnall,  Josiah  (1795-1871),  served  in  a  seamen's  battery  on  Craney 
Island  during  the  War  of  1812.  He  served  in  Decatur's  squadron  during 
the  Algerine  War.  He  was  given  command  of  the  "  Spitfire  "  at  the  out- 
break of  the  Mexican  War  and  commanded  the  Mosquito  division  at  the 
siege  of  Vera  Cruz.  In  1861  he  entered  the  Confederate  service  and  was 
given  command  of  the  naval  defences  of  Georgia  and  South  Carolina.  He 
led  an  attack  on  Port  Royal  in  1861.  In  1862  he  commanded  the  "  Merrimac." 
He  was  active  in  the  defense  of  Savannah. 

Taxables,  in  the  Southern  colonies,  meant  persons  upon  whom  a  poll-tax 
was  paid  (called  titliables  in  Virginia).  In  Maryland,  for  instance,  taxables 
included  all  males  and  all  female  slaves  of  sixteen  years  or  more,  excepting 
beneficed  clergymen  of  the  Church  of  England,  paupers  and  disabled  slaves. 

Taxation.  In  the  earlier  days  of  the  American  colonies  there  was  little 
need  of  taxation;  quit  rents  satisfied  the  proprietary  or  company.  Volun- 
tary contributions,  forfeitures,  fines  and  payments  for  land  defrayed  the 
greater  part  of  the  colonial  expenses.  By  the  year  1653,  however,  we  find 
the  colonists  complaining  of  the  injustice  of  chimney  and  head  money, 
tithes  on  grain,  flax,  hemp,  tobacco,  butter,  cheese  and  excessive  export 
duties.  In  1796  most  of  the  States  passed  laws  to  regulate  taxation,  adopting 
various  methods  of  apportionment  and  collection,  and  varying  often  in  the 
objects  taxed.  All  levied  a  tax  on  land  except  Delaware,  and  there  was  a 
uniform  poll  tax  in  nine;  other  things  taxed  were  horses  and  cattle  and  farm 


644 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 


stock,  stock  in  trade  of  merchants,  money  on  hand  or  at  interest,  houses, 
slaves,  carriages,  billiard  tables,  processes  of  law  and  official  papers.  The 
period  between  1796  and  the  Civil  War  was  the  transition  period  as  regards 
taxation,  the  modern  system  of  taxation  being  gradually  developed.  About 
1851  a  uniform  rate  of  taxation  began  to  be  introduced  in  some  States.  The 
Federal  Government  has  raised  little  money  by- direct  taxes  (see  art.  Direct 
Taxes),  and  has  used  the  income  tax  only  in  the  Civil  War.  It  has  raised 
its  revenue  through  indirect  taxation.  (See  Excise,  Internal  Revenue, 
Tariff.)  « 

"Taxation  no  Tyranny,"  a  famous  pamphlet  against  the  cause  of  the 
American  colonies,  written  by  Dr.  Samuel  Johnson,  and  published  in  London 
in  1775- 

Taylor,  Bayard  (1825-1878),  author,  came  into  prominence  by  his  accounts 
of  a  pedestrian  tour  in  Europe  from  1844  to  1846.  In  1847  he  became  an 
editor  on  the  staff  of  the  Tribune.  He  made  extensive  travels  through 
Europe,  Asia  and  Africa.  He  was  Secretary  of  Legation  at  St.  Petersburg 
from  1862  to  1863  and  Minister  to  Berlin  in  1878.  He  wrote  an  admirable 
translation  of  Goethe's  Faust 

Taylor,  George  (1716-1781),  came  to  America  from  Ireland  in  1736.  He 
served  in  the  Pennsylvania  Legislature  from  1764  to  1769.  He  represented 
Pennsylvania  in  the  Continental  Congress  from  1776  to  1777,  and  signed  the 
Declaration  of  Independence. 

Taylor,  John  (1750-1824),  called  John  Taylor  of  Caroline,  represented 
Virginia  in  the  U.  S.  Senate  as  a  Democrat  from  1792  to  1794  and  from 
1822  to  1824.  During  the  interval  he  served  in  the  Virginia  House  of 
Delegates,  where  he  moved  the  celebrated  Virginia  Resolutions  of  1798.  He 
wrote  "  Inquiry  into  the  Principles  and  Policy  of  the  Government  of  the  United 
States,"  "  Construction  Construed  and  the  Constitution  Vindicated "  and 
"  New  Views  of  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States,"  leading  works  of  the 
State-rights  school. 

Taylor,  John  (1770-1832),  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1793.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  South  Carolina  Legislature  for  a  number  of  years,  represented 
South  Carolina  in  the  U.  S.  Congress  as  a  Democrat  from  1807  to  1810, 
when  he  became  a  U.  S.  Senator  and  served  until  1816.  He  was  a  U.  S. 
Congressman  from  1816  to  1817,  and  Governor  of  South  Carolina  from  1826 
to  1828. 

Taylor,  John  (1808-1887),  came  to  Canada  from  England  in  1832.  He 
became  a  Mormon  apostle  in  1838,  and  succeeded  to  the  presidency  of  the 
Mormon  Church  in  1877.  He  was  indicted  for  polygamy  in  1885. 

Taylor,  John  W.  (1784-1854),  represented  New  York  in  the  U.  S.  Con- 
gress as  a  Democrat  from  1813  to  1833.  He  was  Speaker  of  the  House  from 
1820  to  1821,  during  the  passage  of  the  Missouri  Compromise,  and  from  1825 
to  1827.  He  delivered  the  first  speech  in  Congress  plainly  opposing  the 
extension  of  slavery.  He  aided  in  organizing  the  National  Republican  and 
the  Whig  parties. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  645 

Taylor,  Richard  (1826-1879),  son  of  President  Zachary  Taylor,  was  a 
member  of  the  Louisiana  Legislature  from  1856  to  1860.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  Louisiana  Secessionist  Convention.  He  commanded  a  Louisiana  regi- 
ment at  Bull  Run,  and  a  brigade  in  General  Jackson's  Virginia  campaign. 
He  distinguished  himself  at  Middletown,  Winchester,  Cross  Keys,  Port 
Republic  and  the  seven  days'  battles  before  Richmond.  In  1863  and  1864 
he  commanded  the  department  west  of  the  Mississippi.  He  defeated 
General  Banks  at  Sabine  Cross-Roads  in  1864.  In  1864  he  commanded 
the  East  Louisiana  Department.  He  wrote  "  Destruction  and  Reconstruc- 
tion." 

Taylor,  William  R.  (1811-1889),  commanded  the  "St.  Mary's"  during 
the  Mexican  War  and  served  at  the  siege  of  Vera  Cruz.  He  commanded 
the  "Housatonic"  from  1861  to  1863,  and  the  "Juniata"  at  Fort  Fisher. 

Taylor,  Zachary  (September  24,  i784~July  9,  1850),  twelfth  President  of 
the  United  States,  was  born  in  Orange  County,  Va.  He  received  an  appoint- 
ment to  the  U.  S.  army  as  first  lieutenant  in  1808.  In  1812  he  conducted 
a  defence  of  Fort  Harrison  against  the  Indians.  After  the  long  period  of 
comparative  peace  he  served  in  the  Black  Hawk  War,  and  becoming  colonel, 
was  appointed  to  command  against  the  Seminoles  in  Florida.  There,  in 
December,  1837,  he  won  the  battle  of  Okeechobee.  When  war  with  Mexico 
was  approaching,  Taylor  was  ordered  to  the  disputed  Texan  frontier.  He 
gained  the  victory  of  Palo  Alto,  May  8,  1846,  Resaca  de  la  Palma,  May  9, 
and  occupied  Matamoras.  He  was  made  major-general,  and  stormed  Mont- 
erey in  September.  In  the  following  campaign  General  Taylor,  who  had 
been  compelled  to  detach  some  of  his  best  troops,  was  attacked  by  vastly 
superior  forces  under  Santa  Anna,  and  gained  a  brilliant  victory  at  Buena 
Vista,  February  22-23,  1847.  "  Old  Rough  and  Ready  "  was  now  the  national 
hero.  The  following  year  the  Whigs  nominated  him  as  candidate  for  Presi- 
dent over  such  competitors  as  Clay  and  Webster,  and  he  was  elected  and 
entered  on  his  duties  in  1849.  The  California  question  complicated  with 
the  absorbing  slavery  topic  was  the  chief  matter  in  President  Taylor's  admin- 
istration; he  died  before  the  compromise  was  completed. 

Taylor  vs.  Reading,  a  New  Jersey  case,  memorable  because  one  of  the 
earliest  cases  in  which  a  court  took  upon  itself  to  pronounce  upon  the  con- 
stitutionality of  a  legislative  enactment.  The  Legislature  of  New  Jersey 
passed  an  act  in  1795,  upon  the  petition  of  the  defendants  in  the  case  of 
Taylor  vs.  Reading,  declaring  that  in  certain  cases  payments  made  in  Con- 
tinental money  should  be  credited  as  specie.  The  Court  of  Appeals  deemed 
this  an  ex  post  facto  law,  and  as  such  unconstitutional  and  inoperative. 

Tazewell,  Littleton  W.  (1774-1860),  was  a  member  of  the  Virginia 
House  of  Delegates  from  1796  to  1800,  a  Congressman  from  1800  to  1801. 
He  heartily  supported  the  War  of  1812.  He  was  appointed  a  commissioner 
to  Spain  in  1819  under  the  treaty  for  the  purchase  of  Florida.  He  repre- 
sented Virginia  in  the  U.  S.  Senate  as  a  Democrat  from  1825  to  1833.  He 
was  a  prominent  member  of  the  convention  to  revise  the  Virginia  constitu- 
tion in  1829,  and  was  Governor  of  Virginia  from  1834  to  1836.  In  1840  he 
received  eleven  electoral  votes  for  Vice-President.  Life  by  Grigsby. 


646  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Tea.  June  29,  1767,  at  the  instance  of  Lord  North,  Parliament  passed  an 
act  levying  a  high  duty  on  tea  imported  into  the  colonies.  In  1769  the  citi- 
zens of  Boston  sent  vigorous  resolutions  to  the  King  denouncing  this  act. 
It  was  partially  repealed  in  1770,  but  the  East  India  Company  was  later 
assisted  by  the  Government  in  shipping  a  surplus  quantity  of  tea  to  Boston. 
December  I,  1773,  the  citizens  of  Boston  held  a  meeting  to  consult  concern- 
ing the  most  effectual  method  of  preventing  the  landing  of  this  tea. 
Another  meeting  was  held  December  10,  and  parties  of  citizens  disguised 
as  "  Mohawks,"  made  a  raid  upon  the  vessels  and  threw  the  tea  overboard. 
In  several  of  the  other  colonies  the  landing  of  tea  was  prohibited  and  the 
cargoes  sent  whence  they  came. 

Tecumseh,  or  Tecumtha,  (i768?-i8i3),  chief  of  the  Shawnee  Indians, 
joined  his  brother  Ellskwatawa,  "  the  Prophet,"  in  an  attempt  to  organize 
the  Western  Indians  in  a  confederacy  against  the  whites.  The  scheme  was 
defeated  by  the  battle  of  Tippecanoe  in  1811.  He  aided  the  British  in  the 
War  of  1812,  serving  at  Raisin  River  and  Maguaga.  He  was  joint  com- 
mander at  Fort  Meigs,  where  he  protected  the  American  forces  from  mas- 
sacre. He  served  at  Lake  Erie,  and  led  the  left  wing  at  the  battle  of  the 
Thames,  where  he  was  killed. 

Telegraph.  The  telegraph  was  first  brought  into  practical  use  in  the 
United  States  by  Professor  S.  F.  B.  Morse.  He  began  his  experiments  in  1832, 
aided  by  L.  D.  Gale  and  George  and  Alfred  Vail.  In  1837  he  filed  a  caveat 
in  the  Patent  Office  at  Washington,  and  in  1840  obtained  a  patent  covering  the 
improvements  he  had  made  in  the  meantime.  The  first  line  established  was 
between  Baltimore  and  Washington,  it  being  successfully  operated  May  27, 
1844.  In  October,  1842,  Morse  had  attempted  to  operate  a  line  from  Gover- 
nor's Island  to  the  Battery  in  New  York,  but  this  experiment  failed.  Samuel 
Colt,  in  1843,  laid  a  submarine  cable  from  Coney  Island  and  Fire  Island,  at 
the  mouth  of  New  York  harbor,  up  to  the  city,  and  operated  it  successfully 
for  a  time.  In  1860  it  was  estimated  that  there  were  over  50,000  miles 
of  telegraph  lines  in  operation  in  the  United  States,  and  at  present  the  lines 
extend  over  190,000  miles.  In  1857  Cyrus  W.  Field  attempted  to  connect 
Europe  and  America  by  means  of  an  Atlantic  cable.  The  first  attempt 
failed,  but  the  laying  of  the  cable  was  finally  accomplished  August  5,  1858. 
(See  Atlantic  Cable.) 

Telephone.  The  invention  of  the  telephone  is  claimed  by  Gray,  of 
Chicago;  Bell,  formerly  of  the  Institute  of  Technology,  of  Boston,  now  of 
Washington,  and  several  others.  The  possibility  of  such  an  instrument  was 
discovered  previous  to  1873,  Dut  the  first  satisfactory  results  were  not 
obtained  until  1877,  when  Bell  completed  and  put  into  practical  use  a  tele- 
phone line  between  Salem  and  Boston,  Gray  achieving  a  like  result  the 
same  year  in  a  line  set  up  between  Chicago  and  Milwaukee,  a  distance  of 
eighty-five  miles.  By  1880  there  were  in  existence  148  telephone  companies 
and  private  concerns,  operating  34,305  miles  of  wire  (1893,  308,000  miles). 
Conversation  can  now  be  carried  on  easily  between  New  York  and  Chicago, 
and  for^  even  greater  distances.  The  Bell  Company  is  the  most  extensive. 
Two  suits  have  been  brought  against  the  patent,  but  both  haye  failed. 


Peter  Cooper. 
Charles  Goodyear. 
Samuel    F.   B.   Morse. 

Eh   Whitney. 
Samuel   Colt. 


AMERICAN    INVENTORS. 

E.  B.    Bigelow. 

Richard   M.    Hoe.  Oliver  Evans. 

Thomas  A.   Edison.  Alexander  Graham   Bell. 

Cyrus  W.   Field.  Cyrus   H.   McCormick. 

Elias   Howe.  Robert   Fulton. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  647 

Teller,  Henry  M.,  born  in  1830,  was  major-general  of  Colorado  militia 
from  1862  to  1864.  He  represented  Colorado  in  the  U.  S.  Senate  as  a 
Republican  from  1876  to  1882.  From  1877  to  1878,  he  was  chairman  of  the 
special  committee  on  election  frauds.  He  was  Secretary  of  the  Interior  in 
Arthur's  Cabinet  from  1882  to  1885.  He  was  again  elected  to  the  U.  S. 
Senate  in  1885,  1891  and  1897. 

Temperance.     (See  Prohibition.) 

Ten- Forties,  bonds  bearing  five  per  cent  interest,  redeemable  at  any 
time  after  ten  years  from  the  date  of  issue,  and  payable  in  full  at  the  end  of 
forty  years,  issued  by  the  U.  S.  Government  in  1864. 

Ten- Hour  Law.  In  the  early  years  of  manufactures  the  working  day 
sometimes  extended  to  thirteen  or  fourteen  hours.  After  the  passage  of  the 
ten-hour  law  in  England  in  1847,  the  working  classes  in  this  country 
demanded  a  similar  law.  In  1853,  the  manufacturing  companies  in  Lowell, 
Lawrence  and  Fall  River  voluntarily  reduced  the  working  day  to  eleven 
hours.  In  1874,  Massachusetts  enacted  a  law  prescribing  a  ten-hour  day  for 
all  females  and  all  males  under  eighteen  years  of  age  employed  in  textile 
factories.  Similar  laws  have  been  passed  elsewhere. 

Tennessee  was  originally  a  part  of  North  Carolina.  The  first  settlements 
were  made  by  a  company  of  hunters  on  the  Watauga  in  the  eastern  part  of 
the  State  in  1769.  When  North  Carolina  proposed  to  surrender  the  territory 
to  the  U.  S.  Government,  these  settlers  protested,  and  formed  a  separate 
State  Government  under  the  name  of  Frankland  or  Franklin.  They  elected 
a  Governor,  John  Sevier,  and  a  legislature  which  requested  admission  to  the 
Union  as  a  State.  In  1788  the  State  Government  was  overthrown  by  the  in- 
habitants of  the  State  who  were  favorable  to  North  Carolina,  an  act  of 
amnesty  was  passed  by  the  Legislature  of  North  Carolina,  and  Sevier  was 
admitted  as  a  Senator.  In  1794  a  Territorial  Government  was  organized 
under  provisions  like  those  of  the  Ordinance  of  1787,  except  that  slavery 
should  not  be  abolished.  The  State  was  admitted  into  the  Union,  June  i, 
1796.  Knoxville  was  the  capital  until  1802,  when  it  was  changed  to  Nash- 
ville. The  vote  of  the  State  was  cast  for  Democratic  candidates  until  1835. 
The  legislature  nominated  Jackson  for  the  Presidency  in  1824  and  the  State 
supported  him  almost  unanimously.  In  1835  the  Whigs  elected  Cannon 
Governor,  and  in  1836  cast  the  electoral  votes  for  Hugh  L.  White,  the 
candidate  of  the  Southern  States-Rights  faction  of  the  Whig  party.  The 
Whigs  secured  the  electoral  votes  of  the  State  at  each  election  until 
1856,  when  Buchanan  carried  the  State.  In  January,  1861,  a  popular  vote 
defeated  a  proposal  for  the  State  to  secede  from  the  Union.  June  8,  1861, 
the  Secessionists  carried  the  State.  During  the  war  the  State  furnished 
31,092  to  the  Union  army.  The  State  was  the  scene  of  some  of  the  fiercest 
battles,  as  Island  No.  10,  Nashville,  Chickamauga,  Lookout  Mountain  and 
Missionary  Ridge.  July  24,  1866,  the  State  was  restored  to  the  Union.  The 
present  constitution  was  made  in  1870.  Since  1874,  State  politics  have  been 
shaped  by  the  problem  of  the  State  debt.  In  1880  this  resulted  in  the  elec- 
tion of  a  Republican  Governor.  The  population  of  the  State  in  1796  was 
77,202;  in  1890  this  had  increased  to  1,767,518.  History  by  Ramsey. 


648  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Tennessee  Bond  Cases,  seventeen  causes  decided  by  the  Supreme  Court 
of  the  United  States  in  1885,  wherein  it  was  held  that  the  statutory  lien 
upon  railroads  created  by  an  act  of  the  Tennessee  Legislature  in  1852,  was 
for  the  benefit  of  the  State  and  not  of  the  holders  of  State  bonds  issued 
under  that  act. 

Tennessee  Historical  Societies.  One  was  founded  at  Nashville  in  1847. 
Another  was  organized  at  Knoxville  more  recently. 

Tenure  of  Office  Act.  By  the  Constitution  the  Senate  is  associated  with 
the  President  in  the  making  of  appointments  to  office.  But  it  was  con- 
cluded in  1789  that  removals  were  entirely  in  the  discretion  of  the  Presi- 
dent. This  remained  the  rule  until  1867,  when  Congress,  in  the  course  of 
its  quarrel  with  President  Johnson,  passed  over  his  veto  the  Tenure  of  Office 
Act.  Thislict  provided  that,  with  certain  exceptions,  every  officer  appointed 
with  the  concurrence  of  the  Senate  should  retain  his  office  until  a  successor 
should  be  in  like  manner  appointed.  During  the  recess  of  the  Senate  the 
President  might,  for  specified  causes,  suspend  an  officer  until  the  Senate 
could  act.  If  the  Senate  approved,  the  officer  might  then  be  removed,  other- 
wise not.  Johnson's  ignoring  of  the  act  in  the  case  of  Secretary  Stanton,  in 
1868,  led  to  his  impeachment.  The  act  was  repealed  in  1887. 

Terra  Mariae,  the  Latin  equivalent  of  Maryland.  The  charter  of  Mary- 
land, alone  among  the  colonial  charters,  was  written  in  Latin. 

Territories.  Several  states  had  extensive  claims  to  Western  lands.  They 
were  also  claimed  for  the  United  States,  as  won  by  all  in  common,  through 
the  Revolutionary  War.  New  York  ceded  her  claims  in  1781,  Virginia  in 
1784,  Massachusetts  in  1785,  Connecticut  in  1786  and  in  1800,  South  Caro- 
lina in  1787,  North  Carolina  in  1790,  Georgia  in  1802.  Subsequent  addi- 
tions of  territory  have  been  made  by  annexation  (see  art.)  Preparatory  to 
their  admission  as  States,  the  separate  regions  of  this  domain  have  been 
organized  as  Territories,  the  first  organized  being  the  Northwest  Territory, 
by  the  Ordinance  of  1787.  The  Southwest  Territory  was  organized  in  1790. 
The  history  of  each  Territory  can  be  found  under  its  name  or  that  of  the  State 
of  the  same  name.  -  At  first  the  form  of  government  of  a  Territory  was  modeled 
on  that  in  the  Ordinance  for  the  Government  of  the  Northwest  Territory, 
Afterward  two  types  were  developed.  In  those  of  the  second  class,  the  Gov- 
ernor, Secretary,  Judges  and  Legislative  Council  of  thirteen  were  all  ap- 
pointed by  the  President.  In  those  of  the  first  class,  to  which  lately  all 
organized  Territories  have  belonged,  there  is  a  bicameral  Legislature,  the 
House  of  Representatives  being  elected  by  the  people.  Convening,  the 
House  nominates  eighteen  persons,  from  among  whom  the  President  chooses 
a  Legislative  Council  of  nine.  A  delegate  represents  each  Territory  in 
Congress,  but  without  vote. 

Terry,  Alfred  Howe  (1827-1890),  an  American  general,  was  one  of  the 
most  successful  of  the  civilian  officers  in  the  War  of  the  Rebellion.  Before 
the  struggle  he  had  been  a  lawyer,  paying  some  attention  to  militia  matters. 
During  the  first  year  he  commanded  a  regiment  at  the  capture  of  Port  Royal 
and  Fort  Pulaski.  Being  made  a  brigadier-general,  he  served  in  1862-1863 
in  the  operations  near  Charleston.  He  commanded  a  corps  in  the  Army  of 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  649 

the  James,  and  fought  at  Chester  Station,  Drewry's  Bluff  and  the  siege  of 
Petersburg.  He  was  intrusted  with  the  military  part  of  the  second  attempt 
on  Fort  Fisher,  January,  1865,  co-operating  with  the  admiral.  The  successful 
storming  of  the  fort  on  January  14  made  Terry  a  brigadier-general  in  the 
regular  army.  He  captured  Wilmington,  and  was  a  departmental  com- 
mander after  the  war.  General  Terry  became  major-general  in  1886,  and 
retired  in  1888. 

Texas,  the  largest  State  in  the  Union,  popularly  known  as  the  "Lone 
Star  State,"  formed  originally  a  part  of  the  Spanish  possessions  in  America. 
The  United  States  surrendered  her  claim  that  Texas  was  included  in  the 
Louisiana  purchase,  by  the  treaty  of  1819-1821  with  Spain,  whereby  the 
United  States  obtained  possession  of  Florida  and  settled  the  eastern  boundary 
of  Texas.  Meanwhile  Mexico  had  declared  her  independence  of  Spain,  and 
Texas  with  Coahuila  formed  a  State  of  Mexico,  and  in  1827  adopted  a  State 
Constitution  which  forbade  the  importation  of  slaves  and  provided  for  the 
gradual  abolition  of  slavery.  Moses  Austin,  an  American,  obtained  a  large 
grant  of  land  in  Texas  in  1820,  and  formed  a  settlement  of  Americans, 
which  increased  rapidly.  A  new  State  Constitution  was  formed  in  1833  by 
a  convention  of  the  20,000  settlers,  but  Mexico  refused  to  recognize  it. 
When  Santa  Anna,  the  President  of  Mexico,  attempted  to  reduce  the  Mexi- 
can States  to  the  condition  of  departments  in  1835,  Texas  immediately 
seceded,  March  2,  1836,  and  proclaimed  her  independence,  which  she  main- 
tained by  the  defeat  of  Santa  Anna  at  the  head  of  1500  troops  by  General 
Sam  Houston  with  only  700  or  800  Americans,  in  the  battle  of  San  Jacinto, 
April  21,  1836.  A  constitution  was  adopted  favoring  slavery.  Houston  was 
elected  President.  The  United  States,  England,  France  and  Belgium  recog- 
nized the  new  government  as  independent  (1837).  From  this  time  until 
December  29,  1845,  when  Texas  was  finally  annexed  to  the  United  States, 
the  question  of  its  annexation  was  the  Gordian  knot  of  American  politics. 
Treaty  negotiations  failing,  annexation  was  accomplished  by  joint  resolution 
of  both  Houses  of  Congress.  The  dispute  over  the  western  boundary  of 
Texas  led  to  the  Mexican  War  (q.  v.).  March  25,  1850,  Texas  ceded  all 
claims  to  territory  outside  of  her  present  limits  to  the  United  States  for 
$10,000,000.  February  i,  1861,  an  ordinance  of  secession  was  passed. 
During  the  war  there  was  a  large  influx  of  slaves  from  the  other  States. 
The  State  was  restored  to  its  place  in  the  Union  March  30,  1870.  The 
State  has  been  uniformly  Democratic  except  for  a  brief  period  prior  to  1873. 
The  population  of  Texas  in  1850  was  212,592;  in  1890,  2,235,523.  The 
present  constitution  was  made  in  1876.  History  by  Yoakuni. 

"  Texas  Gazette  and  Brazoria  Advertiser,"  first  newspaper  of  Texas. 
It  was  established  at  Brazoria  in  1830.  September  4,  1832,  it  was  merged 
in  the  Constitutional  Advocate  and  Texas  Public  Advertiser,  which  was  sus- 
pended in  1833. 

Texas  vs.  White  et  al.  This  case  was  tried  before  the  Supreme  Court 
of  the  United  States  on  the  original  bill  in  1868.  In  1851  the  United  States 
issued  to  the  State  of  Texas  5000  coupon  bonds  for  $1000  each,  payable  to 
State  of  Texas  or  bearer,  in  arrangement  of  certain  boundary  claims.  Part 


65o  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

of  these  bonds  were  seized  during  the  Civil  War  by  the  revolutionary  gov- 
ernment of  Texas  and  sold  to  White  &  Chiles  and  others  of  New  York  and 
other  States,  though  said  bonds  were  only  payable  if  endorsed  by  a  recog- 
nized Governor.  In  1866  a  bill  was  filed  for  an  injunction  to  recover  these 
bonds.  This  was  granted  on  the  ground  that  the  action  of  a  revolutionary 
government  did  not  affect  the  right  of  Texas  as  a  State  of  the  Union,  hav- 
ing a  government  acknowledging  her  obligations  to  the  National  Constitu- 
tion. &The  Court  pronounced  the  Union  an  indestructible  Union  of  inde- 
structible States  and  the  act  of  secession  void. 

Thames,  Canada.  At  this  river  a  final  stand  was  made  by  General  Procter 
and  Tecumtha,  when  pursued  by  General  Harrison  in  the  War  of  1812.  The 
position  chosen  was  poor  and  very  favorable  to  the  American  advance. 
October  5,  1813,  Harrison  with  3000  men  attacked  and  by  a  vigorous  charge 
of  cavalry  under  Colonel  Johnson  drove  the  British  in  great  confusion  from 
the  field.  Tecumtha  was  slain  and  General  Procter  himself  barely  escaped 
capture.  This  defeat  ended  his  disgraceful  career.  The  Americans  lost 
forty-five  and  the  British  forty-eight,  besides  thirty-three  Indians;  477  pris- 
oners were  captured.  The  results  of  the  battle  were:  The  Indian  North- 
western Confederacy  was  destroyed;  the  British  power  in  Upper  Canada  was 
broken,  and  practically  all  that  had  been  lost  by  General  Hull  at  Detroit  was 
regained. 

Thatcher,  Henry  K.  (1806-1880),  commanded  the  "  Constellation "  on 
the  Mediterranean  station  from  1862  to  1863.  In  command  of  the  "Colo- 
rado "  he  led  the  first  division  of  Commodore  Porter's  fleet  in  both  attacks 
on  Fort  Fisher.  He  succeeded  Farragut  in  command  of  the  Western  Gulf 
squadron  at  Mobile,  whose  surrender  he  secured.  He  was  promoted  rear- 
admiral  and  retired  in  1868. 

Thayer,  Eli,  born  in  1819,  of  Worcester,  Mass.,  founded  the  Emigrant  Aid 
Company  which  settled  Lawrence,  Topeka,  Manhattan  and  Ossawatomie. 
These  settlements  in  Kansas  exerted  a  powerful  influence  for  the  anti-slavery 
cause.  He  represented  Massachusetts  in  the  U.  S.  Congress  as  a  Republican 
from  1857  to  1861.  He  wrote  "The  Kansas  Crusade." 

Thayer,  John  M.,  born  in  1820,  led  a  brigade  at  Donelson  and  Shiloh  and 
commanded  a  division  at  Vicksburg  and  a  column  at  Chickasaw.  He  rep- 
resented Nebraska  in  the  U.  S.  Senate  as  a  Republican  from  1867  to  1871, 
and  was  Governor  of  Nebraska  from  1886  to  1891. 

Thayer,  Sylvanus  (1785-1872),  was  superintendent  of  the  Military 
Academy  at  West  Point  from  1817  to  1833.  During  his  administration  the 
academy  became  one  of  the  best  in  the  world.  From  1833  to  1863  he  fortified 
Boston  Harbor. 

Theatre.  The  first  theatre  in  the  United  States  was  opened  at  Williams- 
burg,  Va.,  September  5,  1752.  This  was  followed  by  others  at  Annapolis, 
Md.,  and  at  New  York,  in  Nassau  Street,  in  1753.  Theatres  were  opened  at 
Albany  in  1769,  at  Baltimore  in  1773,  at  Charleston,  S.  C.,  in  1774,  at  New- 
bern,  N.  C.,  in  1788,  and  at  Boston  in  1792. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  651 

Thomas,  George  Henry  (July  31,  i8i6-March  28,  1870),  a  distinguished 
American  general,  was  born  in  Virginia,  and  graduated  at  West  Point  in 
1840.  He  fought  against  the  Seminoles,  and  in  the  Mexican  War  was  dis- 
tinguished at  Monterey  and  Buena  Vista.  In  the  summer  of  1861  he  had 
charge  of  a  brigade  in  Virginia,  and  later  in  the  year  was  promoted  to  the 
command  of  a  division  in  the  Western  army.  At  Mill  Spring,  in  Kentucky, 
January  19,  1862,  General  Thomas  gained  the  first  marked  Union  success  in 
the  war.  He  led  the  right  wing  at  Perryville,  and  the  centre  at  Murfrees- 
boro'.  At  the  battle  of  Chickamauga,  September  19-20,  1860,  Thomas' 
ability  prevented  a  serious  disaster,  and  earned  for  him  the  title  of  the 
"  Rock  of  Chickamauga."  He  fortified  Chattanooga,  received  command  of 
the  Army  of  the  Cumberland,  and  was  made  brigadier-general  in  the  regular 
army.  In  command  of  his  army  he  had  a  prominent  share  in  the  battle  of 
Missionary  Ridge  and  in  the  hard  fighting  of  Sherman's  campaign  in  1864. 
In  September,  1864,  he  was  detached  from  Sherman's  army,  and  was  ordered 
to  oppose  General  Hood.  This  service  culminated  in  his  decisive  victory  of 
Nashville,  December  15,  16,  1864.  General  Thomas  received  the  thanks 
of  Congress,  and  was  promoted  to  be  major-general  in  the  regular  army. 
After  the  war  he  was  a  departmental  commander.  Life  by  Van  Home. 

Thomas,  Isaiah  (1749-1831),  edited  the  Massachusetts  Spy  from  1771  to 
1801.  He  earnestly  supported  the  Revolutionary  movement  by  his  paper. 
From  1775  to  1801  he  published  the  celebrated  New  England  Almanac.  He 
founded  the  American  Antiquarian  Society,  to  which  he  gave  valuable  books, 
files  of  newspapers  and  estates.  He  wrote  UA  History  of  Printing  in 
America." 

Thomas,  Jane  (eighteenth  century),  was  the  wife  of  John  Thomas,  colonel 
of  the  Spartan  regiment  of  South  Carolina.  She  distinguished  herself  by 
aiding  in  repelling  an  attack  upon  her  house  by  the  Tories. 

Thomas,  Jesse  B.  (1777-1850),  was  territorial  delegate  to  Congress  from 
Indiana  from  1808  to  1809.  He  represented  Illinois  in  the  U.  S.  Senate  as  a 
Democrat  from  1818  to  1829.  ^e  introduced  the  Missouri  Compromise  in 
1820. 

Thomas,  John  (1725-1776),  of  Massachusetts,  commanded  a  regiment 
under  General  Amherst  at  Crown  Point  in  1760,  and  aided  in  the  capture 
of  Montreal.  He  was  appointed  a  brigadier-general  by  the  Provincial  Con- 
gress in  1775.  He  had  charge  of  the  fortification  of  Dorchester  Heights, 
which  led  to  the  evacuation  of  Boston  by  the  British.  -  In  1776  he  was 
given  command  in  Canada,  but  died  of  small-pox. 

Thomas,  Lorenzo  (1804-1875),  was  chief  of  staff  of  General  Butler  dur- 
ing the  Mexican  War.  He  was  adjutant-general  of  the  army  from  1861  to 
1863.  He  organized  colored  troops  from  1863  to  1865.  In  1868  President 
Johnson,  in  the  course  of  his  quarrel  with  Secretary  Stanton,  appointed 
Thomas  Secretary  of  War.  This  led  directly  to  the  impeachment  of 
Johnson. 

Thomas,  Philip  F.  (1810-1890),  represented  Maryland  in  the  U.  S.  Con- 
gress as  a  Democrat  from  1839  to  1841.  He  was  Governor  of  Maryland 


652  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

from  1848  to  1851,  and  Comptroller  of  the  State  Treasury  from  1851  to 
1853.  He  was  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  in  Buchanan's  Cabinet  from 
December,  1860,  to  January,  1861.  He  was  refused  a  seat  in  the  Senate  in 
1868,  as  having  given  aid  and  comfort  to  the  Rebellion.  He  was  a  U.  S. 
Congressman  from  1875  to  1877. 

Thomas,  Theodore,  born  in  1835,  came  to  America  from  Germany  in 
1845.  He  has  been  influential  in  introducing  a  higher  class  of  music  in 
America.  He  has  been  leader  of  the  Philharmonic  Society,  and  for  a  time 
director  of  music  at  the  World's  Fair. 

Thompson,  George,  the  abolitionist  (born  in  Liverpool,  England,  in 
1804,  died  in  Leeds,  England,  in  1878),  was  active  in  the  anti-slavery  agita- 
tions respecting  the  British  colonies,  and  came  to  this  country  in  1834  at  the 
request  of  William  Lloyd  Garrison  and  others,  to  speak  in  behalf  of  abolition. 
He  spoke  in  different  parts  of  the  country  and  his  efforts  led  to  the  forma- 
tion of  150  anti-slavery  societies.  He  was  finally  threatened  by  mobs  in  Bos- 
tori  and  fled  to  England  in  1835.  He  aided  greatly  in  preventing  the 
recognition  of  the  Southern  Confederacy  by  the  British  Government. 

Thompson,  Jacob  (1810-1885),  represented  Mississippi  in  the  U.  S.  Con- 
gress as  a  Democrat  from  1839  to  1851.  He  was  Secretary  of  the  Interior 
in  Buchanan's  Cabinet  from  1857  to  1861,  and  used  that  position  to  aid 
schemes  of  secession.  He  was  Governor  of  Mississippi  from  1862  to  1864. 
In  1864  he  was  sent  as  a  Confederate  commissioner  to  Canada,  where  he 
promoted  the  scheme  to  release  the  prisoners  at  Camp  Douglas,  Chicago,  and 
burn  the  city. 

Thompson,  John  R.  (1823-1873),  of  Virginia,  was  editor  of  the  Southern 
Literary  Messenger  from  1847  to  1859.  He  exerted  a  great  influence  upon 
Southern  literary  tastes.  He  wrote  "The  Burial  of  Latane,"  "The  Death 
of  Stuart,"  and  other  poems  popular  in  the  South. 

Thompson,  Richard  W.,  born  in  1809,  served  in  the  Indiana  Legislature 
from  1834  to  1838,  and  represented  Indiana  in  the  U.  S.  Congress  as  a  Whig 
from  1841  to  1843,  and  from  1847  to  1849.  He  was  a  Circuit  Judge  in 
Indiana  from  1867  to  1869.  He  was  Secretary  of  the  Navy  in  Hayes'  Cabi- 
net from  1877  to  1881. 

Thompson,  Smith  (1768-1843),  was  a  Judge  of  the  New  York  Supreme 
Court  from  1802  to  1818.  He  was  Secretary  of  the  Navy  in  Monroe's  Cabi- 
net from  1818  to  1823,  and  a  Justice  of  the  U.  S.  Supreme  Court  from  1823 
to  1843. 

Thomson,  Charles  (1729-1824),  came  to  America  from  Ireland  in  1740. 
His  influence  during  the  Revolution  was  such  that  he  was  called  "  the  Sam 
Adams  of  Philadelphia,  the  life  of  the  cause  of  liberty."  He  was  Secretary 
of  the  Continental  Congress  during  its  entire  history,  from  1774  to  1789.  He 
made  careful  records  of  the  proceedings  and  took  valuable  notes. 

Thoreau,  Henry  D.  (1817-1862),  of  Massachusetts,  was  a  poet  and  author, 
of  idealistic  aspirations,  a  fine  scholar,  a  transcendentalist  and  a  lover  of 
nature.  He  wrote  "  Walden,  or  Life  in  the  Woods,"  "  The  Maine  Woods  " 
"  A  Yankee  in  Canada,"  etc. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  653 

Thorfinn,  died  after  1016.  He  went  to  Greenland  from  Norway  in  1006. 
According  to  the  Sagas,  in  1007  he  sailed  for  Vinland  with  three  ships  and 
1 60  persons,  sighted  Newfoundland  and  Nova  Scotia,  sailed  along  the  New 
England  coast  and  landed  upon  some  island,  where  they  spent  the  winter. 
The  next  three  years  were  spent  in  a  bay  which  some  have  identified  with 
Mount  Hope  Bay,  where  they  traded  with  the  Esquimaux.  They  returned 
in  ion. 

Thornton,  Sir  Edward,  born  in  1817,  was  Minister  from  England  to  the 
United  States  from  1867  to  1881.  He  was  a  member  of  the  commission  on 
the  Alabama  claims  in  1871,  and  an  arbitrator  of  the  American  and  Mexican 
Claims  Commission  in  1873. 

Thornton,  Matthew  (1714—1803),  came  to  America  from  Ireland  about 
1717.  He  was  Judge  of  the  New  Hampshire  Supreme  Court  from  1776  to 
1782.  He  represented  New  Hampshire  in  the  Continental  Congress  from 
1776  to  1778  and  signed  the  Declaration  of  Independence. 

Thorvald  Ericsson,  died  in  1004.  He  is  said  to  have  came  to  America 
(Rhode  Island?)  from  Iceland  with  thirty  men  in  1002,  in  1003  to  have 
explored  the  southern  coast  of  New  England  and  in  1004  the  northern  coast. 

Three-Cent  Piece,  a  silver  coin  issued  in  1851,  having  been  authorized 
the  same  year.  Its  weight  in  grains  was  12.375.  In  1853  its  weight  was 
changed  to  11.52.  The  coinage  was  discontinued  by  an  Act  of  Congress  of 
1873.  This  coin  was  a  legal  tender  to  the  amount  of  thirty  cents.  Nickel 
three-cent  pieces  began  to  be  coined  in  1865. 

Three-Dollar  Piece,  a  gold  coin,  authorized  in  1853;  coinage  begun  1854. 
This  coin  has  always  been  a  legal  tender  to  an  unlimited  amount. 

Throckmorton,  James  W.,  born  in  1825,  was  a  member  of  the  Texas 
Legislature  from  1851  to  1861,  and  Governor  of  Texas  from  1866  to  1867. 
He  was  a  Democratic  U.  S.  Congressman  from  1875  to  1879  and  from  1883 
to  1887.  Died  1894. 

Throop,  Enos  T.  (1784-1874),  represented  New  York  in  the  U.  S.  Con- 
gress as  a  Democrat  from  1815  to  1816.  He  was  Governor  of  New  York 
from  1829  to  1832,  Minister  to  Naples  from  1838  to  1842. 

Thurman,  Allen  Granbery,  born  in  1813,  an  American  statesman,  is  an 
eminent  lawyer,  settled  in  Columbus,  Ohio.  He  is  a  life-long  Democrat; 
from  1845 t°  *847  he  was  Congressman  from  Ohio;  he  was  Justice  of  the  State 
Supreme  Court  1851-1854,  and  its  Chief  Justice  1854-1856.  In  1867  he  was 
defeated  for  Governor  by  General  Hayes.  From  1869  to  1881  he  was  a  U.  S. 
Senator.  While  his  party  was  in  the  minority  Senator  Thurman  was  its 
leader,  and  afterward  he  had  the  chairmanship  of  the  Judiciary  Committee. 
He  was  at  one  time  president  pro  tern,  of  the  Senate.  He  was  the  sponsor 
for  the  Thurman  Act,  which  compelled  the  Pacific  railroads  to  fulfil  their 
obligations  to  the  Government.  President  Garfield  appointed  him  a  dele- 
gate to  the  Paris  Monetary  Convention  of  1881.  Thurman  received  votes  in 
the  Democratic  National  Conventions  of  1876,  1880  and  1884.  In  1888  he 
was  nominated  by  acclamation  for  second  place  on  the  ticket  with  Cleve- 
land, but  was  defeated  in  the  election.  Died  1895. 


654  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Thwaites,  Reuben  G.,  born  in  1853,  was  an  editor  of  the  Wisconsin  State 
Journal  from  1877  to  1886.  He  has  given  much  attention  to  Western  his- 
tory. He  wrote  "  Historic  Waterways,','  and  a  small  history  of  the  colo- 
nies. '  <r:-: 

Ticknor,  George  (1791—1871),  of  Massachusetts,  was  admitted  to  the  bar 
in  1813.  From  1815  to  1819  he  was  in  Europe  engaged  in  philological  study 
and  collecting  a  library  which  was  unsurpassed  in  Spanish  literature.  He 
was  professor  of  modern  languages  and  literature  at  Harvard  from  1819  to 
1835.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature,"  which  is  recognized 
as  a  masterly  work.  His  letters  have  been  published. 

Ticonderoga.  During  the  French  and  Indian  War,  in  June,  1758,  a 
British  and  Provincial  force  of  15,000  men  advanced  upon  Ticonderoga, 
then  occupied  by  the  French.  Montcalm  had  only  3600.  After  some  inde- 
cision he  retired  to  the  site  of  the  fort  and  threw  up  earthworks.  During 
their  advance  the  English  lost  Howe,  and  the  command  fell  to  the  incompe- 
tent Abercromby.  Without  support  of  artillery  he  attempted  to  carry  the 
fort  by  a  bayonet  charge.  He  was  disastrously  repulsed  with  a  loss  of  1944 
to  277  on  the  side  of  the  French.  He  retreated  precipitately.  On  July  22, 
1759,  General  Amherst  appeared  before  Ticonderoga.  He  met  little  opposi- 
tion and  placed  his  artillery  in  position.  On  the  night  of  the  23d,  Bourla- 
maque  retired  from  the  fort  with  the  best  troops.  The  garrison  kept  up  a 
brisk  fire  until  the  night  of  the  26th,  when  they  abandoned  the  place  and 
fired  a  train  to  the  magazine.  The  fort  was  blown  up  and  the  place  fell 
into  English  hands. — In  the  Revolutionary  War  also  the  strategic  importance 
of  Ticonderoga  was  recognized.  A  force  under  Ethan  Allen  arrived  on  the 
shore  of  Lake  Champlain  in  the  early  morning  of  May  10,  1775.  There 
were  not  enough  boats  to  carry  over  all  his  forces,  and  so  with  only  eighty- 
three  men  he  descended  upon  the  little  garrison,  who  surrendered  without  a 
blow.  Thus  the  colonists  gained  the  key  to  the  route  to  and  from  Canada, 
and  captured  a  number  of  cannon  and  a  considerable  quantity  of  powder 
and  ball,  which  they  much  needed.  On  July  i,  1777,  Burgoyne  in  his 
march  south  appeared  before  Ticonderoga.  The  British  seized  a  position 
which  commands  the  fort  and  compelled  the  garrison,  3000  in  number,  to 
evacuate.  These  retired  into  the  Green  Mountains,  the  women  and  wounded 
to  Fort  Edward  (July  5,  1777). 

"  Tidal  Wave,"  the  term  applied  to  the  unprecedented  success  of  the 
Democratic  party  in  elections,  State  and  Congressional,  from  1872  to  1876. 
This  was  due  to  the  corruption  of  the  Republican  administration.  The 
tidal  wave  resulted  in  the  contested  election  of  1876-77. 

Tiffin,  Edward  (1766-1829),  came  to  America  from  England  in  1784. 
He  was  Governor  of  Ohio  from  1803  to  1807,  and  represented  Ohio  in  the 
U.  S.  Senate  as  a  Democrat  from  1807  to  1809. 

Tilden,  Samuel  Jones  (February  9,  i8i4~August  4,  1886),  an  American 
statesman,  was  educated  at  Yale  and  the  University  of  New  York.  He 
acquired  a  high  position  at  the  New  York  bar,  became  famous  as  a  counsel 
for  corporations,  and  amassed  wealth.  Though  interested  in  New  York 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  655 

politics  and  very  influential  in  the  counsels  of  the  Democratic  party, 
Mr.  Tilden  held  no  office  for  many  years,  except  in  1845  i*1  tne  Assem- 
bly, and  the  next  year  in  the  State  Constitutional  Convention.  By  about 
the  close  of  the  war  he  had  become  the  recognized  leader  of  the  New 
York  Democracy.  He  was  one  of  the  most  expert  party  managers  of  modern 
times.  In  strenuously  opposing  the  Tweed  ring  in  1871  and  the  following 
years,  as  well  as  in  antagonizing  other  abuses,  Tilden  acquired  such  prestige 
that  in  1874  as  candidate  for  Governor  he  was  elected  over  Dix  by  50,000 
majority.  He  served  from  1875  to  1877.  His  success  caused  his  nomination 
for  President  by  the  National  Convention  in  1876.  In  the  remarkable  elec- 
tion Tilden  had  a  substantial  popular  majority,  but  the  result  of  the  electoral 
vote  was  in  doubt.  (See  Electoral  Commission.)  The  extra-constitutional 
Electoral  Commission  admitted  184  votes  for  Tilden  and  185  for  Hayes. 
Governor  Tilden,  the  "  sage  of  Gramercy  Park,"  continued  to  be  regarded  as 
the  party  adviser,  the  "  great  defrauded."  He  wrote  letters  declining  in  ad- 
vance the  nomination  in  1880  and  1884.  By  the  provisions  of  his  will  a 
large  sum  was  left  for  a  free  public  library  in  New  York. 

Tilghman,  Matthew  (1718-1790),  was  a  member  of  the  Maryland  General 
Assembly  from  1751  to  1774.  He  was  a  delegate  to  the  Continental  Con- 
gress from  1774  to  1777.  He  was  president  of  the  Revolutionary  Conven- 
tion which  directed  the  State  Government  from  1774  to  1777.  To  him  was 
largely  due  the  drafting  and  organizing  of  the  government  of  Maryland. 

Timber  Culture.  March  3,  1873,  Congress  passed  the  Timber  Culture 
Act,  granting  to  settlers  160  acres  of  treeless  lands  for  the  encouragement  of 
tree  culture.  An  act  of  June  3,  1878,  authorized  the  sale  at  $2.50  per  acre 
of  forest  lands  on  the  Pacific  Coast,  and  at  the  same  time  prohibited  timber 
depredations  on  the  public  lands. 

Timrod,  Henry  (1829-1867),  of  South  Carolina,  became  popular  in  the 
South  for  his  war  lyrics  written  during  the  Civil  War.  He  was  a  poet  of 
genius  and  delicate  imagination. 

Tingey,  Thomas  (1750-1829),  came  to  America  from  England  and  served 
in  the  Continental  navy  during  the  Revolution.  He  commanded  the  Wash- 
ington Navy  Yard  from  1804  to  1829. 

Tippecanoe,  a  nickname  of  President  William  Henry  Harrison,  originating 
in  his  victory  over  the  Indians  on  the  Tippecanoe  River,  in  Indiana,  in  1811. 

Tithables,  in  Virginia,  all  persons  liable  to  poll-tax,  to  wit,  all  males  and 
all  female  slaves  of  more  than  sixteen  years. 

Tithingman,  a  sort  of  Sunday  constable,  who  preserved  order  in  meeting 
and  discharged  various  police  functions  of  a  similar  nature.  The  office  was 
peculiarly  a  New  England  institution,  though  rare  instances  of  tithingmen 
were  to  be  found  in  Maryland  and  elsewhere.  In  towns  where  there  were 
Indian  inhabitants,  it  was  the  duty  of  the  tithingman  to  preserve  order 
among  them. 

Tobacco,  introduced  to  the  knowledge  of  civilized  nations  on  the  discovery 
of  America,  where  it  was  found  in  use  by  the  Indians  on  the  islands  and  on 


f5$  DICTIONARY  or  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

the  mainland  as  far  north  as  Virginia.  It  was  cultivated  in  Portugal  and 
France  early  in  the  sixteenth  century.  Its  cultivation  was  begun  by  the 
earliest  settlers  in  Virginia  and  Maryland,  to  whom  it  was  frequently  the 
sole,  yet  lucrative,  source  of  income.  It  was  used  as  a  legal  tender  in  Mary- 
land in  1733,  during  a  period  of  depreciation  in  the  colonial  currency,  and 
was  widely  used  as  a  medium  of  barter  and  exchange  and  payment  of  debt. 
Virginia  led  in  the  production  of  tobacco  during  many  years,  her  annual 
production  frequently  reaching  20,000,000  pounds.  Kentucky  now  leads. 
Tobacco  is  at  present  widely  cultivated  in  the  Southern,  Middle,  Western 
and  even  the  New  England  States,  that  of  the  Connecticut  valley  being; 
deemed  especially  adapted  for  cigar  wrappings.  In  1889  there  was  a  total' 
production  of  565,795,000  pounds  in  the  United  States,  valued  at  $43,666,- 
665.  During  the  years  1865-1892  the  total  internal  revenue  receipts  from 
tobacco  amounted  to  $896,512,367. 

Tocqueville,  Alexis  Charles  Henri  Clerel  de  (1805-1859),  a  French  pub- 
licist and  politician,  visited  the  United  States  in  1831-1832  on  a  mission  to 
examine  the  penitentiary  system.  He  published  in  1835-40  "Democracy  in 
America,"  the  most  important  commentary  on  American  affairs  by  a  foreigner 
until  the  appearance  of  "  Bryce's  American  Commonwealth."  De  Tocque- 
ville was  afterward  member  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  and  of  the  French 
Academy,  and  in  1849  was  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs. 

Tod,  David  (1805-1868),  was  Minister  to  Brazil  from  1847  to  1852.  He 
was  a  champion  of  the  "  peace  policy  "  in  1861,  but  when  Governor  of  Ohio 
from  1862  to  1864  was  a  firm  supporter  of  the  Government. 

Todd,  Thomas  (1765-1826),  a  prominent  Kentucky  jurist,  was  an  Asso- 
ciate Justice  of  the  U.  S.  Supreme  Court  from  1807  to  1826. 

Tohopeka.     (See  Horse-shoe  Bend.) 

"Toledo  War,"  a  boundary  controversy  between  Ohio  and  Michigan, 
which  came  to  a  head  in  1835,  just  previous  to  Michigan's  application  for 
admission  to  the  Union.  The  controversy  was  over  that  territory  which 
contained  the  city  of  Toledo,  and  its  history  may  be  traced  back  to  the  ordi- 
nance of  1787  respecting  the  division  of  the  Northwest  Territory.  In 
1835  Ohio  proposed  to  assume  control  of  the  disputed  tract.  Michigan 
responded  by  making  such  action  highly  penal,  and  appealed  to  the  Federal 
Government.  An  armed  collision  seemed  imminent.  Finally  it  was  agreed 
that  Michigan  should  be  admitted  to  the  Union  and  awarded  certain  terri- 
tory in  the  north,  provided  she  would  give  up  her  clearly  rightful  claim  to 
the  Toledo  country. 

Tom  the  Tinker,  the  popular  watchword  of  the  rebels  of  western  Penn- 
sylvania during  the  Whisky  Rebellion  of  1794,  originating  in  the  destmction 
of  the  house  of  an  obnoxious  official  by  a  mob,  which  gave  out  that  it  was 
feeing  tinkered. 

Tompkins,  Daniel  D.  (1774-1825),  Vice-President  of  the  United  States, 
was  graduated  at  Columbia,  and  became  a  leading  lawyer  and  Democratic 
politician  in  the  State  of  New  York.  He  was  a  Judge  in  the  Supreme  Court 
pf  the  State,  and  its  Governor  from  1807  until  1817,  While  holding  this 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  657 

office  he  opposed  the  Bank  and  gave  an  efficient  support  to  the  War  of  1812. 
Governor  Tompkins  was  elected  Vice-President  in  1816  on  the  ticket  with 
Monroe,  and  re-elected  in  1820,  serving  from  1817  to  1825. 

Tonga.  The  United  States  concluded  a  treaty  of  amity,  commerce  and 
navigation  with  Tonga  in  1886. 

Tonty,  Chevalier  Henri  de  (1650  7-1704),  accompanied  La  Salle  to  Canada 
in  1678  and  explored  with  him  the  Mississippi.  Later  he  twice  descended 
to  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi  in  search  of  La  Salle. 

Toombs,  Robert  (1810-1885),  one  of  the  most  influential  Secessionists,  was 
graduated  at  Union  College  and  rose  to  distinction  as  a  lawyer  in  Georgia. 
He  served  in  the  Creek  War,  in  the  legislature,  and  as  a  State-Rights  Whig 
in  Congress  from  1845  to  1853.  While  in  Congress  he  favored  and  took  part 
in  the  compromise  measures  of  1850.  He  was  U.  S.  Senator  from  Georgia 
1853—1861.  Senator  Toombs  was  one  of  the  most  active  champions  of  the 
slave  power,  and  when  the  crisis  occurred  in  1860  he  was  second  to  none  in 
energy  as  a  disunionist.  He  aided  powerfully  in  forcing  his  State  to  secede. 
During  the  war  he  was  at  different  times  Congressman,  Secretary  of  State, 
and  a  brigadier-general.  Afterward  he  practised  law,  and  refused  persistently 
to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  Government.  In  his  last  years  he 
devoted  himself  to  a  contest  with  the  railroad  power. 

Topeka,  Kan.,  was  founded  in  1854,  received  a  city  charter  in  1857  and 
became  the  State  capital  in  1861. 

Topeka  Constitution.  On  October  23,  1855,  a  constitutional  convention, 
representing  the  anti-slavery  population  of  Kansas,  met  at  Topeka.  This 
convention  adopted  the  boundaries  set  by  the  Kansas-Nebraska  bill,  pro- 
hibited slavery  after  July,  1857,  and  conferred  the  right  of  suffrage  on  "  white 
male  citizens "  and  on  "  every  civilized  male  Indian  who  has  adopted  the 
habits  of  the  white  man."  This  free  State  convention  was  dispersed  by  Fed- 
eral troops.  The  bill  to  admit  Kansas  to  the  Union  under  the  provisions  of 
the  Topeka  constitution  passed  the  House,  but  failed  in  the  Senate. 

Torbert,  Alfred  T.  A.  (1833-1880),  led  a  Federal  brigade  at  Manassas, 
Crampton's  Gap  and  Gettysburg  in  1862.  In  1864  he  was  placed  in  com- 
mand of  a  division  of  cavalry  in  the  Army  of  the  Potomac.  He  fought  at 
Cold  Harbor,  Trevillian  Station,  Winchester  and  Cedar  Creek.  He  com- 
manded at  Tom's  River,  Liberty  Mills  and  Gordonsville.  He  was  Consul 
General  at  Paris  from  1873  to  1878. 

Tories.  (See  Loyalists.)  The  name  Tory  had  been  employed  in  Eng- 
land from  1679  to  designate  those  who  were  desirous  to  increase  the  power 
of  the  king.  The  term  had  become  odious  by  reason  of  the  Jacobite  con- 
spiracies, and  was  revived  in  America  as  a  term  of  reproach. 

Totten,  Joseph  G.  (1788-1864),  was  chief  engineer  of  the  army  on  the 
Canadian  frontier  during  the  war  of  1812.  During  the  Civil  War  he  had 
charge  of  the  engineering  bureau  at  Washington. 

Toucey,  Isaac  (1796-1869),  represented  Connecticut  in  the  U.  S.  Congress 
as  a  Democrat  from  1835  to  1839.  He  was  chosen  Governor  of  Connecticut 


•5&  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

by  the  Legislature  in  1846.  He  was  Attorney-General  in  Folk's  Cabinet 
from  1848  to  1849,  and  a  U.  S.  Senator  from  1852  to  1857.  He  was  Secre- 
tary of  the  Navy  in  Buchanan's  Cabinet  from  1857  to  1861,  and  was  charged 
with  favoring  the  seceding  States  by  dispersing  the  navy. 

Tourgee,  Albion  W.,  born  in  1838,  served  in  the  national  army  during 
the  Civil  War.  He  prepared  a  report  on  the  condition  of  the  Southern 
States  for  the  Loyalists'  Convention  in  1866.  He  published  "  The  North 
Carolina  Code,"  and  "  A  Fool's  Errand,"  and  other  books  on  the  Reconstruc- 
tion period.  Appointed  Consul  to  Bordeaux  May,  1897. 

Toussaint  Lou  venture,  leader  of  the  revolted  negroes  of  Hayti  and  Presi- 
dent of  the  Haytian  Republic,  is  connected  with  the  history  of  the  United 
States  through  Bonaparte's  San  Domingo  expedition.  The  First  Consul 
intended,  after  conquering  the  island,  to  make  it  the  basis  of  an  expedition 
which  should  create  in  Louisiana  a  French  colonial  empire.  Toussaint's 
resistance  and  the  destruction  of  French  troops  by  yellow  fever  balked  this 
plan,  and  Napoleon  sold  Louisiana  to  the  United  States. 

Towle,  George  M.  (1841-1893),  was  U.  S.  Consul  at  Nantes,  France, 
from  1866  to  1868,  and  at  Bradford,  England,  from  1868  to  1870.  He  wrote 
"  Glimpses  of  History,"  "Heroes  of  History,"  and  other  popular  historical 
books. 

Town.  In  New  England  the  word  town  has  constantly  been  used  in  the 
sense  of  township,  meaning  the  primary  subdivision  of  the  countv,  a  large 
area,  rural  or  urban.  In  the  Middle  colonies  and  the  South  it  meant,  as  in 
England,  an  incorporated  municipality  of  greater  or  less  size.  Thus  in 
Massachusetts  nearly  all  the  territory  of  the  colony  was  occupied  with  towns, 
while  in  the  South  there  were  a  few  towns  here  and  there.  As  to  the  origin 
of  the  New  England  town  various  theories  have  been  held.  To  some  it  has 
seemed  an  original  creation  of  the  early  settlers,  to  others  an  imitation  of  the 
English  parish. 

Town-Meeting,  the  meeting  of  all  freemen  of  a  town  in  primary  assembly 
for  the  discussion  of  local  affairs  and  the  election  of  local  officers.  This  has 
been  one  of  the  most  characteristic  of  New  England  institutions,  and  one 
of  the  most  valuable,  because  of  the  education  it  has  afforded  in  politics. 
Jefferson  on  this  account  wished  that  something  similar  might  be  introduced 
into  Virginia.  In  the  type  of  local  government  which  has  been  instituted  in 
the  northernmost  row  of  Western  States,  the  township  usually  has  a  town- 
meeting.  In  the  row  of  States  west  of  the  Middle  States,  this  is  not 
usual. 

Townsend,  Edward  D.,  born  in  1817,  was  the  principal  executive  officer 
of  the  War  Department,  under  Secretary  Stanton,  during  the  Civil  War. 
He  wrote  "Anecdotes  of  the  Civil  War  in  the  United  States."  Died  1893. 

Townsend,  George  A.,  born  in  1841,  reported  the  Peninsular  campaign 
for  the  New  York  Herald  in  1862.  He  was  war  correspondent  for  the  World 
in  1864  and  1865.  He  wrote  "The  Real  Life  of  Abraham  Lincoln"  and 
various  tales  of  Maryland  life. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  659 

Townshend,  Charles  (1725-1767),  English  statesman,  was  made  Com- 
missioner of  Trade  and  Plantations  in  1749,  and  made  a  careful  study  of  the 
American  colonies.  In  1763  he  was  made  First  Lord  of  Trade  and  Planta- 
tions. He  ardently  supported  Grenville's  Stamp  Act  in  1765  and  was  in 
favor  of  imposing  upon  the  colonies  heavy  burdens.  He  advocated  the 
annulling  of  the  colonial  charters  and  the  establishment  of  a  uniform  system 
of  Government.  In  1766  he  became  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer.  He 
secured  the  passage  of  an  act  in  1767  which  levied  burdensome  duties  on 
such  articles  as  tea,  paper  and  gLiss.  He  was  a  man  of  ready  wit  and  bril- 
liant oratory,  but  unwise. 

Townshend  Acts,  two  acts  proposed  in  Parliament,  April  16,  1767,  at  the 
instance  of  Charles  Townshend,  then  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer.  They 
were  to  go  into  effect  November  20.  They  provided  for  the  appointment  of 
commissioners  to  enforce  more  effectually  the  laws  of  trade  with  the  colonies; 
granted  duties  on  glass,  paper,  colors  and  tea,  and  legalized  writs  of  assist- 
ance. The  revenue  was  to  defray  the  charge  of  the  administration  of  justice 
and  support  the  civil  government  in  the  provinces.  The  people  of  Massa- 
chusetts opposed  them  by  renewing  their  non-importation  agreements. 

Tracy,  Benjamin  F.,  lawyer,  born  in  1830,  was  elected  a  district  attorney 
in  New  York  in  1854  and  1856.  He  led  a  regiment  at  the  battles  of  the 
Wilderness  and  Spottsylvania,  and  had  charge  of  the  prison  camp  at 
Elmira.  He  was  a  U.  S.  District  Attorney  from  1866  to  1873,  and  was 
Secretary  of  the  Navy  in  Harrison's  Cabinet  from  1889  to  1893. 

Trade  Dollar,  a  silver  coin  issued  in  1873-1874  for  use  in  China,  in  com- 
petition with  Spanish  and  Mexican  dollars.  It  was  not  intended  for  circula- 
tion in  the  United  States,  though  it  was  made  a  legal  tender  to  the  amount 
of  five  dollars  at  the  time  of  its  issue;  this  provision  was  repealed  in  1876. 
Its  actual  value  was  less  than  that  of  the  standard  dollar. 

Trades'  Unions.  These  associations  of  workingmen,  for  concerted  action 
upon  questions  of  wages,  hours  of  labor  and  for  mutual  relief,  were  begun 
in  this  country  in  1852  by  the  formation  of  the  International  Typographical 
Union,  followed  in  1859  ^Y  the  Machinists'  and  Blacksmiths'  International 
Union,  and  the  Iron  Moulders'  Union  of  North  America.  The  Brotherhood 
of  Locomotive  Engineers  was  organized  in  1863,  the  Journeymen  Tailors' 
National  Trades  Union  in  1865,  the  Coopers'  International  Union  in  1870, 
the  Cigarmakers'  International  Union  about  the  same  time,  the  Miners' 
National  Union  in  1873.  There  are  beside  numerous  other  lesser  and  local 
associations. 

Transcendentalism.  This  movement  derived  its  name  from  the  German 
philosophy  of  Schelling,  and  signified  the  philosophy  of  those  who  deemed 
the  objective  realities  of  the  world  to  be  best  studied  by  interrogating  the 
subjective  consciousness.  The  school  of  the  transcendentalists  prevailed  in 
New  England,  especially  at  Concord,  Mass.,  in  and  after  1830.  Emerson 
was  its  leader,  but  many  of  his  followers  were  unpractical  and  visionary 
men,  whose  philosophy  was  of  little  value  to  the  actual  world.  The  move- 
ment exercised  great  influence  on  Unitarian  religion,  on  various  reforms  and 
especially  on  the  anti-slavery  cause. 


6«o  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Transylvania  Company,  a  colonization  company,  organized  in  North  Caro- 
lina in  1775.  Its  grants  were  obtained  directly  from  the  crown,  no  colonial 
government  being  permitted  to  issue  land  warrants. 

Travis,  William  B.  (1811-1836),  while  fighting  for  the  independence  of 
Texas  was  besieged  at  Fort  Alamo  by  the  Mexicans  in  1836.  After  des- 
perate fighting,  when  only  six  men  were  left,  they  surrendered  on  promise 
of  protection,  but  were  slaughtered  by  command  of  Santa  Anna. 

Treason  against  the  United  States  is  defined  in  the  Constitution  as  consist- 
ing "  only  in  levying  war  against  them,  or  in  adhering  to  their  enemies,  giving 
them  aid  and  comfort."  A  motion  to  give  Congress  the  sole  power  of  defin- 
ing the  punishment  of  treason  was  lost  in  the  convention  of  1787.  Most  of 
the  States  have  inserted  in  their  constitutions  a  provision  regarding  treason 
similar  to  that  of  the  National  Constitution.  There  has  been  practically  no 
instance  of  an  indictment  for  treason  against  a  State  except  that  of  Dorr  in 
Rhode  Island.  At  the  end  of  the  Civil  War  there  were  no  prosecutions  for 
treason,  because  the  idea  of  State  allegiance  had  in  many  States  so  long 
predominated  over  that  of  national  allegiance.  April  30,  1790,  an  act  was 
passed  making  treason  punishable  by  death.  Burr's  case  was  the  principal 
one  under  this  act.  July  17,  1862,  an  act  of  Congress  provided  that  treason 
should  also  be  punishable  by  the  liberation  of  the  guilty  person's  slaves. 

Treasury  Board,  established  by  the  Continental  Congress  February  17, 
1776,  to  consist  of  a  standing  committee  of  five  Congressmen  who  should 
have  control  over  minor  officials  and  act  as  a  Ways  and  Means  Committee. 
The  Committee  of  Claims  and  the  Treasury  Office  of  Accounts  were  the 
principal  bureaus  under  the  Board's  supervision.  September  26,  1778,  an 
Act  of  Congress  provided  for  securing  a  house  for  the  various  offices  of  the 
department,  thus  forming  the  germ  of  the  present  treasury  system.  Provision 
was  also  made  for  the  annual  appointment  of  a  comptroller,  auditor  and 
treasurer,  thus  doing  away  with  the  Treasury  Office  of  Accounts.  The 
Treasury  Board  ceased  to  exist  in  September,  1781,  when  a  Superintendent 
of  Finance  was  instituted.  After  Robert  Morris  resigned  this  office,  from 
1785  to  1789  the  Treasury  was  again  under  a  board  of  commissioners. 

Treasury  Department.  Under  the  Continental  Congress  financial  matters 
were  at  first  managed  by  a  committee.  The  Treasury  Office  of  Accounts 
was  created  in  1776.  In  1778  the  department  was  given  an  organization 
much  like  that  of  the  present  time.  In  1781  the  office  of  Superintendent 
of  Finance  was  created,  and  the  department  put  under  a  single  head.  In 
1785  the  Board  was  restored.  The  First  Congress,  by  Act  of  September  2, 
1789,  established  the  present  Treasury  Department. 

Treasury  Notes.  Treasury  notes,  receivable  for  all  dues  to  the  Govern- 
ment, but  not  made  a  legal  tender,  were  first  issued  to  meet  the  expenses  of 
the  War  of  1812.  In  1812  issues  of  five  millions  were  authorized,  in  1813 
of  five  millions  more,  in  1814  of  eighteen  millions,  in  1815  of  eight  millions 
more.  The  rate  of  interest  was  5  2-5  per  cent.  The  financial  panic  of  1837 
caused  further  issues  of  sixteen  millions  in  1837  and  1838,  $4,000,000  in 
$6,000,000  in  1840,  $8,000,000  in  1841,  $11,000,000  in  1842,  and 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  661 

$2,000,000  in  1844.  The  Mexican  War  caused  issues  of  $26,000,000,  under 
Act  of  1846.  The  panic  of  1857  was  met  by  issues  to  the  amount  of  $53,- 
000,000.  These  notes  usually  had  but  a  short  time  to  run.  The  Civil  War 
required  the  issue  of  enormous  quantities  of  treasury  notes.  Those  which 
bore  a  legal  tender  character  are  treated  of  under  Greenbacks.  The  Govern- 
ment also  met  temporary  exigencies  by  the  issue  of  demand  notes  and  frac- 
tional and  postal  currency.  The  chief  variety  of  notes  resembling  the 
treasury  notes  hitherto  issued,  receivable  for  dues  to  Government,  but  not 
legal  tenders,  was  the  7-3o's,  of  which  $830,000,000  were  issued.  These 
were  nearly  all  paid  by  the  end  of  1869.  The  Sherman  Act  of  1890  pro- 
vided for  the  issue  of  treasury  notes  wherewith  to  make  the  monthly  pur- 
chases of  silver  bullion  required  by  that  Act 

Treasury  Office  of  Accounts,  an  office  created  in  April,  1776,  by  the  Con- 
tinental Congress.  It  was  under  the  supervision  of  the  standing  committee 
of  the  treasury,  and  was  under  the  immediate  direction  of  an  auditor-general, 
assisted  by  clerks,  whose  business  it  was  to  audit  accounts  and  report  to  Con- 
gress through  the  Treasury  Board. 

Treat,  Robert  (1622-1701),  came  to  Connecticut  from  England  early  in 
the  seventeenth  century.  He  was  a  deputy  from  1653  to  1659,  anc*  an  assist- 
ant from  1659  to  1664.  He  opposed  the  union  of  New  Haven  and  Connec- 
ticut. He  commanded  the  Connecticut  forces  in  King  Philip's  War.  H* 
was  Deputy-Governor  of  Connecticut  from  1676  to  1683,  and  Governor  from 
1683  to  1698,  except  two  years  under  Sir  Edmund  Andros  from  1687  to 
1689.  He  was  again  Deputy-Governor  from  1698  to  1708. 

Treaties.  The  first  treaty  negotiated  by  the  United  States  was  the  treaty 
of  alliance  with  France,  February,  1778.  Other  treaties  negotiated  under 
the  Continental  Congress  were  with  the  Netherlands  (1782),  with  Great  Brit- 
ain, treaty  of  peace,  (1783),  with  Sweden  (1783),  with'  Prussia  (1785),  and 
with  Morocco  (1787).  The  Constitution  of  1787  gave  the  President  the 
power  of  making  treaties,  w:O  the  consent  of  two-thirds  of  the  Senate.  In 
1795,  in  the  matter  of  the  Jay  Treaty,  the  House  attempted  to  claim  for 
itself  a  control  over  the  treaty-making  power,  through  the  power  of  making 
appropriations.  An  account  of  individual  treaties  may  be  found  under  the 
name  by  which  each  is  familiarly  known,  or  the  country  with  which  it  was 
concluded. 

Trenchard,  Stephen  D.  (1818-1883),  commanded  the  "Rhode  Island" 
during  the  Civil  War  and  was  active  in  both  attacks  on  Fort  Fisher.  He 
was  promoted  rear-admiral  and  commanded  the  North  Atlantic  Squadron 
from  1876  to  1878. 

Trent  Affair.  In  1861  the  Confederate  Government  sent  John  Slidell  and 
J.  M.  Mason  as  commissioners  to  France  and  Great  Britain  respectively. 
They  ran  the  blockade  to  Havana  and  embarked  thence  in  the  British  mer- 
chant ship  "Trent."  November  8  the  "Trent "was  stopped  in  the  old 
Bahama  channel  by  Captain  Wilkes  of  the  United  States  ship  "  San  Jacinto." 
Mason  and  Slidell  were  seized  and  taken  to  Boston  as  prisoners.  Wilkes' 
action  was  generally  approved  in  the  North;  yet  it  involved  a  breach  of 


662  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATE,     :ISTORY. 

international  law,  and  Mason  and  SHdell  were  sunendered  to  Great  Britain 
because  its  neutral  rights  had  been  transgressed,  and  to  prevent  the  war  which 
that  country  threatened. 

Trenton,  N.  J.,  was  first  settled  in  1680  and  received  its  name  in  1720  in 
honor  of  Colonel  William  Trent.  It  was  chosen  as  the  capital  of  the  State 
in  1790  and  became  a  city  two  years  later. 

Trenton,  Battle  of,  December  26,  1776.  After  retreating  across  the 
Delaware,  Washington  received  reinforcements  and  determined  to  strike  a 
blow  upon  the  British  centre  at  Trenton.  Neither  his  right  wing  nor  centre 
was  able  to  cross  the  river.  However,  with  only  2500  men  he  crossed  the 
stream  filled  with  floating  ice,  marched  nine  miles  in  a  blinding  snowstorm 
and  took  Trenton  by  surprise.  The  commander,  Rail,  and  seventeen  of  his 
men  were  slain.  One  thousand  Hessians  were  taken  prisoners.  Only  four 
Americans  perished,  two  killed  in  action,  and  two  frozen  to  death. 

Trescot,  William  H.,  born  in  1822,  was  Secretary  of  Legation  to  Eng- 
land from  1852  to  1853.  He  was  assistant  U.  S.  Secretary  of  State  from 
1857  to  1860.  He  served  in  the  South  Carolina  Legislature  from  1862  to 
1868.  He  was  U.  S.  counsel  before  the  Fisheries  Commission  at  Halifax  in 
1877.  He  was  a  Plenipotentiary  to  revise  the  treaties  with  China  in  1880, 
and  Special  Envoy  to  the  South  American  belligerents  in  1881.  He  has 
written  several  books  on  diplomatic  history.  Died  1898. 

Trevett  vs.  Weeden,  among  the  earliest  instances  of  a  court's  assum- 
ing authority  to  pronounce  upon  the  constitutionality  of  an  act  of  the 
legislature.  By  an  Act  of  the  Rhode  Island  Legislature  of  1786,  paper 
money  issued  by  the  State  was  made  a  legal  tender.  Weeden  refused  to 
receive  this  currency  in  payment  of  a  debt.  The  Superior  Court  of  the 
State  summarily  dismissed  the  case  as  not  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  court. 
Though  the  record  is  imperfect,  it  is  deemed  virtually  certain  that  the  court 
pronounced  the  act  of  the  legislature  unconstitutional  and  void. 

Trevillian  Station,  Va.  Here  during  Grant's  campaign  against  Rich- 
mond, Sheridan,  while  raiding  along  the  Virginia  Central  Railroad,  met  and 
defeated  a  strong  force  of  Confederate  cavalry  under  Wade  Hampton.  Sheri- 
dan captured  500  prisoners,  June  n  and  12,  1864. 

Triangle,  a  reach  of  land  toward  Lake  Erie  purchased  by  Pennsylvania 
from  the  Government,  September  4,  1788.  It  formerly  was  part  of  New  York. 

Trianon  Decree,  a  secret  decree  issued  at  the  palace  of  the  Trianon, 
France,  August  5,  1810,  by  Napoleon,  ordering  the  immediate  confiscation 
of  all  American  vessels  and  merchandise  brought  in  previous  to  May  I,  1810, 
and  ordering  that,  until  November  i,  American  vessels  were  to  be  allowed  to 
enter  French  ports,  but  not  to  unload  without  his  permission.  At  the  same 
time  he  offered  to  revoke  the  Milan  and  Berlin  decrees,  November  I.  This 
was  a  ruse  to  entrap  American  vessels,  and  it  succeeded  admirably. 

^  Trimble,  Isaac  R.  (1802-1888),  commanded  a  Confederate  brigade  at 
Games'  Mills  and  Slaughter  Mountain,  and  captured  Manassas  Junction  in 
1862.  He  led  a  division  at  Chancellorsville  and  Gettysburg. 


DICTION,}    ^  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  663 

Trimble,  Robert  (1777^1828),  was  appointed  Chief  Justice  of  Kentucky 
in  1 8 10.  He  became  U.  S.  District  Attorney  in  1813,  and  was  District  Judge 
of  Kentucky  from  1816  to  1826.  He  was  a  Justice  of  the  U.  S.  Supreme 
Court  from  1826  to  1828. 

Trinity  College,  Hartford,  Conn.,  founded  by  Episcopalians,  was  chartered 
in  1823.  Till  1845  its  name  was  Washington  College.  Besides  the  usual 
college  course  it  had  a  theological  department  till  1851,  when  this  was 
merged  into  the  Berkeley  School  at  Middletown. 

Tripoli.  After  several  ineffectual  attempts  to  come  to  an  understanding 
with  Tripoli  the  United  States  concluded  a  treaty  of  peace  and  friendship 
November  4,  1796.  A  threat  by  the  Bashaw  of  further  depredations  led  to 
a  chastisement  of  Tripoli  by  the  U.  S.  navy,  which  resulted  in  a  peace 
without  purchase  and  favorable  commercial  privileges  by  the  treaty  of  June 
4,  1805.  (See  next  article.) 

Tripolitan  War.  During  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century  the 
United  States  had  followed  the  method  employed  by  many  European  nations 
of  protecting  our  commerce  from  the  depredations  of  the  Barbary  States  by 
the  annual  payment  of  tribute  money.  In  1801  the  demands  of  the  Bashaw 
of  Tripoli  being  unusually  exorbitant,  President  Jefferson  determined  to 
abolish  this  practice.  Commodore  Dale  was  despatched  with  a  squadron  to 
make  demonstrations  along  the  coast  of  Tripoli.  He  captured  a  large  cruiser 
and  for  a  time  overawed  the  Bashaw.  In  1803  Preble  was  sent  to  take 
command,  Congress  having  recognized  war  with  Tripoli.  Several  captures 
were  made.  Captain  Bainbridge,  of  the  "  Philadelphia,"  however,  ran  his 
vessel  on  a  rock,  and  she  was  taken  by  the  Tripolitans  with  all  on  board. 
Decatur  in  the  "  Intrepid  "  ran  up  the  harbor  of  Tripoli  at  night  and  burned 
the  "Philadelphia"  under  the  fire  of  the  batteries  on  the  shore.  Tripoli 
was  invested  and  bombarded  during  the  summer.  Finally  June  4,  1805,  a 
treaty  of  peace  and  friendship  was  concluded  with  the  Bashaw,  the  United 
States  agreeing  to  pay  $60,000  for  the  ransom  of  the  officers  and  crew  of  the 
"  Philadelphia."  (See  Derne  Expedition.) 

Trollope,  Frances  M.  (1780-1863),  visited  America  from  England  from 
1829  to  1831.  She  published  "  Domestic  Manners  of  the  Americans,"  "  The 
Refugee  in  America,"  and  "  Adventures  of  Jonathan  Jefferson  Whitlaw," 
which  depicted  rude  and  ludicrous  phases  of  American  life  in  a  manner 
much  disliked  at  the  time. 

Trumbull,  Benjamin  (1735-1820),  was  pastor  at  New  Haven  from  1760 
to  1820.  He  wrote  a  "General  History  of  the  United  States,"  and  an  excel- 
lent ''History  of  Connecticut  from  1630  to  1713." 

Trumbull,  James  Hammond,  born  in  1821,  was  Secretary  of  State  for 
Connecticut  from  1861  to  1865.  He  is  one  of  the  leading  American  philolo- 
gists in  respect  to  Indian  languages.  He  has  published  the  earlier  volumes 
of  the  "  Colonial  Records  of  Connecticut "  and  "  The  Blue  Laws  of  Connec- 
ticut." 

Trumbull,  John  (1750-1831),  passed  the  entrance  examination  at  Yale 
College  in  1757.  He  published  in  1772  "The  Progress  of  Dullness,"  a 


664  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

satire  on  the  prevailing  mode  of  education.  In  1773  appeared  his  "Elegy 
on  the  Times,"  a  poem  on  the  Boston  Port  Bill  and  other  colonial  topics. 
In  1774  he  published  the  first  two  cantos  of  "  McFingal,"  in  which  he 
described  the  American  character  and  customs  and  satirized  their  extrava- 
gances. The  popularity  of  this  poem  was  enormous.  With  Humphreys, 
Barlow  and  Hopkins  he  wrote  "  Anarchiad."  He  was  Judge  of  the  Connect!- 
cut  Supreme  Court  from  1801  to  1819. 

Trumbull,  John  (1756-1843),  is  noted  for  his  historical  paintings,  such  as 
"The  Declaration  of  Independence,"  "The  Battle  of  Bunker  Hill,"  and 
"  Death  of  Montgomery."  He  painted  portraits  of  Washington  and  Jef- 
ferson. 

Trumbull,  Jonathan  (1710-1785),  was  Chief  Justice  of  the  Connecticut 
Supreme  Court  from  1766  to  1769,  and  Governor  of  Connecticut  from  1769 
to  1783.  He  was  the  only  one  of  the  colonial  Governors  who  espoused  the 
people's  cause.  He  aided  the  colonists  with  all  his  power,  and  was  one  of 
the  principal  advisers  of  Washington.  (See  "Jonathan,  Brother.") 

Trumbull,  Jonathan  (1740-1809),  represented  Connecticut  in  the  U.S. 
Congress  as  a  Federalist  from  1789  to  1795,  and  in  the  U.  S.  Senate  from 
1795  to  1796.  He  was  Governor  of  Connecticut  from  1798  to  1809. 

Trumbull,  Lyman,  born  in  1813,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1837.  He 
was  Secretary  of  State  for  Illinois  from  1841  to  1842,  and  a  Justice  of  the 
Illinois  Supreme  Court  from  1848  to  1853.  He  represented  Illinois  in  the 
U.  S.  Senate  as  a  Democrat  from  1855  to  1861  and  as  a  Republican  from 
1861  to  1873.  Died  1896. 

Truxtun,  Thomas  (1755-1822),  was  made  lieutenant  of  the  privateer 
"  Congress  "  in  1776.  In  1777  he  commanded  the  "  Independence  "  and  cap- 
tured three  large  ships.  In  1781  he  commanded  the  "St.  James,"  with 
which  he  disabled  a  superior  British  vessel.  In  1798  he  was  placed  in  com- 
mand of  the  "  Constellation,"  and  commanded  a  squadron  to  protect  Ameri- 
can commerce  in  the  West  Indies.  In  1799  he  captured  the  French  frigate 
"  L'Insurgente  "  after  a  severe  engagement,  and  in  1800  he  gained  a  victory 
over  the  French  frigate  "  La  Vengeance'." 

Tryon,  William  (1725-1788),  born  in  Ireland,  was  appointed  Lieutenant- 
Governor  of  North  Carolina  in  1764.  He  was  Governor  from  1765  to  1771. 
He  suppressed  the  revolt  of  the  "Regulators"  with  great  cruelty.  He 
became  Governor  of  New  York  in  1771,  and  continued  in  office  until  1778. 
He  was  detested  by  the  patriots  for  his  inhumanity  and  the  destruction  of 
Danbury,  Fairfield  and  Norwalk,  Conn. 

Tucker,  George  (1775-1861),  came  to  Virginia  from  Bermuda  about  1787. 
He  represented  Virginia  in  the  U.  S.  Congress  as  a  Democrat  from  1819  to 
1825.  He  wrote  an  excellent  "Political  History  of  the  United  States," 
extending  from  1789  to  1841. 

Tucker,  John  Randolph,  born  in  1823,  was  Attorney-General  of  Virginia 
from  1857  to  1865.  He  represented  Virginia  in  the  U.  S.  Congress  as  a 
Democrat  from  1875  to  1887.  He  was  an  able  orator.  Died  1897. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  665 

Tucker,  Josiah  (1711-1799),  dean  of  Gloucester  from  1758  to  1799,  wrote 
numerous  able  works  in  politics  and  economics  concerning  the  American 
Revolution.  He  strongly  urged  the  recognition  of  the  independence  of  the 
American  colonies. 

Tucker,  St.  George  (1752-1828),  jurist,  came  to  Virginia  from  Bermuda 
in  1771.  He  was  a  lieutenant-colonel  at  Yorktown,  a  member  of  the 
Annapolis  Convention  in  1786,  and  a  U.  S.  District  Judge  from  1813  to 
1827.  His  edition  of  Blackstone  contained  important  disquisitions  on  the 
Constitution  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  State-rights  school. 

Tucker,  Samuel  (1747-1833),  of  Massachusetts,  while  commander  of 
the  "  Franklin "  and  the  "Hancock"  in  1776,  captured  more  than  thirty 
vessels.  From  1777  to  1780  he  commanded  the  "  Boston,"  and  captured 
many  prizes,  including  the  sloop-of-war  "Thorn."  He  commanded  the 
"Thorn"  from  1780  to  1781,  when  he  was  captured  by  the  British  frigate 
"  Hind."  He  was  a  member  of  the  Massachusetts  Legislature  from  1814 
to  1818. 

Tullahoma. .   (See  Murfreesboro.) 

Tunis.  Tunis,  like  the  rest  of  the  Barbary  powers,  was  early  a  source 
of  annoyance  to  the  American  commerce  of  the  Mediterranean.  A  treaty 
was  purchased  in  1797  by  the  payment  of  $107,000.  This  treaty  was  altered 
by  the  convention  of  February  24,  1824. 

Tunnel  Hill,  Ga.,  scene  of  sharp  skirmishing,  February  23  'and  25,  1864, 
between  Federal  and  Confederate  troops  of  Grant's  and  J.  E.  Johnston's 
armies,  and  commanded  respectively  by  Palmer,  and  Stewart  and  Anderson. 
The  Confederates  were  on  their  way  to  reinforce  Folk's  army  in  Mississippi, 
and  Grant  sent  Palmer  to  intercept  them.  There  was  no  decisive  victory  for 
either  side,  for  Palmer,  hearing  of  Johnston's  advance,  fell  back. 

Turgot,  Anne  Robert  J.  (1727-1781),  the  famous  French  statesman,  was 
influential  in  obtaining  the  French  treaty  of  alliance  with  the  United  States 
in  1778.  He  wrote  "Reflexions  sur  la  situation  des  Ame*ricains  des  Etats- 
Unis." 

Turkey.     (See  Ottoman  Porte.) 

Turnbull,  Robert  J.  (1775-1833),  of  South  Carolina,  was  a  leader  of  the 
nullification  party  and  published  "  The  Crisis "  and  "  The  Tribunal  of 
Dernier  Ressort  "  in  its  interests. 

Turner,  Nat  (1800?— 1831),  a  negro  slave,  was  the  instigator  of  the  South- 
ampton insurrection  in  Virginia  in  1831.  He  believed  himself  chosen  by 
the  Lord  to  free  his  people.  At  an  appointed  time  he  set  out  with  his  fol- 
lowers from  house  to  house  to  kill  all  white  persons.  Fifty-five  were  killed 
before  the  insurgents  were  dispersed.  After  hiding  for  a  time  Turner  was 
captured  and  hanged. 

Turner,  Thomas  (1808—1883),  served  in  the  navy  during  the  Mexican 
War.  He  captured  two  Spanish  ships  purchased  for  the  secessionist  party 
in  1860  at  Vera  Cruz.  He  commanded  the  "  New  Ironsides  "  with  ability 
at  Charleston  in  1863. 


$66  DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Tuscaroras,  originally  one  of  the  Six  Nations  of  Iroquois,  migrated 
toward  North  Carolina.  In  1711  they  attempted  to  massacre  the  whites, 
but  were  defeated  in  the  battle  of  the  Neuse  January  28,  1712.  Hostilities 
were  resumed,  but  they  were  overthrown  in  1713  and  800  taken  prisoners. 
The  tribe  then  fled  to  New  York,  except  a  small  part,  who  had  remained 
friendly.  These  subsequently  removed.  The  Tuscaroras  early  favored  the 
English,  but  joined  with  the  colonists  during  the  Revolution. 

Tuttle,  Herbert  H.,  born  in  1846,  was  engaged  in  journalism  till  1880. 
In  1881  he  became  professor  of  history,  politics  and  international  law  at 
Cornell,  and  has  published  an  important  history  of  Prussia,  Died  1894. 

Tweed,  William  M.  (1823-1878),  represented  New  York  in  the  U.  S. 
Congress  as  a  Democrat  from  1853  to  I^55-  When  appointed  street  com- 
missioner in  1863,  he  began  the  organization  of  the  Tweed  Ring  (q.  v.)  His 
position  as  State  Senator  from  1867  to  1871,  grand  sachem  of  the  Tammany 
society  from  1869  to  1871,  and  commissioner  of  public  works  from  1863  to 
1871,  gave  him  immense  political  influence,  and  every  officer  in  the  State 
became  under  his  sway.  He  was  indicted  in  1871  and  sentenced  in  1873  to 
twelve  years'  imprisonment  for  peculation. 

Tweed  Ring,  a  political  ring,  famous  for  its  unscrupulous  dishonesty, 
which  governed  New  York,  State  and  city,  from  1860  to  1871.  The  ring 
was  composed  of  William  M.  Tweed,  A.  Oakey  Hall,  Peter  B.  Sweeney  and 
Richard  B.  Connolly.  These  men,  through  bribery  and  influence  among 
the  lower  classes,  particularly  the  foreign  element,  having  first  gained  con- 
trol of  Tammany  Hall,  so  manipulated  the  mayoralty  election  of  1865  as  to 
secure  the  city  government.  In  1866,  Hall  was  elected  mayor;  Sweeney  was 
made  city  and  county  treasurer;  Tweed,  superintendent  of  the  street  depart- 
ment; and  Connolly,  city  comptroller.  They  carried  into  effect  a  new  city 
charter  which  gave  them  absolute  control  of  fiscal  appropriations.  When 
the  Ring  was  finally  overthrown  in  1871,  through  publications  of  its  frauds 
on  the  taxpayers,  and  the  untiring  efforts  of  Samuel  J.  Tilden,  a  prominent 
Democrat,  it  was  discovered  that  the  city  debt  had  increased  from  $20,000,- 
ooo  to  $101,000,000.  Tweed  died  in  prison;  Sweeney  and  Connolly  went 
into  exile,  and  Hall  also  left  the  country. 

Twenty-Cent  Piece,  a  silver  coin  authorized  in  1875,  aud  issued  chiefly 
for  use  in  the  Pacific  States.  Its  coinage  was  discontinued  in  1878.  It  was 
a  legal  tender  to  the  amount  of  five  dollars. 

Twiggs,  David  E.  (1790-1862),  served  during  the  War  of  1812.  He 
commanded  the  right  wing  at  Palo  Alto  and  Resaca  de  la  Palma.  He 
fought  at  Monterey,  and  led  a  brigade  at  Vera  Cruz  and  a  division  at  the 
capture  of  Mexico.  He  was  in  command  of  the  Department  of  Texas  in 
1861  and  surrendered  his  army  and  military  stores  to  the  Confederate  Gen- 
eral McCulloch.  He  was  dishonorably  dismissed  from  the  U.  S.  army. 

Two-Cent  Piece  was  first  issued  in  1864.  Weight  in  grains  96.  Its  issue 
was  discontinued  in  1873.  Upon  the  issue  of  1864  first  appeared  the  motto 
"  In  God  We  Trust."  It  was  legal  tender  to  the  value  of  twenty-five  cents. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  667 

Two-Penny  Act,  an  act  passed  by  the  Virginia  Assembly  in  1755,  to 
endure  ten  months,  permitting  that  all  debts  now  payable  in  tobacco  should, 
at  the  debtor's  option,  be  payable  in  money,  at  the  rate  of  sixteen  shillings 
and  eight  pence  for  every  hundred-weight  of  tobacco.  This  equals  two-pence 
a  pound;  hence  the  name.  (See  Parsons'  Cause.) 

Two  Sicilies.  A  claims  convention  was  concluded  in  1832,  which  pro- 
vided for  the  payment  of  2,115,000  Neapolitan  ducats  to  the  United  States 
for  Napoleonic  (Muratist)  commercial  depredations.  A  commercial  treaty 
was  concluded  in  1845,  and  a  commercial  and  extradition  treaty  in  1855. 

Tyler,  John  (March  29,  iy9O-January  17,  1862),  tenth  President  of  the 
United  States,  was  a  native  of  Virginia,  and  was  graduated  at  William  and 
Mary  College  in  1806.  He  early  became  a  lawyer  and  member  of  the  Legis- 
lature. From  1816  to  1821  he  was  Congressman,  and  from  1825  to  1827 
Governor  of  Virginia.  He  represented  his  State  and  the  Democratic  party  in 
the  U.  S.  Senate  1827-1836.  He  opposed  the  Democrats  in  various  points, 
and  received  some  Whig  electoral  votes  for  President  in  1836.  He  served  as 
a  Whig  member  of  the  Legislature,  and  received  the  second  place  on  the 
ticket  with  Harrison.  They  were  elected  in  the  "  Tippecanoe  and  Tyler 
too  "  hurrah  campaign  of  1840,  and  one  month  after  the  inauguration  Tyler, 
by  Harrison's  death,  succeeded  to  the  office  of  President.  He  called  an 
extra  session  of  Congress,  vetoed  the  Bank  bills,  and  broke  with  the  Whig 
leaders.  All  the  members  of  his  Cabinet,  except  Webster,  resigned  in  the 
autumn  of  1841.  'He  finally  reorganized  the  Cabinet  with  Whigs  and 
Democrats  both,  of  whom  Calhoun  was  the  most  prominent.  The  tariff  of 
1842,  the  Oregon  excitement,  and  the  annexation  of  Texas  mark  President 
Tyler's  administration.  He  was  nominated  by  a  Democratic  Convention  in 
1844,  but  withdrew  from  the  contest.  After  retiring  in  1845,  he  was  in 
retirement  until  1861,  when  he  acted  as  president  of  the  Peace  Convention. 
Soon  afterward  he  was  elected  to  the  Confederate  Congress.  Life  by  Tyler. 

Tyler,  Letitia  C.  (1790-1842),  married  John  Tyler  in  1813.  She  was 
especially  fitted  for  the  social  duties  of  the  White  House,  but  her  health  was 
delicate,  and  she  died  soon  after  coming  to  Washington.  In  1844  President 
Tyler  married  Julia  Gardiner,  of  New  York  (1820-1889). 

Tyler,  Moses  Coit,  born  in  1835,  became  professor  of  American  history 
in  Cornell  University  in  1881.  He  wrote  a  "History  of  American  Litera- 
ture," and  a  life  of  Patrick  Henry. 

Tyler,  Robert  O.  (1831-1874),  commanded  an  artillery  division  at  Fred- 
ericksburg.  He  was  in  command  of  the  artillery  reserve  at  Chancellorsville, 
Gettysburg  and  in  the  Rapidan  campaign.  He  led  a  division  at  Spottsylvania 
and  a  brigade  at  Cold  Harbor. 

Tyndale,  Hector  (1821-1880),  commanded  a  brigade  at  Chantilly,  Bull 
Run  and  Antietam  in  1862.  In  1863  he  led  a  division  at  Wauhatchie  and 
Chattanooga. 

Tyner,  James  N.,  born  in  1826,  represented  Indiana  in  the  U.  S.  Congress 
as  a  Republican  from  1869  to  1875.  He  was  Postmaster-General  in  Grant's  Cab- 
inet from  1876  to  1877,  and  Assistant  Postmaster-General  from  1877  to  1881. 


$w  »i«Ti«jiA*Y  OF  UNITED  STATBS  HISTORY. 

v. 

Uncas  (i588?-i682)  revolted  from  the  Pequot  Indians  in  1635  and  became 
chief  of  the  Mohegans.  He  made  treaties  of  peace  with  the  colonists,  and 
in  1637  greatly  assisted  Colonel  Mason's  expedition  against  the  Pequots,  for 
which  he  received  part  of  their  land.  In  1643  ne  defeated  Miantonomo, 
chief  of  the  Narragansetts,  and  put  him  to  death.  He  was  always  friendly 
to  the  whites  and  faithful  to  his  treaties. 

Uncle  Sam.  An  explanation  which  has  been  offered  for  this  phrase  is 
that  the  "  U.  S."  on  some  Government  supplies  in  the  War  of  1812  was 
humorously  declared  to  be  the  initials  of  one  Uncle  Sam  Wilson,  a  con- 
tractor. 

"  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin,"  first  published  in  the  National  Era,  at  Washing- 
ton, from  June,  1851,  to  April,  1852,  and  appearing  in  book  form  in  Boston 
in  1852.  Mrs.  Stowe  seems  to  have  been  at  first  disappointed  as  to  its  success, 
but  during  the  next  five  years  500,000  copies  were  sold  through  the  States. 
It  served  to  stimulate  abolitionists'  sentiments  in  a  remarkable  degree,  stir- 
ring to  their  profoundest  depths  thousands  of  minds  in  the  North  which 
could  never  have  been  reached  by  politicians.  It  played  no  small  part  in 
creating  an  anti-slavery  party,  though  its  delineations  of  outrages  perpetrated 
upon  the  slaves  were  in  a  great  measure  misleading  and  the  work  of  imagi- 
nation. 

Unconstitutionality.  The  judicial  power  of  declaring  laws  unconstitu- 
tional is  sometimes  spoken  of  as  if  it  were  a  peculiar  power  specially  con- 
ferred upon  the  U.  S.  Supreme  Court.  On  the  contrary,  it  is  a  natural  and 
necessary  incident  of  the  ordinary  judicial  function  of  deciding  cases,  as  this 
must  operate  under  a  system  which  involves  two  sorts  of  laws,  the  one  (called 
constitutions)  superior  to  the  other  (called  statutes).  In  case  of  conflict 
between  the  two  in  any  case  brought  before  a  judge,  he  must  decide  in 
accordance  with  the  former.  This  was  pointed  out  as  long  ago  as  1787,  by 
James  Iredell.  Similarly,  in  the  colonial  period,  in  the  case  of  chartered 
colonies,  the  Privy  Council  acting  on  appeals,  or  the  colonial  courts  them- 
selves, might  set  aside  a  colonial  statute  as  repugnant  to  the  charter.  Soon 
after  the  enacting  of  the  first  written  constitutions  in  America,  courts  began 
to  exercise  this  function  with  respect  to  those  constitutions.  The  first  such 
case  observed  is  the  New  Jersey  case  of  Holmes  vs.  Walton,  in  1779.  In 
Commonwealth  vs.  Caton,  in  Virginia,  in  1782,  there  was  an  approach  to  this. 
Similar  cases  followed  in  Rhode  Island  (Trevett  vs.  Weeden,  1786)  and  in 
North  Carolina  (Bayard  vs.  Singleton,  1787).  The  first  case  in  which  the 
U.  S.  Supreme  Court  set  aside  a  Federal  statute  as  contrary  to  the  Constitu- 
tion was  that  of  United  States  vs.  Yale  Todd,  (1794),  but  the  ficst  famous  one 
was  that  of  Marbury  vs.  Madison  (1803.)  The  first  case  in  which  it  set 
aside  a  State  law  was  that  of  United  States  vs.  Peters,  (1809).  For  particu- 
lars, see  these  cases.  History  by  Coxe. 

Underground  Railroad,  a  name  given  to  a  mysterious  organization 
which  made  it  its  business  to  aid  in  the  escape  of  fugitive  slaves.  The 
movement  originated  among  the  Quakers  of  Pennsylvania,  and  the  system 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  669 

was  gradually  extended  until  a  chain  of  stations  was  established  a  day's 
journey  apart  and  leading  from  Kentucky  and  Virginia  across  Ohio,  and 
from  Maryland  through  Pennsylvania  and  New  York  to  Canada.  The  sta- 
tions were  private  houses,  and  the  inmates  were  known  to  be  pledged  to  the 
cause.  The  fugitives  reached  these  stations  after  nightfall,  were  fed  and 
clothed  when  it  was  necessary  and  given  a  night's  rest.  The  sick  were  pro- 
vided with  a  place  in  which  to  remain  until  they  were  restored  to  health. 
Levi  Coffin,  a  Quaker,  and  the  reputed  president  of  the  organization,  assisted 
in  the  escape  of  about  100  slaves  annually  for  many  years.  He  always  had 
a  carriage  in  readiness  to  convey  the  fugitives  to  a  place  of  safety  and 
organized  sewing  circles  to  provide  clothing  for  the  destitute.  Harriet  Tub- 
man,  a  colored  woman,  who  had  escaped  North,  made  nineteen  journeys  to 
the  South  and  brought  back  bands  of  fugitives  always  without  detection. 
The  greatest  secrecy  was  observed  in  all  of  the  movements  of  the  organiza- 
tion. The  Underground  Railroad  was  formally  organized  in  1838,  but  did 
not  reach  its  perfection  until  the  passage  of  the  Fugitive  Slave  Law  in  1850 
aroused  the  Abolitionists  to  still  greater  exertions.  History  by  Still. 

Underbill,  John,  died  about  1672.  He  came  to  America  from  England  in 
1630.  He  commanded  in  the  expedition  against  the  Pequots  in  1637,  and 
was  conspicuous  in  the  Dutch  and  Indian  Wars  from  1643  to  1646. 

Underwood,  Francis  H.,  born  in  1825,  greatly  aided  the  Free-Soil  move- 
ment. He  was  clerk  of  the  Superior  Court  in  Boston  from  1859  to  1870, 
and  U.  S.  Consul  to  Glasgow,  Scotland,  from  1885  to  1888.  He  has  written 
novels  and  lives  of  Lowell,  Longfellow  and  Whittier.  Died  1894. 

Underwood,  Joseph  R.  (1791-1876),  was  Judge  of  the  Kentucky  Court 
of  Appeals  from  1828  to  1835.  He  represented  Kentucky  in  the  U.  S.  Con- 
gress as  a  Whig  from  1835  to  1843,  and  in  the  U.  S.  Senate  from  1847  *0 


Union  College,  Schenectady  and  Albany,  N.  Y.,  was  incorporated  in  1795 
by  the  regents  of  the  University  of  New  York  State.  The  Dudley  Observa- 
tory at  Albany  is  a  department.  The  medical  school  was  established  in 
1838,  the  law  school  in  1851. 

Union  Labor  Party,  a  descendant  of  the  Greenback  party.  It  was  organ- 
ized at  Cincinnati,  February  23,  1887,  and  included  in  its  platform  some  of 
the  principles  of  the  Knights  of  Labor. 

Unitarians.  The  first  Unitarian  church  in  the  United  States,  King's 
Chapel,  of  Boston,  became  such  by  secession  from  the  Episcopal  body  under 
Rev.  James  Freeman.  In  1801  the  original  church  of  Plymouth,  the  oldest 
Congregational  church  in  America,  joined  the  new  movement.  From  1815 
to  1825  the  controversy  between  the  two  parties  among  the  Congregationalists 
was  carried  on  with  great  bitterness,  and  resulted  in  the  division  of  many 
churches.  Harvard  College  about  this  time  came  under  the  influence  of 
the  Unitarians.  Rev.  W.  E.  Channing,  of  Newport,  R.  I.,  greatly  aided 
the  new  movement  by  his  tongue  and  pen.  The  body  has  been  especially 
characterized  by  literary  culture,  refinement  and  social  virtue,  but  remains 
small  and  confined  mainly  to  New  England. 


670  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Unitas  Fratrum,  or  United  Brethren.     (See  Moravians.) 

United  Brethren  in  Christ.  This  sect  arose  soon  after  1752  at  Lancaster, 
Pa.,  through  the  labors  of  Rev.  C.  W.  Otterbein,  and  afterward  of  Rev. 
Martin  Boehrn.  Their  purpose  was  to  spread  pure  and  earnest  evangelical 
religion.  Conferences  began  to  be  held  annually,  beginning  at  Baltimore 
in  1789.  In  1800  the  societies  were  united  into  one  body  with  the  above 
name  and  elected  their  two  leaders  as  bishops.  At  first  there  was  no  formu- 
lated system  of  doctrine,  but  in  1815  a  creed  was  adopted  at  the  annual  con- 
ference, which  still  remains  unchanged.  The  body  has  always  favored 
radical  reforms,  an  active  missionary  spirit  and  democracy  in  church  govern- 
ment. Its  membership  lies  principally  in  rural  districts  and  numbered  in 
1890,  225,000. 

United  Colonies  of  New  England.  In  May,  1643,  a*-  the  solicitation  of 
the  Colonial  Government  of  Connecticut,  the  colonies  of  Massachusetts  Bay, 
Plymouth,  Connecticut  and  New  Haven  met  by  delegates  at  Boston,  and 
bound  themselves  together  under  a  written  constitution  for  mutual  protec- 
tion against  the  Indians,  and  the  French  and  Dutch  settlers  of  Canada  and 
New  York.  This  league  existed  forty  years.  Each  colony  had  one  vote 
in  controlling  the  league.  Each  managed  its  own  internal  affairs,  the 
general  management  of  the  confederation  being  intrusted  to  a  board  of  eight 
commissioners.  After  1664  the  confederation  languished,  and  in  1684  it 
expired. 

United  Empire  Loyalists.  After  the  close  of  the  Revolution,  of  the 
expatriated  Tory  exiles,  exceeding  30,000  in  number,  many  fled  to  Canada, 
Nova  Scotia  and  New  Brunswick,  where  they  formed  societies  called  the 
United  Empire  Loyalists.  These  associations  kept  burning  a  bitter  hatred 
toward  the  Americans,  and  border  disturbances  were  kept  up  for  a  long  time. 

United  Labor  Party,  organized  in  New  York  City  in  1886.  They  ran 
Henry  George  as  candidate  for  mayor  that  year.  They  proposed  the  forma- 
tion of  a  national  organization,  and  declared  that  values  arising  from  the 
growth  of  society  belonged  to  the  community  as  a  whole. 

United  States.  Up  to  the  Declaration  of  Independence  the  title  employed 
had  been  United  Colonies,  after  that  it  was  United  States  of  America.  Their 
independence  was  first  acknowledged  by  France,  in  the  treaty  of  1778. 
Great  Britain  acknowledged  it  by  the  treaty  of  1783.  The  government  at 
first  consisted  simply  of  the  Continental  Congress.  From  March  i,  1781, 
the  constitution  in  force  was  the  Articles  of  Confederation;  from  June  21, 
1788,  the  present  Constitution.  The  area  was  at  first  about  850,000  square 
miles;  the  population  in  1790  less  than  four  millions.  (See  Annexations, 
Population.) 

"  United  States,"  a  frigate  of  forty-four  guns  built  in  1798,  met  on 
October  25,  1812,  near  the  island  of  Madeira,  the  British  frigate  "Mace- 
donian," likewise  of  forty-four  guns.  The  fight  at  first  was  at  long  range,  in 
which  the  "  Macedonian  "  was  badly  damaged;  this  vessel,  in  attempting  to 
draw  nearer,  lost  nearly  all  its  masts  and  spars.  Seeing  further  resistance  to 
be  useless  it  surrendered.  Of  its  300  men  it  lost  thirty-six  killed,  sixty-eight 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  671 

wounded.  The  "  United  States  "  lost  five  killed  and  six  wounded.  The 
"  United  States  "  with  its  prize  then  returned  home  and  anchored  January  i, 
1813,  in  New  York  harbor. 

"  United  States  Telegraph."  The  publication  of  this  newspaper  was 
begun  in  Washington  in  1826  by  Duff  Green.  Jackson  was  then  President 
and  the  U.  S.  Telegraph  was  established  as  the  organ  of  his  administration. 
This  journal  was  afterward  suspended,  having  achieved  but  little  success, 
and  was  superseded  as  official  organ  in  1830  by  the  Globe,  edited  by  Francis 
P.  Blair. 

United  States  vs.  Peters.     (See  Peters.) 

United  States  vs.  Todd.  In  1794  Todd  was  by  decree  of  the  Circuit 
Court  of  Connecticut  admitted  to  the  U.  S.  pension  list.  It  was  afterward 
(in  1794)  decided  by  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States  that  the  Circuit 
Court  could  not  constitutionally  make  such  decrees,  nor  could  it  act  in  the 
capacity  of  a  commission  not  of  judicial  function.  This  related  to  the  Act 
of  Congress  of  1792,  relating  to  pensions,  and  formed  the  first  instance  in 
which  the  U.  S.  Supreme  Court  pronounced  upon  the  constitutionality  of  an 
Act  of  Congress. 

Universalists.  The  main  tenet  of  their  belief  was  held  by  some  Chris- 
tians in  the  third  century,  but  as  a  modern  teaching  it  owes  its  development 
to  the  founders  of  the  denomination  who  advocated  their  views  about  the 
middle  of  the  eighteenth  century,  almost  simultaneously  in  England  and  the 
American  colonies.  The  first  convention  of  delegates  met  in  Oxford,  Mass., 
in  1785,  and  adopted  the  name  of  "Independent  Christian  Society,  com- 
monly called  Universalists."  In  1790  a  general  convention  met  in  Philadel- 
phia and  drew  up  a  platform  of  government  and  a  confession  of  faith.  Two 
years  later  the  New  England  churches  organized  a  convention  for  New  Eng- 
land, and  ten  years  later  adopted  the  Profession  of  Belief  which  is  still  in 
vogue.  This  latter  convention  is  now  the  General  Convention.  The  body 
numbered  about  49,000  members  in  1890. 

Universities.  The  first  project  of  a  university  in  America  was  made  by 
the  Virginia  Company  in  1619,  when  it  made  a  grant  of  10,000  acres  of 
^nd  for  a  university  at  Henrico.  But  the  highest  educational  estab- 
lishments of  the  colonial  period  were  no  more  than  colleges,  and  are  more 
fitly  treated  under  that  title.  Washington  greatly  desired  the  establishment 
of  a  national  university,  and  left  funds  for  that  purpose,  but  his  plan  was 
never  realized.  The  first  true  university,  in  the  sense  in  which  that  term 
was  used  in  Europe,  was  the  University  of  Virginia,  chartered  in  1819  and 
opened  in  1825.  Since  then  several  types  of  university  have  developed  in 
the  United  States,  viz.,  that  which  is  a  university  in  the  sense  of  consisting  of 
an  aggregation  of  several  schools,  academic  and  professional,  e.  g.,  Harvard; 
the  State  universities,  of  which  the  University  of  Michigan  was  the  first  to 
attain  eminence;  and  that  which  is  occupied  with  advanced  or  post-graduate 
instruction  primarily,  such  as  Johns  Hopkins  and  Clark  Universities. 

University  Extension.  This  movement  was  introduced  into  the  United 
States  in  1890  by  the  American  Society  for  the  Extension  of  University 


672  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY 

Teaching,  founded  in  Philadelphia  by  Provost  William  Pepper,  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Pennsylvania.  During  1891-92  over  sixty  lecture  centres  were 
established  in  various  towns.  A  seminary  for  training  University  Extension 
lecturers  was  opened  at  Philadelphia  in  October,  1892.  More  than  100  col- 
leges now  participate  in  the  movement.  The  movement  has  spread  widely 
and  has  flourishing  lecture  centres  in  New  England  and  the  West. 

Upland,  the  original  name  of  Chester,  Pa.  It  was  settled  by  the  Swedes 
in  1645,  anc*  m  J682  possessed  a  mixed  population  of  Swedes,  Dutch  and 
English. 

Upshur,  Abel  P.  (1790-1844),  was  a  member  of  the  Virginia  Legislature 
from  1824  to  1826,  a  Judge  of  the  General  Court  of  Virginia  from  1826  to 
1841,  and  a  member  of  the  State  Constitutional  Convention  in  1829.  He  was 
Secretary  of  the  Navy  in  Tyler's  Cabinet  from  1841  to  1843,  and  Secretary 
of  State  from  1843  to  J844,  when  he  was  killed  on  board  the  "  Princeton." 
He  wrote  an  important  exposition  of  the  State-rights  theory  of  the  Consti- 
tution. 

Upton,  Emory  (1839-1881),  commanded  a  battery  at  Yorktown  and 
Games'  Mill  and  an  artillery  brigade  at  South  Mountain  and  Antietam.  He 
led  a  brigade  at  Fredericksburg,  Gettysburg  and  in  the  Rapidan  campaign. 
He  fought  in  the  "  Wilderness,"  led  a  column  at  Spottsylvania  and  fought  at 
Petersburg.  He  led  a  division  at  Opequan  in  1864.  He  wrote  a  "  System 
of  Infantry  Tactics." 

Ursuline  Convent.  A  Roman  Catholic  nunnery  and  school  for  girls, 
chiefly  Protestant,  was  established  in  Boston  in  1820,  and  in  1826  was  moved 
to  Charlestown.  Prejudice  transformed  several  incidents  into  evidence  of 
forcible  proselytism,  and  on  August  12,  1834,  a  mob  of  the  lower  Protestant 
classes  burned  the  convent.  Riots  followed  but  were  quieted  by  Bishop 
Fenwick,  Harrison  Gray  Otis  and  others. 

Usher,  John  P.  (1816-1889),  of  Indiana,  was  First  Assistant  Secretary  of 
the  Interior  from  1862  to  1863,  when  he  became  Secretary  of  the  Interior  in 
Lincoln's  and  Johnson's  Cabinets,  serving  till  May,  1865. 

Usselinx,  Willem  (1567-1647),  of  Antwerp,  merchant,  planned  the  Dutch 
West  India  Company,  which  was  chartered  in  1621,  but  becoming  dissatis- 
fied, went  over  into  the  service  of  Gustavus  Adolphus  in  1624,  an(^  founded 
the  Swedish  West  India  Company,  which  was  chartered  in  1626.  The 
remainder  of  his  life  was  spent  in  efforts  in  behalf  of  that  company  in  vari- 
ous countries  of  Europe.  Life  by  Jameson. 

Utah  forms  a  part  of  the  Mexican  cession  of  1848.  When  the  Mormons 
were  driven  from  Illinois  and  Missouri  they  migrated  to  the  present  territory 
of  Utah,  which  was  inhabited  by  the  Ute  or  Utah  Indians,  whence  the  name 
of  the  territory.  Salt  Lake  City  was  founded,  and  the  following  year  (1849) 
a  convention  asked  in  vain  for  admission  into  the  Union  for  the  new  State 
of  "Deseret."  A  territorial  government  was  organized  in  1850,  with  Brig- 
ham  Young  as  Governor.  In  1857  Federal  troops  were  sent  into  the  terri- 
tory to  compel  obedience.  Admission  into  the  Union  was  again  demanded 
in  1862  and  again  refused.  The  "  Edmunds  Bill,"  passed  in  1882,  aimed  at 
the  suppression  of  polygamy  and  disfranchised  all  polygamists,  but  has  not 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  673 

succeeded  as  yet  (1894),  because  of  the  large  number  of  monogamous  Mor- 
mons who  control  the  Legislature,  and  the  difficulty  of  securing  convictions 
under  the  law.  The  opening  of  mines  has  attracted  many  "  Gentiles  "  into 
the  territory.  The  population  of  Utah,  which  in  1890  was  207,905,  would 
some  time  ago  have  warranted  its  erection  into  a  State  were  it  not  for  the 
existence  of  polygamy,  which  would  fall  under  the  protection  of  the  State 
Legislature  if  Utah  were  admitted.  December  13,  1893,  a  bill  passed  the 
House  for  its  admission.  Utah  admitted  as  a  State  January  4,  1896. 

Utes,  a  tribe  of  Indians  in  New  Mexico,  Utah,  Colorado  and  Nevada. 
They  have  generally  been  friendly  to  the  whites,  but  the  Utah  bands  have 
carried  on  hostilities  with  the  Mormons.  Subsequently  disturbances  occurred 
between  them  and  miners  at  Pike's  Peak  and  they  defeated  Major  Ormsby  on 
Truckee  River.  In  1865  large  tracts  of  land  were  ceded  to  the  United  States. 
Later  trouble  arose  with  Black  Hawk,  a  chief  of  the  Pah  Utes,  and  for  several 
years  bloody  warfare  followed. 

Utrecht,  Treaty  of,  concluded  between  France,  Great  Britain,  Portugal, 
Prussia,  Savoy  and  Holland  in  1713,  ended  the  war  of  the  Spanish  Succes- 
sion, called  in  America  "  Queen  Anne's  War."  France  ceded  to  Great 
Britain  Hudson's  Bay  and  Straits,  Nova  Scotia,  Newfoundland  and  the 
adjacent  islands.  Spain  granted  to  a  British  company  the  exclusive  right 
for  thirty  years  of  supplying  Spanish  America  with  negroes,  and  engaged 
not  to  transfer  any  land  or  lordship  in  America. 


Vail,  Alfred  (1807-1859),  of  New  Jersey,  was  associated  with  Professor 
Morse  in  the  invention  of  the  telegraph.  The  alphabetical  characters  and 
many  of  the  essential  features  of  the  telegraph  are  his  invention. 

Vallandigham,  Clement  Laird  (1822-1871),  a  lawyer  and  active  Demo-, 
cratic  politician  in  Ohio,  served  in  the  Legislature  of  that  State,  and  was 
Congressman  1857-1863.  He  bitterly  opposed  the  Government  as  the  war 
progressed,  and  became  noted  as  the  most  extreme  of  Northern  sympathizers 
with  the  Confederacy.  General  Burnside  arrested  him,  and  he  was  banished. 
From  the  Confederate  States  he  went  to  Canada,  and  while  there  was  nomi- 
nated for  Governor  by  the  Ohio  Democrats  in  1863.  He  was  defeated  by 
Brough  by  a  majority  of  100,000.  The  following  year  he  was  a  member  of 
the  Democratic  National  Convention. 

Vallandigham's  Case.  In  1863  Clement  L.  Vallandigham,  of  Ohio,  was 
tried,  convicted  and  imprisoned  for  uttering  opinions  disloyal  to  the  Union 
by  a  military  commission  appointed  by  General  Burnside.  Vallandigham 
applied  to  the  Supreme  Court  to  review  by  certiorari  the  proceedings  of  the 
military  commission,  claiming  to  have  been  unlawfully  convicted.  The 
Supreme  Court  maintained  the  decision  of  the  commission  on  the  ground 
that  it  had  no  power  to  review  proceedings  ordered  by  a  general  officer  of 
the  United  States  army. 

43 


674  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Valley  Forge,  site  of  Washington's  winter  encampment,  1777-78,  twenty 
miles  from  Philadelphia  on  the  west  side  of  the  Schuylkill.  His  force  at 
this  encampment  was  11,000  strong,  but  in  miserable  condition  for  lack  of 
proper  food  and  clothing.  There  was  great  suffering,  borne  with  wonderful 
patience  throughout  the  winter.  The  men  had  no  shoes  and  were  obliged 
to  forage  for  supplies. 

Valverde,  N.  M.,  an  engagement,  occurring  February  21,  1861,  between 
1500  Unionists,  chiefly  volunteers,  under  Canby,  and  2000  Texan  rangers 
commanded  by  Sibley  and  Green.  Colonel  Roberts,  Federal,  first  routed 
Major  Pryon,  but  the  latter,  falling  back,  was  supported  by  Green.  The 
Texans  made  a  spirited  dash  upon  the  Federal  lines,  heedless  of  the 
volley  of  grape  and  canister.  The  Federal  troops  fled  in  the  utmost  con- 
fusion. 

Van  Buren,  John  (1810-1866),  son  of  Martin  Van  Buren,  was  Attorney- 
General  of  New  York  from  1845  to  1847.  He  was  active  in  the  political 
canvass  of  1848,  when  his  father  was  a  candidate  of  the  Free-Soil  party  for 
the  Presidency. 

Van  Buren,  Martin  (December  5,  1782-July  24, 1862),  eighth  President  of 
the  United  States,  was  born  at  Kinderhook,.  N.  Y.  He  rose  to  eminence  in 
his  State  both  as  a  lawyer  and  as  a  Democratic  politician.  He  is  noted  as 
an  adroit  party  manager,  and  was  styled  in  his  time  the  "  Little  Magician." 
He  was  a  State  Senator,  U.  S.  Senator  1821-1828,  Governor  1828-1829,  and 
Secretary  of  State  under  Jackson  1829-1831.  President  Jackson,  in  1831, 
appointed  him  U.  S.  Minister  to  England,  but  the  Senate  refused  to  confirm 
the  nomination.  He  was  elected  with  Jackson  for  the  latter's  second  term, 
serving  as  Vice-President  1833-1837,  and  was  the  chosen  heir  to  the  succession. 
Elected  by  170  electoral  votes  over  the  Whig  candidate,  Harrison,  in  1836, 
he  inherited  the  results  of  Jackson's  measures.  The  two  foremost  places  in 
President  Van  Buren's  Cabinet  were  held  by  Forsyth  in  the  State  and  Wood- 
bury  in  the  Treasury  Department.  Among  the  features  of  public  interest 
in  his  administration  were  the  disastrous  panic  of  1837,  the  independent 
treasury  system  and  the  pre-emption  law.  In  1840  he  was  pitted  against  his 
former  antagonist,  but  with  the  opposite  result;  he  received  only  sixty  electoral 
votes.  In  1844  Ex-President  Van  Buren  had  a  majority,  but  not  a  two- 
thirds  majority  of  votes  in  the  Democratic  National  Convention;  he  opposed 
the  annexation  of  Texas,  and  was  discarded  for  Polk.  In  1848  he  was  the 
Free  Soil  candidate,  and  diverted  enough  Democratic  votes  to  defeat  Cass  and 
elect  Taylor.  Life  by  E.  M.  Shepard. 

Van  Corlear,  Arendt  (i6oo?-i667),  came  to  America  from  Holland  in 
1630.  He  became  superintendent  of  a  "  colony  "  having  jurisdiction  from 
the  Hudson  to  the  Mohawk  Rivers.  He  founded  the  settlement 'at  Schenec- 
tady,  and  had  great  influence  with  the  Indians. 

Van  Cortlandt,  Oloff  S.  (1600-1684),  came  to  New  Netherlands  from 
Holland  in  1638  in  the  service  of  the  West  India  Company.  He  was  promi- 
nent in  political  affairs,  and  from  1655  to  1664  was  a  burgomaster  of  New 
Amsterdam. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  675 

Van  Cortlandt,  Pierre  (1721-1814),  was  a  member  of  the  New  York 
Assembly  from  1768  to  1775.  He  was  a  member  of  the  first  Provincial 
Congress,  and  was  Lieutenant-Governor  of  New  York  from  1777  to  1795. 

Van  Cortlandt,  Stephanus  (1643—1700),  held  every  prominent  office  in 
the  province  of  New  York  except  the  Governorship.  He  was  Mayor  of  New 
York  almost  continuously  from  1677  to  1700-  His  estate  was  erected  into  a 
lordship  and  manor  in  1697. 

Van  Dorn,  Earl  (1820-1863),  was  promoted  for  gallant  service  at  Cerro 
Gordo,  Contreras  and  Churubusco,  and  aided  in  the  capture  of  the  City  of 
Mexico.  In  1856  he  commanded  an  expedition  against  the  Comanches.  In 

1 86 1  he  joined   the  Confederacy  and  succeeded  Jefferson  Davis  as  major- 
general  of  the  Mississippi  forces.     He  captured  the  steamer  "  Star  of  the 
West,"  and  received  the  surrender  of  Major '  Sibley  and  Colonel  Reeve.     In 

1862  he  commanded  the  trans-Mississip'pi  Department.     He  was  defeated  at 
Pea  Ridge  and  Corinth.     He  captured  valuable  stores  at  Holly  Springs  in 
1862. 

Van  Rensselaer,  Kilian  (1595-1644),  was  prominent  in  forming  the  Dutch 
West  India  Company.  He  sent  an  agent  from  Holland  to  the  New  Neth- 
erlands, who  purchased  a  vast  estate  comprising  the  present  counties  of 
Albany,  Columbia  and  Rensselaer.  He  named  it  Rensselaerswyck  and  col- 
onized it  with  emigrants.  Under  his  management  through  a  director  the 
colony  became  a  powerful,  almost  independent,  province. 

Van  Rensselaer,  Solomon  (1774-1852),  led  the  attacking  party  at  Queens- 
town  Heights  in  1812.  He  represented  New  York  in  the  U.  S.  Congress  as 
a  Federalist  from  1819  to  1822. 

Van  Rensselaer,  Stephen  (1765-1839),  was  a  member  of  the  New  York 
Senate  from  1791  to  1795,  and  Lieutenant-Governor  from  1795  to  1801.  He 
served  in  the  New  York  Assembly  from  1808  to  1810.  He  was  appointed 
commander  of  the  forces  on  the  northern  frontier  in  1812,  and  fought  the 
battle  of  Queenstown  Heights.  He  was  a  canal  commissioner  from  1816  to 
1839.  He  represented  New  York  in  the  U.  S.  Congress  as  a  supporter  of 
Adams  from  1822  to  1829.  He  founded  the  Rensselaer  Polytechnic  Insti- 
tute at  Troy. 

Van  Rensselaer  Manor.     (See  Rensselaerswyck.) 

Van  Twiller,  Wouter  or  Walter  (i  580  ?-after  1646),  was  chosen  Governor 
of  New  Netherlands  by  the  Dutch  West  India  Company  in  1633,  and  served 
until  1637.  He  ably  maintained  the  commercial  interests  of  the  colony,  but 
was  an  incompetent  Governor,  and  was  constantly  involved  in  quarrels  with 
the  English  in  the  Massachusetts  and  Connecticut  colonies. 

Van  Wart,  Isaac  (1760-1828),  was  an  active  supporter  of  the  patriot 
cause  during  the  Revolution.  With  John  Paulding  and  David  Williams  he 
intercepted  Major  Andre*  in  1780. 

Van  Wyck,  Charles  H.,  born  in  1824,  represented  New  York  in  the  U.  S. 
Congress  as  a  Republican  from  1859  to  1863  and  from  1867  to  1871.  He 
represented  Nebraska  in  the  U.  S.  Senate  from  1881  to  1887.  Died  1895. 


676  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Vance,  Zebulon  B.  (1830-1894),  represented  North  Carolina  in  the 
U.  S.  Congress  as  a  State-Rights  American  from  1858  to  1861.  He  was 
colonel  of  a  Confederate  regiment  from  1861  to  1862;  Governor  of  North 
Carolina  from  1862  to  1864,  and  greatly  aided  the  Confederate  cause.  He 
was  again  Governor  from  1876  to  1879,  and  was  a  U.  S.  Senator  from  1879 
to  1894. 

Vancouver,  George  (1758—1798),  British  naval  officer,  took  part  in  the 
second  and  third  voyages  of  Captain  Cook.  In  1791  he  was  appointed  by 
the  British  Government  to  survey  the  northwest  coast  of  North  America 
from  30°  north  latitude,  northward.  He  returned  to  England  in  1795.  A 
report  of  his  careful  survey  was  published  entitled  "  Voyage  of  Discovery  to 
the  North  Pacific  Ocean  and  Round  the  World."  England's  claim  to 
Oregon  was  mainly  founded  on  it. 

Vanderbilt,  Cornelius  (1794-1877),  amassed  a  large  fortune  by  steamboat 
transportation.  In  1851  he  established  a  steamship  line  between  New  York 
and  California  via  Nicaragua.  In  1855  he  established  a  line  between  New 
York  and  Havre.  In  1857  he  turned  his  attention  to  railroads,  and  became 
one  of  the  foremost  "  railroad  kings  "  in  America.  He  founded  Vanderbilt 
University  at  Nashville,  Tenn. 

Vanderbilt,  William  H.  (1821—1885),  son  of  Cornelius,  became  president 
of  the  New  York  Central  and  Hudson  River  and  New  York  and  Harlem 
Railroads  in  1877,  and  at  his  death  was  probably  the  richest  man  in 
America. 

Vane,  Sir  Henry  (1612-1662),  a  noted  Puritan  statesman,  came  to  Boston 
in  1635,  and  was  Governor  of  the  Massachusetts  colony  the  next  year.  He 
sided  with  Mrs.  Hutchinson  in  the  celebrated  Antinomian  controversy.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  General  Court,  but  soon  returned  to  England.  He  was 
knighted,  entered  Parliament,  became  treasurer  of  the  navy,  and  was  promi- 
nent in  the  impeachment  of  Strafford,  as  commissioner  to  Scotland,  and 
member  of  the  Westminster  Assembly.  In  the  Commonwealth  he  sat  in 
the  Council  of  State,  was  a  Republican  leader,  and  frequently  opposed  to 
Cromwell.  He  presided  over  the  State  Council  in  1659,  and  at  the  Restora- 
tion was  excepted  from  the  general  pardon.  Although  not  one  of  the 
Regicides,  yet  as  a  strong  Republican  he  was  executed  by  Charles  II.  on 
general  charges  of  treason.  He  is  supposed  to  have  invented  the  "  previous 
question"  and  the  constitutional  convention.  Life  by  Hosmer. 

Varick,  Richard  (1753-1831),  was  secretary  to  General  Schuyler  in  the 
Northern  Department  from  1776  to  1780.  He  was  Washington's  record- 
ing secretary  from  1781  to  1783,  and  was  Mayor  of  New  York  from  1791  to 
1801. 

Varnum,  James  M.  (1748-1789),  commanded  a  regiment  at  White  Plains, 
led  the  troops  at  Red  Bank,  and  served  under  Lafayette  in  Rhode  Island. 
He  represented  Rhode  Island  in  the  Continental  Congress  from  1780  to  1782 
and  from  1786  to  1787. 

Varnum,  Joseph  B.  (1750-1821),  was  a  member  of  the  Massachusetts 
Legislature  from  1780  to  1787,  of  the  Massachusetts  Convention  of  1788, 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  677 

and  of  the  Governor's  Council  from  1787  to  1795.  He  represented  Massa- 
chusetts in  the  U.  S.  Congress  as  a  Democrat  from  1795  to  1811,  acting  as 
Speaker  from  1807  to  1811.  He  was  a  U.  S.  Senator  from  1811  to  1817. 

Vassar,  Matthew  (1792-1868),  came  to  America  from  England  in  1796. 
In  1861  he  founded  Vassar  College  at  Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y.,  with  an  endow- 
ment of  $778,000. 

Vassar  College,  Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y.,  an  institution  for  the  higher  educa- 
tion of  women,  was  first  chartered  in  1861,  but  opened  four  years  later.  It 
was  named  after  Matthew  Vassar,  its  founder. 

Vaudreuil,  Louis  P.  de  R.  (1721—1802),  entered  the  French  navy  in  1740 
and  became  chef  d'escadre  in  1777.  He  participated  in  the  capture  of  Grenada 
under  Count  d'Estaing.  He  assisted  at  the  siege  of  Savannah  in  1779, 
assuming  command  of  the  fleet  during  the  assault.  He  commanded  a 
division  under  Count  de  Grasse  in  the  Chesapeake  engagement  with  Admiral 
Graves  and  in  the  siege  of  Yorktown. 

Vaudreuil,  Philippe  de  R.,  Marquis  de  (1640—1725),  came  to  Canada  from 
France  in  1687  as  commander  of  the  forces.  He  defended  Quebec  against 
the  English  in  1690  and  in  1710.  He  became  Governor  of  Montreal  in 
1702  and  of  Canada  in  1703. 

Vaudreuil,  Pierre  F.  de  R.  (1698-1765),  Marquis  de  Vaudreuil-Cavagnal, 
born  in  Canada,  was  made  Governor  of  Three  Rivers  in  1733  and  of  Louisiana 
in  1742.  He  was  appointed  Governor  of  Canada  in  1755.  He  was  estranged 
from  Montcalm,  the  commander  of  the  Canadian  troops,  but  did  all  in  his 
power  to  avert  the  capture  of  Quebec.  He  capitulated  for  the  surrender  of 
Quebec  in  terms  distasteful  to  the  authorities,  but  an  investigation  exonerated 
him. 

Vaudreuil,  Pierre  F.  de  R.  (1704-1772),  captured  Fort  Massachusetts  and 
gained  a  victory  on  Lake  St.  Sacrament  and  took  many  prisoners.  He  organ- 
ized the  Canadian  army  that  besieged  the  forts  at  Oswego  and  Ontario. 

Vaughan,  Benjamin  (1751—1835),  was  prominent  in  the  negotiations  for 
peace  between  England  and  the  United  States  in  1783.  He  was  not  officially 
connected  with  the  transaction,  but  as  a  friend  of  Franklin  and  'Lord  Shel- 
burne.  He  was  a  member  of  Parliament  from  1792  to  1796.  He  came  to 
America  in  1796.  He  accumulated  a  large  library  and  wrote  many  political 
articles. 

Vaughan,  Sir  John  (1738-1795),  British  soldier,  came  to  America  from 
England  in  1775.  He  led  the  grenadiers  at  Long  Island,  and  commanded 
a  column  at  Forts  Clinton  and  Montgomery.  In  1779  he  captured  Stony 
Point. 

Venezuela.  The  United  States  concluded  a  treaty  of  peace,  friendship, 
navigation  and  commerce  with  Venezuela  in  1836.  By  the  Convention  of 
1859  Venezuela  agreed  to  pay  claims  of  $130,000.  A  commercial  and 
extradition  treaty  was  concluded  in  1860. 

Vera  Cruz,  Mexico,  deemed  the  gateway  to  the  heart  of  Mexico  during 
the  Mexican  War,  was  besieged  by  General  Scott  with  12,000  men,  March 


678 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 


23-29,  1847.  General  Morales  commanded  the  town  with  4390  men.  Scott 
found  no  difficulty  in  landing  his  soldiers  from  the  island  of  Lobos,  his 
rendezvous,  and  in  placing  his  batteries.  The  town  was  poorly  fortified 
and  Scott's  bombardment  effected  great  ruin.  On  March  25  Morales  held 
a  council  of  war.  He  was  advised  to  surrender,  but  refused  to  do  so,  and 
resigned  his  command  to  General  Jose  Juan  Landero.  This  general  sur- 
rendered March  29.  The  Mexican  officers  were  allowed  to  retain  their 
arms  and  effects  and  the  soldiers  were  permitted  to  retire  to  their  homes. 
Scott  then  took  possession. 

Vergennes,  Charles  G.,  Count  de  (1717-1787),  became  Minister  of  Foreign 
Affairs  in  France  in  1774.  He  gave  efficient  support  to  the  American 
colonies  during  the  Revolution.  He  counselled  Ix>uis  XVI.  to  loan  them 
money,  to  recognize  their  independence,  and  to  sign  the  treaty  of  1778,  by 
which  France  aided  them  with  forces,  money  and  supplies.  He  was  a 
negotiator  of  the  treaty  of  Versailles  in  1783.  The  American  negotiators 
suspected  him  of  intending  to  sacrifice  their  interests,  and,  disregarding  their 
instructions,  made  a  separate  peace  apart  from  France. 

Vermont  (the  word  means  Green  Mountains)  was  known  during  its  early 
history  as  the  New  Hampshire  grants.  The  district  was  claimed  by  both 
New  York  and  New  Hampshire,  but  refused  to  acknowledge  the  authority 
of  either.  New  York  obtained  a  decision  of  the  king  Ji  her  favor  (1764), 
and  endeavored  to  compel  the  settlers  to  pay  for  their  land  again.  The 
people  of  Vermont  resisted,  organized  militia,  and  remained  independent. 
In  1777  Vermont  declared  her  independence,  and  adopted  as  her  constitution 
that  of  Pennsylvania,  with  some  changes,  one  of  which  was  the  abolition  of 
slavery.  In  1789  New  York  agreed  to  recognize  the  separation  of  Vermont, 
and  on  March  4,  1791,  the  State  was  admitted  into  the  Union.  Until  1800 
the  State  supported  the  Federalist  party.  After  that  date  the  State  was 
Democratic  until  1820.  Vermont  was  represented  in  the  Hartford  Conven- 
tion (1814)  by  one  delegate.  Since  1820  the  State  has  been  uniformly  Anti- 
Democratic  (Whig,  then  Republican).  In  1832  the  electors  were  Anti- 
Masonic.  In  1882  the  manufacture  or  sale  of  intoxicating  liquors  was 
prohibited.  The  population  of  Vermont  in  1791  was  85,339;  *n  1890, 
332,422.  History  by  Robinson. 

Vermont,  University  of,  Burlington,  was  chartered  in  1791,  but  opened 
in  1800.  In  1865  the  State  added  an  agricultural  department.  The  medical 
department  was  organized  in  1809. 

"  Vermont  Gazette. ','  There  were  two  gazettes  established  in  Vermont. 
The  first,  called  the  Vermont  Gazette,  or  Green  Mountain  Post  Boy,  was  the 
first  paper  of  the  State,  and  was  begun  at  Westminster  by  Spooner  and 
Green,  February  12,  1781,  and  was  suspended  two  years  later.  In  1783, 
June  5,  Haswell  and  Russell  founded  at  Bennington  the  Vermont  Gazette, 
or  Freemen's  Depository.  With  several  changes  of  title,  it  survived  till  1880. 

Verona,  Congress  of  (1822),  a  meeting  of  envoys  of  the  great  European 
powers  to  consult  respecting  the  disturbances  in  Spain.  Their  project  of 
interference  for  the  sake  of  restoring  Spanish  power  in  the  revolted  colonies 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNIT»D  STATUS  HISTORY.  679 

of  South  America  was  what  led  to  the  enunciation  of  the  Monroe  Doctrine 
in  1823. 

Verplanck,  Gulian  C.  (1786-1870),  was  a  member  of  the  New  York 
Legislature  from  1820  to  1822.  He  represented  New  York  in  the  U.  S. 
Congress  as  a  Democrat  from  1825  to  "1833,  and  was  a  State  Senator  from 
1838  to  1841.  He  wrote  "  The  Bucktail  Bards,"  a  series  of  political  pamph- 
lets; "  Discourses  on  American  History,  Arts  and  Literature;"  "  The  Ameri- 
can Scholar,"  and  was  joint  editor  of  the  Talisman. 

Verrazano,  Giovanni  de  (1470-1527),  Florentine  navigator,  is  said  to  have 
visited  the  north  coast  of  North  America  in  1508.  He  engaged  in  plunder- 
ing Spanish  and  Portuguese  commerce,  and  became  famous  as  a  corsair.  In 
1522  he  captured  a  treasure-ship  sent  from  Mexico  by  Corte"s.  In  1524  he 
explored  the  coast  of  North  America  from  30°  to  50°,  and  took  possession 
for  the  king.  • 

Versailles,  Treaty  of,  a  treaty  of  peace  concluded  at  Versailles  between 
commissions  representing  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain.  It  was 
arranged  in  1782,  and  was  formally  ratified  September  3, 1783.  Jay,  Adams, 
Franklin  and  Laurens  formed  the  American  Commission.  By  this  treaty 
the  absolute  independence  of  the  United  States  was  recognized.  Florida 
was  returned  to  Spain;  the  Americans  relinquished  their  pretensions  to  the 
territory  north  of  Lake  Erie;  the  St.  Lawrence  river  system,  from  the 
western  end  of  Lake  Superior  to  the  forty-fifth  parallel,  was  made  the 
boundary;  from  the  forty-fifth  parallel  to  the  sea,  the  boundary  followed  the 
highlands  after  an  uncertain  fashion,  and  was  long  a  matter  of  bitter  dispute; 
British  right  of  navigation  of  the  Mississippi  was  yielded,  England  accord- 
ing in  return  the  American  right  of  fishing  on  the  Canadian  and  Newfound- 
land coasts;  Loyalists  and  Tories  were  to  be  protected  in  America;  English 
troops  were  to  be  withdrawn  without  destroying  any  property,  or  taking 
away  any  negro  slaves  belonging  to  Americans.  This  treaty  was  in  reality 
signed  in  Paris,  but  is  generally  known  by  the  above  name,  which  properly 
belongs  only  to  the  treaty  between  England  and  France. 

Vesey,  Denmark  (i767?-i822),  a  negro  slave  who  purchased  his  freedom 
in  1800  and  lived  in  Charleston.  He  maintained  the  right  of  slaves  to 
strike  for  liberty,  and  organized  a  plot  for  a  general  insurrection  around 
Charleston.  Several  thousand  slaves  were  in  the  plot.  The  attempt  was 
made  in  1822,  but  was  promptly  suppressed,  and  U.  S.  troops  guarded 
against  a  new  attempt.  The  leaders  were  hanged. 

Vespucius.     (See  Americus.) 

Vest,  George  G.,  born  in  1830,  was  a  member  of  the  Confederate  Senate 
from  1863  to  1865.  He  was  elected  to  the  U.  S.  Senate  as  a  Democrat  from 
Missouri  in  1879.  His  present  term  expires  in  1897. 

Vestries.  In  England  every  parish  had  its  vestry.  In  America,  wher- 
ever there  were  parishes  of  the  Church  of  England,  there  were  vestries. 
Wherever  that  church  was  the  established  church,  the  vestries  had  powers 
of  civil  government  in  local  matters,  as  well  as  powers  in  ecclesiastical 


68o  DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATKS  HISTORY. 

matters.  In  Virginia,  for  instance,  the  vestry,  the  members  of  which  were 
self-elected,  were  the  chief  authority  in  local  government  in  less  matters 
than  those  of  the  county. 

Vetch,  Samuel  (1668-1732),  was  adjutant-general  of  the  Port  Royal  expe- 
dition in  1710,  and  after  its  capture  was  made  Governor  of  Nova  Scotia.  He 
held  office  till  1713. 

Veto.  Except  in  Connecticut  and  Rhode  Island,  colonial  Governors  had 
the  power  of  vetoing  acts  of  the  colonial  Legislatures,  and  the  crown  had 
also  a  right  of  vetoing  subsequently.  None  of  the  original  State  constitu- 
tions gave  the  executive  of  the  State  a  veto  till  that  of  Massachusetts  in 
1780.  In  the  Convention  of  1787  various  other  plans  for  the  veto  were  con- 
sidered, such  as  a  suspensory  veto  and  one  in  which  the  Supreme  Court 
should  be  associated  with  the  President.  The  plan  finally  adopted  resembled 
that  of  Massachusetts,  Congress  being  given  power  to  override  the  veto  by 
a  two-thirds  vote  of  both  houses.  Since  then  all  but  four  of  the  States 
have  given  their  Governors  the  veto  power.  A  Federal  negative  on  State 
laws  was  also  discussed,  but  wisely  abandoned.  The  general  feeling  is  that 
the  veto  power  has  been  useful  to  good  government.  It  was  for  a  long  time 
used  but  sparingly.  Washington  vetoed  two  bills,  Adams  and  Jefferson  (and 
also  J.  Q.  Adams,  Van  Buren,  Taylor  and  Fillmore)  none,  Madison  six, 
Monroe  one,  Jackson  twelve,  Tyler  nine,  Polk  three,  Pierce  nine,  Buchanan 
seven,  Lincoln  three,  Johnson  twenty-one,  Grant  forty-three,  Hayes  twelve, 
Arthur  four,  Cleveland  (first  administration)  301,  mostly  private  pension 
bills.  Of  acts  passed  over  the  veto,  the  numbers  are:  Tyler  one,  Pierce  five, 
Johnson  fifteen,  Grant  four,  Hayes  one,  Arthur  one,  Cleveland  two.  The 
vetoes  most  important  historically  were  those  by  which  Madison,  Monroe 
and  Jackson  checked  the  "  internal  improvement "  policy,  Tyler's  bank  and 
tariff  vetoes,  and  those  of  Johnson  upon  the  Freedmen's  Bureau  Acts,  the 
Civil  Rights  Act,  the  Tenure  of  Office  Act,  and  the  Reconstruction  Acts,  all 
of  which,  save  the  first  Freedmen's  Bureau  Bill,  were  passed  over  his  veto. 
History  by  Mason. 

Veto,  Pocket.  The  Constitution  provides  that,  if  the  President  does  not 
either  sign  or  veto  a  bill  within  ten  days,  it  shall  become  law  without  his 
signature,  "  unless  the  Congress  by  their  adjournment  prevent  its  return,  in 
which  case  it  shall  not  be  a  law."  This  gives  the  President  opportunity  to 
prevent  a  bill  from  becoming  law,  if  it  is  passed  in  the  last  days  of  a  ses- 
sion, by  simply  taking  no  action  upon  it.  This  is  called  the  "  pocket  veto." 
It  was  first  used  by  President  Madison  in  1812  in  the  case  of  a  naturaliza- 
tion act.  But  the  first  conspicuous  instances  were  those  by  General  Jack- 
son, seven  of  whose  twelve  vetoes  were  of  this  sort. 

^  Vice- Admiral,  a  grade  created  by  Act  of  Congress  in  1864.  It  was  at  the 
time  of  creation  the  highest  naval  office,  but  was  outranked  by  that  of 
admiral,  created  two  years  later.  By  the  Act  of  January  24,  1873,  Congress 
provided  that  when  the  offices  of  admiral  and  vice-admiral  became  vacant 
the  grades  should  cease  to  exist,  that  of  rear-admiral  to  be  then  deemed  the 
highest.  On  the  death  of  Vice- Admiral  Rowan  in  1890  the  grade  became 
extinct,  During  the  colonial  period  it  was  usual  for  the  royal  governor  of 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 


68 1 


a  colony  to  be  also  appointed  vice-admiral,  which  made  him  head  of  the 
colonial  admiralty  courts. 

Vice-President.  The  office  of  Vice-President  was  provided  by  the  Con- 
stitution of  1787,  which  provided  that  in  case  of  the  removal,  death,  resig- 
nation or  disability  of  the  President,  his  office  should  devolve  on  the  Vice- 
President,  whose  only  function  meantime  was  to  preside  over  the  Senate.  At 
first  the  electors  did  not  vote  for  President  and  Vice-President  separately,  but 
he  who  received  the  second  largest  number  of  votes  was  made  Vice-President. 
The  modern  practice  was  brought  in  by  the  Twelfth  Amendment  in  1804. 
The  Vice-President  has  succeeded  the  President  on  four  occasions,  in  each 
case  by  reason  of  the  President's  death:  Tyler  succeeded  Harrison  in  1841, 
Fillmore,  Taylor,  in  1850;  Johnson,  Lincoln,  in  1865;  Arthur,  Garfield,  in 
1881.  The  attempt  was  made  in  1841  to  give  Tyler  only  the  title  and  rights 
of  "  Acting  President,"  but  he  claimed  the  full  office  of  President  A  list 
of  the  Vice-Presidents  follows: 


Name. 

State. 

Political  party. 

Qualified.  , 

E  Adams  
Adams  

Massachusetts 
Massachusetts 
Virginia     .    . 
New  York     . 
New  York     . 
New  York     . 
Massachusetts 
New  York     . 
New  York     . 
South  Carolina 
South  Carolina 
New  York     . 
Kentucky 
Virginia     .   . 
Pennsylvania 
New  York     . 
Alabama    .   . 
Kentucky 
Maine        .    . 
Tennessee 
Indiana      .   . 
Massachusstts 
New  York     . 
New  York    . 
Indiana     .   . 
New  York     . 
Illinois 

June               3,  1789 
December       2,  1793 
March             4,  1797 
March             4,  1801 
March             4,  1805 
March             4,  1809 
March             4,  1813 
March             4,  1817 
March             5,  1821 
March             4,  1825 
March             4,  1829 
March             4,  1833 
March             4,  1837 
March             4,  1841 
March             4,  1845 
March             5,  1849 
March            4,  1853 
March             4,  1857 
March            4,  1861 
March             4,  1865 
March             4,  1869 
March             4,  1873. 
March             5,  1877 
March             4,  ibSi 
March             4,  1885 
March             4,  1889 
March             4,  1893 
March             4,  1897 

Federalist  ....... 

Dem.  -Republican 
Detn.-Republican 
Dem.  -Republican 
Dem.-Republican 
Dem.  -Republican 
Dem.-Republican 
Dem.-Republican 
Dem.  -Republican 
Dem.  -Republican 

• 

Aaron  Burr  
George  Clinton  »  . 

Elbridge  Gerry  

Daniel  D.  Tompkins  .  .  . 
Daniel  D.  Tompkins  .  .  . 
John  C  Calhoun  . 

John  C.  Calhoun  .  .  ."  . 
Martin  Van  Buren  .... 
Richard  M.  Johnson  .  .  . 

Democratic  .    .    . 
Elected  by  Whigs 

• 

Millard  Fillmore  ..... 
William  R  King  .  . 

Whig 

John  C.  Breckinridge  .  .  . 
Hannibal  Hamlin  .... 
Andrew  Johnson  
Schuyler  Colfax  

Democratic  
Republican  

William  A.  Wheeler  .  .  . 
Chester  A.  Arthur  .... 
Thomas  A.  Hendricks  .  . 
Levi  P.  Morton  ..... 

Republican  ... 

Democratic  

Republican  ...... 

Adlai  E.  Stevenson  .... 
Garret  A.  Hobart  .... 

New  Jersey  .    .    . 

Republican       

Of  these  Clinton,  Gerry,  King,  Wilson  and  Hendricks  died  in  office;  Clinton 
in  1812,  Gerry  in  1814,  King  in  1853,  Wilson  in  1875,  Hendricks  in  1885. 
Calhoun  resigned  in  1832. 

Vicksburg,  Miss.,  scene  of  an  important  battle  and  siege  during  the  Civil 
War.  The  battle  occurred  December  28  and  29,  1862,  while  Grant  and 
Sherman  were  forcing  their  way  down  the  Mississippi  with  the  Army  of  the 
West.  The  Confederate  leader  Johnston  lay  posted  along  the  Yazoo  River, 
holding  the  hills  between  Vicksburg  and  Haines'  Bluff.  Sherman  caused  a 


682  DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

feint  to  be  made  upon  the  right  of  the  enemy,  while  his  main  force  attacked 
the  centre,  crossing  the  intervening  bayou  for  that  purpose.  The  fight  was 
begun  with  a  heavy  play  of  artillery  from  both  armies,  and  Sherman's 
troops  were  made  to  face  a  scathing  fire  of  musketry  during  their  attempt 
to  reach  the  hills  upon  which  the  Confederates  were  posted.  The  Federal 
soldiers  were  obliged  to  scoop  holes  in  the  sand  banks  for  steps.  Every 
assault  was  repelled,  and  Sherman  lost  heavily.  A  heavy  rain  the  next  day 
made  another  attack  impossible.  By  May,  1863,  Grant  and  Sherman  had  so 
far  been  successful  in  their  operations  along  the  Mississippi  that  after  having 
defeated  the  Confederates  at  Champion  Hills  and  Big  Black  River,  they  had 
compelled  Pemberton,  the  Confederate  leader,  to  retreat  into  Vicksburg.  By 
May  19  Grant  had  begun  a  siege  of  that  town  with  an  army  of  30,000  men. 
Pemberton  commanded  over  25,000  Confederates.  Grant's  army  was  rein- 
forced during  the  siege  until  it  numbered  70,000.  Johnston  had  telegraphed 
Pemberton  to  surrender  the  town  and  escape  with  his  army  if  possible,  but 
it  was  then  too  late.  Porter  held  the  Federal  base  of  supplies  along  the 
Yazoo  River.  Before  the  city  Grant  occupied  the  centre,  with  Sherman  on 
his  right  and  McClernand  on  his  left  On  the  Confederate  side,  Stevenson 
occupied  five  miles  from  the  Warrenton  Road  to  the  railroad,  with  Bowen  in 
reserve.  The  fortifications  were  bastioned  earthworks,  and  there  were  pro- 
visions for  two  months.  After  some  skirmishing,  Grant  ordered  a  grand 
assault  May  22.  But  this  proved  a  signal  failure  and  cost  him  2500  men; 
so  he  settled  down  to  take  the  city  by  regular  approaches.  There  was  min- 
ing and  counter-mining  and  a  constant  bombardment  from  Grant's  batteries 
and  the  Federal  gunboats  and  bomb-rafts,  of  which  there  were  a  number, 
both  above  and  below  the  city.  Pemberton  held  out  bravely,  for  he  had  a 
great  deal  to  contend  with,  both  from  lack  of  supplies  and  from  discontent 
among  his  men.  Finally,  July  3,  after  forty-seven  days  of  siege,  perceiving 
that  Grant  contemplated  a  final  assault,  Pemberton  asked  for  an  armistice,1 
and  on  July  4  he  surrendered.  The  garrison  was  paroled  and  allowed  to  go  free. 

Vilas,  William  F.,  born  in  1840,  commanded  a  regiment  at  Vicksburg  in 
1863.  He  was  Postmaster  General  in  Cleveland's  Cabinet  from  1885  to  1887 
and  Secretary  of  the  Interior  from  1887  to  1888.  U.  S.  Senator  from  Wis- 
consin, 1891—97. 

Villere's  Plantation  (near  New  Orleans).  The  British,  when  moving  upon 
New  Orleans,  encamped  here.  December  23,  1814,  General  Jackson  made  a 
night  attack  by  land  and  river.  After  severe  fighting  the  Americans  with- 
drew. Their  loss  in  all  was  213  men;  the  British  lost  about  400. 

Vincennes,  Jean  B.  B.  (1688-1736),  Canadian  explorer,  attained  great 
influence  over  the  Miami  Indians,  among  whom  he  resided  for  some  time. 
He  rendered  valuable  services  against  the  Foxes  near  Detroit  in  1712.  In 
1725  he  built  a  fort  and  trading  post  on  the  present  site  of  Vincennes,  Ind. 
He  joined  the  expedition  of  D'Artaguette  against  the  Chickasaws,  by  whom 
they  were  finally  defeated  and  burned  at  the  stake. 

Vincennes,  Ind.,  oldest  town  in  the  State,  was  settled  by  the  French  in 
1702.  it  came  into  the  possession  of  England  on  the  surrender  of  Canada 
in  1763,  but  was  taken  from  them  by  the  American  army  under  General 


DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  683 

George  Rogers  Clark  in  1779.     It  became  the  capital  of  Indiana  in  1800  and 
remained  the  seat  of  the  Government  until  1814. 

Vinland.     (See  Norsemen.) 

Vinton,  Samuel  F.  (1792-1862),  represented  Ohio  in  the  U.  S.  Congress 
as  a  Whig  from  1823  to  I^27  and  from  1843  to  1851. 


Viomenil,  Antoine  C.  du  H.,  Baron  de  (1728-1792),  was  appointed  sec- 
ond. in  command  of  the  French  force  under  Count  Rochambeau  to  aid  the 
American  colonists.  He  distinguished  himself  at  Yorktown  where  he  led 
the  assault  on  the  redoubt. 

Virginia,  the  "  Old  Dominion,"  was  one  of  the  original  thirteen  States.  Its 
shores  were  perhaps  explored  by  Sebastian  Cabot  (1498)  and  Verrazano 
(1524),  and  certainly  by  Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  who  attempted  to  colonize  the 
territory  which  he  named  Virginia  in  honor  of  Queen  Elizabeth.  In  1606, 
the  London  Company  was  chartered  and  obtained  a  grant  of  the  land 
between  the  thirty-fourth  and  forty-first  degrees  of  latitude.  Three  years 
later  new  boundaries  were  given  to  Virginia.  Starting  from  Old  Point  Com- 
fort it  was  to  extend  two  hundred  miles  north  and  south,  and  '  '  west  and 
northwest  "  to  the  South  Sea  or  Pacific  Ocean.  The  London  Company 
were  to  have  the  profits  of  the  colony  for  twenty-one  years,  after  which  they 
were  to  pass  to  the  crown.  The  government  of  the  colony  was  placed  in 
the  hands  of  the  two  councils,  one  of  which  was  resident  in  the  colony.  All 
settlers  were  guaranteed  all  rights  as  if  living  in  England.  One  hundred 
and  forty-three  colonists  set  sail  for  Virginia  and  in  1607  founded  Jamestown, 
the  first  permanent  English  settlement  in  America.  For  the  first  years  the 
colonists  were  too  largely  "  gentlemen,"  who  were  totally  unfit  to  endure  the 
hardships  of  pioneer  life,  and  the  colony  was  saved  only  by  the  exertions  of 
John  Smith.  In  accordance  with  royal  instructions  the  colonists  were  bur- 
dened by  the  communal  system  until  1612.  Samuel  Argall  as  Governor  in 
1617  exercised  all  the  tyranny  of  martial  law  until  recalled  the  following 
year.  Under  his  successor,  Yeardley,  the  first  representative  assembly  in  the 
history  of  America  convened  (1619)  at  Jamestown.  This  encouraged  immi- 
gration, and  in  the  same  year  some  women  appeared  in  Virginia.  Slavery 
was  introduced  (1619)  by  the  sale  of  twenty  African  slaves  from  a  Dutch 
man-of-war.  Factions  having  appeared  in  the  London  Company  a  writ  of 
quo  warranto  was  issued  against  the  charter,  and  in  1624  Virginia  became  a 
royal  colony.  Virginia  remained  loyal  to  Charles  I.  during  his  struggle 
with  Parliament,  and  became  the  home  of  many  royalist  fugitives  who  were 
the  ancestors  of  many  of  the  most  famous  men  in  the  history  of  the  State. 
Charles  II.  repaid  the  loyalty  of  the  people  by  granting  the  entire  territory 
to  Lords  Arlington  and  Culpepper,  and  by  the  enforcement  of  the  Naviga- 
tion Act,  which  compelled  the  colonists  to  sell  all  their  products  in  English 
markets.  The  discontent  was  increased  by  the  tyranny  of  Governor  Ber- 
keley and  an  uprising  of  the  Indians,  and  Bacon's  Rebellion  followed  in 
1676.  Upon  the  death  of  Bacon  his  followers  were  defeated  and  many 
hanged.  From  this  time  until  the  Revolution  the  colony  increased  in  popu- 
lation, wealth  and  influence,  and  was  recognized  as  the  leading  power  in  the 
struggle  against  England.  Her  militia,  under  Washington,  did  good  service 


684  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

in  Braddock's  campaign  in  the  French  and  Indian  War.  The  assembly  was 
dissolved  in  1774  by  Governor  Dunmore,  when  a  protest  was  being  drawn 
up  against  the  Boston  Port  Bill,  but  the  members  immediately  reassembled 
in  convention.  In  May,  1776,  another  convention  adopted  the  first  con- 
stitution of  the  State.  The  delegates  in  Congress  from  Virginia  proposed 
the  declaration  of  the  independence  of  the  colonies.  Virginia  took  a  promi- 
nent part  in  the  struggles  of  the  Revolution  which  closed  on  her  soil  by 
the  capture  of  Yorktown  and  Cornwallis,  October  19,  1781.  Much  oppo- 
sition was  made  to  the  Federal  Constitution,  which  threatened  to  prevent 
its  adoption,  but  it  was  finally  ratified  by  a  State  convention  on  January  25, 
1788.  The  boundaries  have  caused  much  dispute  because  of  the  extensive 
claims  made  by  Virginia.  Her  western  territory  was  surrendered  to  the 
general  Government  because  of  the  reluctance  of  Maryland  to  ratify  the  Arti- 
cles of  Confederation  until  that  should  be  done.  Kentucky  became  a  sepa- 
rate State  in  1792.  Virginia  has  been  jealous  of  all  encroachments  by  the 
national  Government  and  has  uniformly  supported  the  Democratic  party. 
Until  1825,  the  influence  of  Virginia  in  national  politics  was  pre-eminent. 
In  1798,  a  protest  was  made  to  the  centralizing  policy  of  Hamilton  and  the 
Federalist  party  by  the  famous  Kentucky  and  Virginia  Resolutions.  From 
1806  to  1808,  the  "  Quids,"  under  John  Randolph,  strenuously  opposed  the 
nomination  of  Madison  to  the  Presidency.  The  more  rapid  growth  of  the 
western  part  of  the  State  caused  injustice  from  the  old  apportionment  of 
representation.  A  convention  assembled  in  1829,  and  a  readjustment  was 
accomplished  in  the  constitution  of  1830.  In  1831,  a  negro  insurrection 
broke  out  under  Nat  Turner,  which  taught  the  danger  of  all  agitation  of  the 
slavery  question.  (John  Brown  and  other  abolitionists  attempted  to  free  the 
slaves  at  Harper's  Ferry,  1859.)  Virginia  did  her  utmost  to  avoid  war  in  1860 
and  1 86 1,  and  called  a  peace  convention  of  all  the  States.  The  people  of 
Virginia  knew  that  in  case  of  war  their  State  would  be  the  battle-ground. 
An  ordinance  of  secession  was  passed  by  a  State  convention  April  17,  1861, 
and  ratified  by  a  popular  vote  May  23,  1861.  During  the  war  Richmond 
was  the  capital  of  the  Confederacy,  and  Virginia  the  scene  of  many  of  the 
greatest  battles.  The  State  was  readmitted  January  26,  1870.  The  State 
was  Democratic  until  the  union  of  the  Republicans  and  Readjusters  under 
Mahone,  who  was  elected  U.  S.  Senator  in  1879.  There  have  been  long- 
continued  agitations  respecting  the  payment  of  the  State  debt  of  $30,000,000, 
contracted  before  the  war.  In  1891  a  settlement  was  made,  the  debt  being 
scaled  down  to  $19,000,000,  to  bear  two  and  subsequently  three  per  cent 
interest.  The  population  of  the  State  in  1790  was  747,610;  in  1890,  1,655,- 
980.  History  by  Cooke  and  by  Howison. 

Virginia,  University  of,  Charlottesville,  Va.,  was  chartered  in  1819  and 
opened  in  1824.  Its  organization,  plan  of  government  and  system  of 
instruction  are  due  to  Thomas  Jefferson,  who  planned  it  after  the  model  of 
European  universities,  and  by  the  original  ideas  upon  which  he  founded  it 
made  it  for  a  time  the  most  influential  school  in  America.  It  early  devel- 
oped the  elective  system.  The  department  of  medicine  was  founded  in 
1827,  that  of  law  in  1851.  The  university  has  prospered  since  the  Civil 
War. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  685 

Virginia  Company.  On  April  10,  1606,  James  I.  set  apart  by  charter  the 
territory  between  Cape  Fear  and  Passamaquoddy  Bay  to  be  settled  by  two 
rival  companies,  the  Virginia  Company 'of  London,  and  the  North  Virginia 
or  Plymouth  Company.  To  the  London,  or  Virginia  Company  proper,  was 
granted  the  land  between  parallels  34°  and  41°  north,  or  between  Cape  Fear 
and  Long  Island.  This  company  was  composed  of  London  merchants  and 
adventurers.  In  1606  an  expedition  consisting  of  three  vessels  and  143 
men,  commanded  by  Christopher  Newport,  was  fitted  out,  and  succeeded  in 
founding,  May  13,  1607,  the  first  permanent  English  settlement  in  America 
at  Jamestown,  Va.  In  1609  a  new  charter  was  granted  and  the  company 
reincorporated  under  the  name  of  the  London  Company  of  Virginia;  still 
another  in  1612.  Other  colonizing  parties  arrived  in  1609,  1611  and  1619, 
and  by  1620  the  colony  of  Virginia  was  firmly  established.  The  majority 
in  the  company  was  of  the  political  party  in  England  opposed  to  the  court. 
It  fell  into  difficulties  with  the  king,  who  in  1624  caused  its  charter  to  be 
annulled.  The  company  then  dissolved. 

Virginia  Coupon  Cases.  There  were  eight  of  these  cases.  All  related 
to  the  legislation  of  the  State  of  Virginia  in  1871,  authorizing  the  receipt 
of  coupons  of  the  State's  funded  debt,  in  payment  of  taxes  and  debts  due 
the  State.  These  cases  came  before  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States 
in  1884.  The  act  of  the  Virginia  General  Assembly  of  1882  required  pay- 
ment of  tax  dues  in  "  gold,  silver,  United  States  treasury  notes,  national 
bank  currency,  and  nothing  else."  Hence  the  tax  collectors  refused  to 
receive  coupons  in  payment  of  taxes  as  authorized  by  the  Act  of  1871. 
The  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States  decided  the  Act  of  1882  void  as 
impairing  the  obligation  of  the  contract  of  the  Act  of  1871,  and  judgment 
was  found  for  the  plaintiffs,  the  tax-payers. 

"  Virginia  Gazette."  There  were  four  "gazettes"  published  in  Virginia 
in  the  last  century  and  all  at  Williamsburg.  William  Parks  established  the 
first,  August,  1736,  it  being  the  first  newspaper  published  in  the  province. 
Publication  suspended  1750.  William  Hunter  founded  the  second,  February, 
1751.  Publication  was  suspended  after  the  Revolution.  The  third  was 
begun  by  William  Rind,  May,  1766.  Publication  was  suspended  1774. 
Davis  and  Clarkson  published  the  fourth  "gazette,"  beginning  April,  1775, 
and  continuing  several  years.  There  was  also  a  Virginia  Gazette  published 
in  Richmond  for  a  very  short  period  about  1804  by  A.  Davis,  a  semi-weekly. 

Virginia  Historical  Society,  organized  in  1831  and  chartered  in  1834 
under  the  title  of  "  The  Virginia  Historical  and  Philosophical  Society;"  but 
its  researches  have  been  mainly  devoted  to  history.  John  Marshall  was  one 
of  the  early  presidents.  The  society  has  recently  published  a  series  of 
volumes  of  historical  material. 

Virginia  Judges,  case  of  the  Superior  Court  Judges  of  Virginia.  An  act 
of  the  Virginia  Legislature  of  1779  constituted  a  Court  of  Appeals  to  consist 
of  the  Judges  of  the  High  Court  of  Chancery,  General  Court  and  Court  of 
Admiralty.  Afterward  from  time  to  time  various  acts  were  passed  by  the 
legislature  affecting  the  privileges  of  the  Court  of  Appeals.  In  1788  this 
court  declared  that  the  legislature  could  not  control  the  prerogatives  of  the 


686  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

court  under  the  provisions  of  the  State  constitution;  that  the  judges  of  this 
court  could  not  be  required  to  act  as  district  judges;  that  the  legislature 
could  not  reduce  the  salaries  of  the  judges,  their  duties  remaining  the  same, 
and  that  the  existing  judges  could  not  be  removed  during  good  behavior. 
This  is  one  of  the  earliest  instances  of  a  court's  pronouncing  upon  the  con- 
stitutionality of  an  act  of  the  legislature. 

Virginia  Resolutions,  resolutions  passed  by  the  Virginia  Legislature  in 
1798,  in  antagonism  to  the  loose  construction  view  of  the  Federalists.  The 
passage  of  the  Alien  and  Sedition  laws  was  the  direct  cause  of  their  adoption. 
They  were  framed  by  James  Madison  and  sent  to  the  legislatures  of  the  other 
States,  by  which  they  were  not  approved.  They  declared  the  Union  to  be  a 
compact,  each  party  to  which  had  a  right  to  "  interpose  "  in  order  to  protect 
and  defend  itself  against  infringements  of  the  compact.  They  regretted  the 
introduction  of  a  broad  construction  of  the  constitution,  as  tending  toward 
a  monarchy.  They  protested  against  the  Alien  and  Sedition  laws  as  uncon- 
stitutional. With  the  Kentucky  Resolutions  of  1798  and  1799,  these  were 
the  foundations  of  the  later  doctrines  of  nullification  and  secession. 

"Virginius,"  an  American  merchant  vessel,  captured  on  the  high  seas 
near  Jamaica  by  the  Spanish  man-of-war  "  Tornado,"  October  31,  1873,  on 
the  ground  that  it  intended  landing  men  to  assist  in  the  Cuban  insurrection 
then  in  progress.  Four  Cubans  found  among  the  passengers,  and  Captain 
Fry,  with  a  number  of  others,  were  executed.  This  caused  consider- 
able excitement  in  the  United  States.  Spain,  however,  made  immediate 
and  ample  reparation.  The  incident  served  to  foment  the  filibustering 
spirit  against  Cuba,  still  rife  among  a  certain  class  of  statesmen  in  this 
country. 

Volney,  Constantin  F.  C.  B.,  Count  de  (1757-1820),  traveled  in  the 
United  States  from  1795  to  1799.  He  conducted  a  controversy  regarding 
John  Adams'  work  on  the  U.  S.  Constitution.  He  wrote  "  La  loi  naturelle  " 
and  "  Tableau  du  climat  et  du  sol  des  Etats  Unis  d'Ame'rique." 

Volunteers.  On  April  15,  1861,  after  the  news  of  the  firing  upon  Fort 
Sumter  reached  Washington,  President  Lincoln  promptly  called  for  75,000 
volunteers.  The  Northern  States  eagerly  responded.  April  19,  a  Massa- 
chusetts regiment,  en  route  to  Washington,  was  attacked  by  a  Baltimore 
mob.  Jefferson  Davis  also  called  for  volunteers,  and  the  Southern  States 
obeyed  his  call  with  alacrity.  Later  in  1861  Congress  provided  for  the  calling 
out  of  500,000  volunteers,  and  throughout  the  war  they  continued  a  chief 
variety  of  fighting  material. 

Voorhees,  Daniel  W.,  born  in  1827,  was  U.  S.  District  Attorney  for 
Indiana  from  1858  to  1861.  He  represented  Indiana  in  the  U.  S.  Congress 
as  a  Democrat  from  1861  to  1866  and  from  1869  to  1873.  In  l877  he 
became  a  U.  S.  Senator,  and  has  served  on  the  Finance  Committee  until  the 
present  time  (1893).  He  has  been  prominent  as  an  advocate  of  free  silver 
coinage,  but  in  1893  led  the  opposition  thereto.  His  present  term  expires 
in  1897.  Died  April  10,  1897. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  687 


Waddell,  James  I.  (1824-1886),  entered  the  U.  S.  navy  in  1841.  He 
served  during  the  Mexican  War.  He  was  made  a  lieutenant  of  the  "  Louis- 
iana" in  the  Confederate  service  in  1862.  In  1863  he  took  command  of  the 
"  Shenandoah,"  with  which  he  preyed  upon  the  U.  S.  merchant  marine,  and 
made  thirty-eight  captures.  He  did  not  learn  of  the  fall  of  the  Confederacy 
until  three  months  after  its  occurrence. 

Wade,  Benjamin  Franklin  (1800-1878),  an  American  statesman,  was  a 
lawyer  and  Whig  politician  in  Ohio;  he  had  been  in  the  State  Senate  and 
served  as  State  Judge  before  his  entrance  into  the  U.  S.  Senate.  His  term 
in  that  body  covers  the  long  period  of  1851-1869.  He  rapidly  became 
known  as  one  of  the  most  outspoken  anti-slavery  and  later  Republican 
leaders.  He  strongly  opposed  the  Kansas-Nebraska  measure,  and  during  the 
Rebellion  he  was  chairman  of  the  Joint  Congressional  Committee  on  the 
Conduct  of  the  War.  Senator  Wade  opposed  President  Lincoln  to  some 
degree  on  the  Reconstruction  problem,  and  was  naturally  in  the  opposition 
to  President  Johnson.  He  was  chairman  of  the  Committee  on  Territories, 
and  was  chosen  President  pro  tern,  of  the  Senate  in  1867.  President  Grant 
appointed  him  to  the  San  Domingo  commission  in  1871.  Wade  was  a  leading 
candidate  for  the  vice-presidency  in  1868,  and  chairman  of  the  Ohio  dele- 
gation in  the  convention  that  nominated  Hayes. 

Wadsworth,  James  S.  (1807-1864),  was  a  prominent  supporter  of  the 
Free-Soil  party  in  New  York.  In  1861  he  was  a  delegate  to  the  Peace  Con- 
vention in  Washington.  He  was  volunteer  aide  to  General  McDowell  at 
Bull  Run  in  1861.  He  was  in  command  of  a  brigade  before  Washington, 
and  was  military  governor  of  the  District  of  Columbia  in  1862.  He  com- 
manded a  division  at  Fredericksburg  and  at  Gettysburg,  where  he  lost  over 
half  his  men.  He  was  killed  while  leading  his  division  at  the  Wilderness. 

Wadsworth,  Peleg  (1748-1829),  fought  at  Long  Island  in  1776,  and  was 
second  in  command  of  the  Penobscot  expedition  in  1779.  He  represented 
Maine  in  the  U.  S.  Congress  from  1793  to  1807. 

Wagner,  Fort,  S.  C.,  in  possession  of  a  strong  body  of  Confederates  under 
Beauregard  in  1863  and  assaulted  without  success  by  General  Strong  with 
11,500  Federals  of  Gillmore's  command.  Strong  was  assisted  by  Dahlgren 
with  the  Federal  frigate,  "  Ironsides,"  and  six  monitors.  The  Federals 
desired  to  hold  Fort  Wagner  in  order  to  render  the  destruction  of  Fort 
Sumter  easier.  The  Federal  troops  were  secretly  landed  upon  the  south 
end  of  Morris  Island  and  the  Confederate  works  in  that  vicinity  easily  cap- 
tured. July  17  a  brief  assault  was  made,  which  was  quickly  repulsed  by  the 
Confederates.  July  18  the  assault  was  resumed.  Strong  was  mortally 
wounded  and  1200  men  were  lost.  Putnam,  and  Shaw,  who  led  a  colored 
regiment,  were  also  killed.  The  assaults  were  continued  upon  Sumter, 
however,  though  that  upon  Wagner  ceased.  Sumter  was  practically  destroyed 
by  July  23,  though  Beauregard's  force  nearly  twice  outnumbered  Gill» 
more's, 


5g8  DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Waite,  Morrison  R.  (1816-1888),  Chief  Justice,  was  admitted  to  the  bar 
in  1839  and  soon  was  acknowledged  as  a  leader.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
Ohio  Legislature  in  1849.  He  won  distinction  as  a  counsel  for  the  United 
States  in  the  Alabama  claims  before  the  tribunal  of  arbitration  at  Geneva, 
Switzerland,  from  1871  to  1872.  He  was  elected  President  of  the  Ohio 
Constitutional  Convention  in  1874.  He  became  Chief  Justice  of  the  U.  S. 
Supreme  Court  in  1874  and  served  until  his  death. 

Waldo  Patent.  In  1630,  Beauchamp  and  others  of  Massachusetts  obtained 
from  the  Council  for  New  England  a  grant  of  thirty  square  miles  on  the 
Penobscot  Bay  and  river.  This  was  afterward  called  the  "  Waldo  Patent," 
and  is  still  in  part  held  by  the  heirs  or  assigns  of  the  grantees. 

Waldseermiller,  Martin  (i47o?-after  1522),  German  geographer,  published 
an  "  Introduction  to  Cosmography,  with  the  Four  Voyages  of  Americus 
Vespucius."  He  advocated  the  name  "  America  "  for  the  New  World,  and 
seems  to  have  been  the  author  of  its  success. 

Walke,  Henry,  born  in  1808,  commanded  the  gunboats  at  Belmont  and 
the  "  Carondelet ' '  at  Forts  Fisher,  Donelson  and  Pillow  in  1862.  He  com- 
manded the  "Lafayette"  at  Grand  Gulf  in  1863. 

Walker,  Amasa  (1799-1875),  was  a  member  of  the  Massachusetts  Senate 
in  1849.  He  was  Secretary  of  the  State  from  1851  to  1853.  He  repre- 
sented Massachusetts  in  the  U.  S.  Congress  as  a  Republican  from  1862  to 
1863.  He  was  prominent  in  advocating  new  and  reformatory  measures, 
and  was  an  authority  on  questions  of  finance.  He  published  "  Nature  and 
Uses  of  Money  and  Mixed  Currency  "  and  "  Science  of  Wealth,  a  Manual 
of  Political  Economy." 

Walker,  Francis  A.,  born  in  1840,  was  adjutant-general  of  the  Second 
Army  Corps  during  the  Civil  War.  He  was  commissioner  of  Indian  affairs 
from  1871  to  1872.  He  was  professor  of  history  and  political  economy  at 
the  Yale  Scientific  School  from  1873  to  1881,  when  he  became  president  of 
the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology.  He  compiled  the  ninth  and 
tenth  censuses,  and  published  "  Money,  Trade  and  Industry,"  several  works 
on  political  economy  and  a  history  of  the  Second  Army  Corps.  Died  1897. 

Walker,  Robert  James  (1801-1869),  an  American  Cabinet  officer,  was 
educated  in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  studied  law,  and  removed  to 
Mississippi.  He  was  Democratic  U.  S.  Senator  from  that  State  from  1836  to 
1845.  He  favored  the  annexation  of  Texas,  and  the  same  year  refused  the 
nomination  for  Vice-President.  In  1845  President  Polk  called  him  to  the 
Treasury  Department  which  he  conducted  until  1849.  He  is  identified  with 
the  "Walker  revenue  tariff"  of  1846.  He  favored  the  warehouse  system 
and  the  creation  of  the  Interior  Department.  He  was  Governor  of  Kansas 
in  1857-1858,  and  during  the  war  was  U.  S.  financial  agent  in  Europe. 

Walker,  William  (1824-1860),  organized  an  unsuccessful  expedition  in 
1853  for  the  conquest  of  the  State  of  Sonora,  Mexico.  In  1855  he  was 
induced  to  aid  the  "  Liberal  "  party  in  the  Nicaragua  troubles.  He  gained  a 
victory  at  La  Virgen,and  took  possession  of  Granada.  He  became  Secretary 
Pf  War  and  commander-in-chie£  He  gained  undisputed  control  of  Nicaragua 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  689 

and  caused  himself  to  be  elected  President  in  1856.  His  government  was 
recognized  by  the  United  States.  He  was  defeated  in  an  insurrection  in  1857. 
He  made  two  subsequent  attempts  to  overthrow  governments  in  Central 
America,  in  one  of  which  he  was  captured  and  shot. 

Walker  vs.  Jennison,  a  case,  the  decision  in  which  in  1783  was  the  death- 
blow to  slavery  in  Massachusetts.  A  negro  servant  had  been  beaten  and 
imprisoned  by  a  citizen  who  claimed  him  as  his  slave.  The  public  would 
not  overlook  the  offence.  The  Supreme  Court  held  in  Worcester  County 
judged  the  defendant  guilty  of  assault  and  fined  him  forty  shillings.  The 
Court  held  that  the  State  Constitution  of  1780,  in  declaring  all  men  free 
and  equal,  had  abolished  slavery  in  Massachusetts. 

Wallace,  Lewis,  born  in  1827,  a  lawyer  and  politician  in  Indiana,  volun- 
teered in  the  war,  and  commanded  a  division  at  the  battle  of  Fort  Donelson. 
He  was  made  major-general  of  volunteers.  Previous  to  the  battle  of  Shiloh 
General  Wallace's  division  was  stationed  at  Crump's  Landing  near  the  main 
army;  his  force  could  not  reach  the  scene  for  the  first  day's  fighting,  but  took 
part  in  the  second  day's  work.  He  commanded  the  defences  of  Cincinnati 
in  anticipation  of  Kirby  Smith's  attack;  in  July,  1864,  in  the  battle  of  the 
Monocacy,  Wallace,  though  defeated  by  Barly,  gained  time  to  save  the  capital. 
He  was  Governor  of  Utah  1878-1881,  and  Minister  to  Turkey  1881-1885. 
Besides  a  life  of  President  Harrison,  General  Wallace  has  written  three 
successful  novels:  "  A  Fair  God,"  "  Ben-Hur  "  and  "  The  Prince  of  India." 

Wallace,  William  A.,  born  in  1827,  was  a  member  of  the  Pennsylvania 
Senate  from  1862  to  1867.  He  represented  Pennsylvania  in  the  U.  S.  Senate 
as  a  Democrat  from  1875  to  1881. 

Wallace,  William  H.  L.  (1821-1862),  served  during  the  Mexican  War. 
He  commanded  a  brigade  at  Fort  Donelson  and  at  Shiloh,  where  he  was 
mortally  wounded  after  a  gallant  stand  against  the  enemy. 

Wallace's  Reports,  law  reports  by  John  W.  Wallace,  in  twenty-three 
volumes,  of  cases  in  the  U.  S.  Supreme  Court,  1863-1875. 

Wallack,  James  W.  (1794-1864),  first  came  to  the  United  States  from 
England  in  1818.  He  was  a  favorite  actor  in  refined  comedy.  He  estab- 
lished Wallack's  Theatre  in  New  York  in  1861. 

Wallack,  John  Lester  (1820-1888),  was  proprietor  of  Wallack's  Theatre, 
New  York,  from  1864  to  1888.  He  was  a  popular  actor  of  refined  comedy. 
He  wrote  "  The  Veteran  "  and  "  Rosedale  "  for  the  stage. 

Walpole  Grant.  The  Wai  pole  Company  was  formed  in  1766.  In  1769 
the  company  petitioned  for  a  grant  of  2,500,000  acres  between  38°  and  42° 
north  latitude  and  east  of  the  Scioto  River.  August  14,  1772,  the  grant 
was  finally  made  by  the  crown.  The  Walpole  Company  was  opposed  by  the 
Mississippi  Company,  formed  some  years  later  by  a  body  of  wealthy  Vir- 
ginia planters. 

Walthall,  Edward  C.,  born  in  1831,  commanded  a  Confederate  regiment 
at  Fishing  Creek,  and  a  brigade  at  Missionary  Ridge  and  Nashville.  He 

44 


690  DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

was  elected  a  U.  S.  Senator  from  Mississippi  as  a  Democrat  in  1885.  He 
remained  in  office  until  his  death  in  1898.  . 

Walton,  George  (1740-1804),  was  prominent  in  the  pre-Revolutionary 
movements  in  Georgia.  He  represented  Georgia  in  the  Continental  Con- 
gress from  1776  to  1781,  and  signed  the  Declaration  of  Independence.  He 
commanded  a  battalion  at  Savannah  in  1778.  He  was  Governor  of  Georgia 
in  1779  and  1789.  He  represented  Georgia  in  the  U.  S.  Senate  from  1795 
to  1796. 

Walworth,  Reuben  H.  (1788-1867),  represented  New  York  in  the  U.  S. 
Congress  as  a  Democrat  from  1821  to  1823.  He  was  Chancellor  of  New 
York  from  1828  to  1848.  He  was  pronounced  by  Joseph  Story  "  the  greatest 
equity  jurist  living." 

Wampanoags,  a  tribe  of  Massachusetts  Indians  who  at  first  showed  great 
friendliness  toward  the  whites.  In  1621  they  entered  into  an  amicable 
compact  with  the  Plymouth  settlers,  and  continued  in  peaceable  trade  rela- 
tions with  them.  Later  Massasoit,  the  chief  of  the  tribe,  was  on  terms  of 
friendship  with  Roger  Williams.  They,  however,  resisted  all  attempts  to 
convert  them  to  Christianity.  Their  last  chief,  Philip,  resided  at  Mount 
Hope,  and  under  him  a  disastrous  war  was  waged  with  the  whites,  which  in 
1676  resulted  in  the  overthrow  of  the  tribe.  Their  power  was  broken,  and 
they  were  rapidly  dispersed. 

Wampum,  or  Wompan,  an  Indian  word  meaning  "strings  of  white 
beads."  Wampum  was  used  as  money,  according  to  tradition,  first  by  the 
Narragansett  Indians  and  was  afterward  generally  adopted  by  the  Indians 
along  the  eastern  coast  as  a  medium  of  exchange.  It  was  also  used  as  money 
by  the  colonists  of  New  England  and  the  Middle  States,  being  deemed  a 
legal  tender  from  1627  to  1661.  Wampum  was  manufactured  from  beads 
made  from  the  stems  of  periwinkle  shells,  common  along  the  coast.  These 
shells  were  both  white  and  black,  and  the  value  of  the  latter  as  a  medium 
of  exchange  was  twice  that  of  the  former.  The  beads  were  strung  together 
and  sewn  upon  belts,  and  were  also  worn  as  necklaces  and  wristlets.  The 
black  beads  were  called  "  Suckanhock."  Wampum  was  also  known  under 
the  Dutch  name  "  Sewon,"  or  "  Zeewand."  Payments  were  made  by  strip- 
ping off  individual  beads,  or  by  cutting  off  portions  of  the  embroidered  belts. 

Wanamaker,  John,  born  in  1838,  of  Philadelphia,  established  a  system 
of  co-operation  among  employees  in  his  store,  which  is  one  of  the  largest  in 
the  United  States.  He  was  Postmaster-General  in  Harrison's  Cabinet  from 
1889  to  l893- 

War,  Secretary  of,  an  office  created  by  Act  of  Continental  Congress,  Feb- 
ruary 7,  1781.  This  office  was  designed  to  supersede  the  Board  of  War. 
Benjamin  Lincoln  was  the  first  Secretary  (1781-83),  Henry  Knox  the  second 
(r7?5-89).  Under  Knox  the  department  was  developed  and  well  conducted 
until  the  establishment  of  the  present  War  Department  in  1789. 

War  Democrats,  members  of  the  Democratic  party  who  supported  the 
administration  during  the  Civil  War,  in  spite  of  previous  party  connections 
with  the  secessionists. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  691 

War  Department.  The  Continental  Congress  at  first  managed  military 
affairs  through  a  committee.  In  1776  the  Board  of  War  and  Ordnance  was 
created,  and  in  1777  a  new  Board  of  War,  not  composed  of  members  of  Con- 
gress. In  1781  a  Secretary  of  War  was  provided  for.  August  7,  1789,  the 
First  Congress  established  the  War  Department.  Henry  Knox,  who  had 
been  "  Secretary  of  War  "  since  1785,  was  continued  in  the  new  office. 

"War  of  1812.     (See  Great  Britain,  Second  War  with.) 

Ward,  Artemus  (1727-1800),  became  a  major  in  1755,  and  served  under 
General  Abercrombie  against  the  French  and  Indians.  He  was  a  prominent 
member  of  the  Massachusetts  Legislature.  He  was  made  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  Massachusetts  forces  in  1775.  He  was  in  nominal  command 
at  the  battle  of  Bunker  Hill,  but  was  not  in  the  field.  He  commanded  the 
forces  besieging  Boston  until  the  arrival  of  Washington,  when  he  became 
second  in  command.  He  represented  Massachusetts  in  the  U.  S.  Congress 
as  a  Federalist  from  1791  to  1795. 

Ward,  Frederick  T.  (1831-1862),  attained  high  rank  as  a  soldier  in  the 
service  of  the  Chinese  Emperor.  At  the  time  of  the  "  Trent "  affair  between 
England  and  the  United  States  he  prepared  to  seize  British  vessels  in 
Chinese  waters. 

Ward,  John  Q.  A.,  born  in  1830,  won  distinction  as  a  sculptor  by  his 
statues,  "The  Freedman,"  "The  Indian  Hunter,"  "The  Pilgrim,"  and 
"  The  Good  Samaritan."  He  has  executed  statues  of  Washington,  Putnam 
and  Garfield. 

Ward,  Nancy  (eighteenth  century),  prophetess  of  the  Cherokee  Indians, 
sympathized  with  the  white  settlers  and  saved  many  from  the  stake.  She 
gave  warnings  of  every  raid  of  the  Cherokees  upon  the  whites. 

Ward,  Nathaniel  (1578?— 1652),  was  charged  with  non-conformity  in 
England  and  came  to  Massachusetts  in  1634.  He  compiled  the  "  Body  of 
Liberties  "  for  the  Massachusetts  colony  which  was  adopted  by  the  general 
court  in  1641.  It  was  the  first  code  of  laws  established  in  New  England. 
He  returned  to  England  in  1646.  He  wrote  "  The  Simple  Cobbler  of  Agga- 
wam  in  America,"  a  political  satire. 

Ward,  Samuel  (1725-1776),  was  Governor  of  Rhode  Island  from  1762  to 
1763  and  from  1765  to  1767.  He  was  a  delegate  to  the  Continental  Congress 
from  1774  to  1775.  He  was  a  zealous  patriot. 

Ware,  Henry  (1764-1845),  was  Hollis  professor  of  divinity  in  Harvard 
College  from  1805  to  1840.  His  acceptance  caused  the  separation  of  the 
Unitarians,  of  whom  he  became  a  leader,  from  the  Orthodox  Congregation- 
alists. 

Ware,  William  (1797-1852),  was  pastor  of  the  First  Congregational 
Church  in  New  York  from  1821  to  1836.  He  wrote  "American  Unitarian 
Biography,"  "  The  Works  and  Genius  of  Washington  Allston  "  and  "  Life 
of  Nathaniel  Bacon,"  and  also  several  historical  novels,  "  Zenobia,"  "  Aure- 
lian,"  etc. 


692  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Ware  vs.  Hylton,  a  Supreme  Court  case  of  importance.  In  1796  Ware, 
a  citizen  of  Great  Britain,  brought  suit  against  Hylton,  of  Virginia,  for  the 
recovery  of  a  debt.  Hylton  refused  payment  on  the  plea  that  the  act  of  the 
Virginia  Legislature  of  1777  enabled  debtors  of  British  subjects  to  pay  such 
debts  to  the  State  loan  office.  Hylton  claimed  to  have  done  this.  The 
U.  S.  Circuit  Court  in  Virginia  decreed  for  the  defendant,  but  the  Supreme 
Court  of  the  United  States  reversed  this  decision  on  the  ground  that  the 
legislature  had  not  the  power  to  extinguish  the  debt,  when  payment  of  such 
debts  had  been  stipulated  in  the  Treaty  of  1783. 

Waring,  George  E.  (1833?-! 898).  Expert  sanitary  engineer,  head  of 
street  cleaning  department  in  New  York  from  1895  to  1898,  died  in  1898 
while  planning  the  sanitation  of  Cuba. 

Warner,  Adoniram  J.,  born  in  1834,  served  in  the  Civil  War.  He  repre- 
sented Ohio  in  the  U.  S.  Congress  as  a  Democrat  from  1878  to  1880,  and 
from  1882  to  1886.  He  has  published  works  upon  economic  questions. 

Warner,  Charles  Dudley,  born  in  1829,  has  been  an  editor  of  the  Hartford 
Press  and  Courant  since  1860,  and  of  Harper's  Magazine  since  1884.  He 
has  written  "  Studies  in  the  South,"  "  Mexican  Papers  "  and  "  Studies  in  the 
Great  West,"  which  depict  the  political  and  social  condition  of  those  terri- 
tories; "Washington  Irving"  in  the  "Men  of  Letters"  series,  of  which  he 
is  editor,  and  "  Backlog  Studies." 

Warner,  Seth  (1743-1784),  of  Vermont,  was  a  leader  of  the  inhabitants 
of  the  "  New  Hampshire  Grants  "  in  the  conflicts  of  jurisdiction  with  New 
York  authorities,  by  whom  he  was  outlawed.  He  was  second  in  command  at 
Ticonderoga.  He  captured  Crown  Point.  He  participated  in  Montgomery's 
campaign  in  Canada.  He  commanded  at  Hubbardston  and  was  active  at 
Bennington.  He  retired  in  1782  on  account  of  ill  health. 

Warner,  Susan  (1819-1885),  wrote  "The  Wide,  Wide  World,"  the  most 
popular  novel  by  an  American  except  "Uncle  Tom's  Cabin."  She  also  pub- 
lished "  Queechy,"  and  other  novels. 

Warren,  Gouverneur  Kemble  (1830-1882),  graduated  at  West  Point  in 
1850.  In  the  Civil  War  he  was  continuously  in  the  Army  of  the  Potomac. 
He  was  a  colonel  at  Big  Bethel,  commanded  a  brigade  in  the  Peninsula  cam- 
paign, Second  Bull  Run,  Antietam  and  Fredericksburg,  was  chief  engineer 
of  the  army  at  Chancellorsville  and  Gettysburg;  in  the  latter  struggle  he 
seized  the  important  position  of  Little  Round  Top.  He  was  distinguished 
as  commander  of  a  corps  at  Centreville,  October,  1863,  and  led  a  corPs 
through  the  Wilderness,  North  Anna,  Cold  Harbor  and  Petersburg  campaign, 
until  at  the  battle  of  Five  Forks,  April  i,  1865,  he  was  removed  by  Sheri- 
dan. In  1879  he  reached  the  grade  of  lieutenant-colonel  in  the  regular 
army. 

Warren,  Joseph  (1741-1775),  an  American  patriot,  was  a  graduate  of 
Harvard  and  a  physician  of  Boston.  In  the  years  immediately  preceding 
the  outbreak  of  the  Revolution  Dr.  Warren  was  foremost  among  the  Massa- 
chusetts patriots.  He  was  a  noted  orator,  a  member  of  the  Committees  of 
Correspondence,  president  of  the  Provincial  Congress  of  1774,  and  chairman 
of  the  Committee  of  Public  Safety.  He  was  actively  engaged  in  organizing 
the  volunteers  in  the  spring  of  1775.  The  Massachusetts  Provincial  Congress 
made  him  a  major-general  Waiving  his  rank,  he  fought  at  the  battle  of 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  693 

Bunker  Hill  as  a  private  soldier,  and  was  the  chief  victim.    His  life  has  been 
written  by  A.  H.  Everett  and  by  R.  Frothingham. 

Warren,  Mercy  (1728-1814),  sister  of  James  Otis,  married  James  Warren 
in  1754.  She  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  American  Revolution,"  which  is  valu- 
able because  of  her  personal  acquaintance  with  many  of  the  characters. 

Warren,  Sir  Peter  (1703-1752),  was  commodore  of  the  fleet  which  con- 
veyed Sir  William  Pepperrell's  expedition  against  Louisbourg  in  1745.  He 
was  promoted  rear-admiral  for  his  service. 

Warrington,  Lewis  (1782-1851),  entered  the  U.  S.  navy  in  1800.  He 
served  with  distinction  on  the  "  Vixen,"  of  Treble's  squadron,  during  the 
Tripolitan  War.  He  served  on  the  "  Essex "  and  the  "  Congress  "  from 
1811  to  1813.  He  commanded  the  sloop  "Peacock,"  and  captured  the 
"  Eperviei  "  and  fourteen  merchantmen  during  1814.  He  was  chief  of  the 
Bureau  of  Ordnance  from  1842  to  1851. 

Warwick,  R.  I.,  early  known  as  Shawomet,  was  settled  in  1643  by  a 
party  under  Samuel  Gorton,  who  purchased  the  land  from  Miantonomo.  It 
was  one  of  the  four  towns  which,  in  1644,  united  to  form  the  colony  of 
Rhode  Island.  In  1648  the  name  of  Warwick  was  given  the  colony.  It 
was  attacked  by  the  Indians  during  King  Philip's  War  and  the  town 
destroyed  by  fire. 

Washburn,  Cadwallader  Golden  (1818-1882),  was  the  brother  of  E.  B. 
Washburne.  He  settled  in  Wisconsin  as  a  lawyer  and  financier.  From  1855 
to  1 86 1  he  was  Congressman  from  Wisconsin.  He  was  a  delegate  to  the  Peace 
Conference  of  1861.  In  the  war  he  commanded  a  corps,  was  major-general 
of  volunteers,  and  served  in  the  West.  He  was  again  a  Republican  Con- 
gressman 1867-1871,  and  Governor  of  Wisconsin  1872-1874. 

Washburn,  Emory  (1800-1877),  was  Governor  of  Massachusetts  in  1853 
and  1854.  He  wrote  a  "Judicial  History  of  Massachusetts,  1630  to  1675  " 
and  "  Treatise  on  the  American  Law  of  Real  Property." 

Washburn,  Israel  (1813-1883),  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1834.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  Maine  Legislature  from  1842  to  1843.  He  represented 
Maine  in  the  U.  S.  Congress  as  a  Whig  from  1851  to  1861.  He  was  Gov- 
ernor of  Maine  from  1861  to  1863,  and  Collector  of  Customs  at  Portland 
from  1863  to  1877. 

Washburn,  William  B.  (1820-1887),  represented  Massachusetts  in  the 
U.  S.  Congress  as  a  Republican  from  1862  to  1872.  He  was  Governor  of 
Massachusetts  from  1872  to  1874,  and  a  U.  S.  Senator  from  1874  to  1875. 

Washburn,  William  D.,  born  in  1831,  was  Surveyor-General  of  Minne- 
sota from  1 86 1  to  1865.  He  represented  Minnesota  in  the  U.  S.  Congress 
as  a  Republican  from  1879  to  1885.  He  was  elected  to  the  U.  S.  Senate  for 
the  term  ending  in  1895. 

Washburne,  Elihu  Benjamin  (1816-1887),  was  a  lawyer  in  Illinois,  Whig 
Congressman,  and  afterward  Republican  Congressman  from  1853  to  l869- 
He  was  chairman  of  the  Committee  of  Commerce  and  of  the  Impeachment 


694  DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Committee  of  1868.  His  long  service  and  care  of  public  expenditures 
earned  for  him  the  epithets  of  "  father  of  the  house  "  and  "  watch-dog  of 
the  Treasury."  President  Grant  appointed  him  Secretary  of  State,  but  he 
held  office  for  a  few  days  only.  From  1869  to  1877  Mr.  Washburne  was  U.  S. 
Minister  to  France.  He  stayed  in  Paris  .through  the  siege  of  1870-1871 
and  the  days  of  the  Commune,  and  was  by  the  Germans  intrusted  with  the 
charge  of  German  interests  also.  His  memoirs  are  published  under  the  title 
"Recollections  of  a  Minister  to  France." 

Washington,  Bushrod  (1762-1829),  jurist,  a  nephew  of  General  Wash- 
ington, was  a  member  of  the  Virginia  Convention  in  1788  that  ratified  the 
Federal  Constitution.  He  was  a  Justice  of  the  U.  S.  Supreme  Court  from 
1798  to  1829. 

Washington,  George  (February  22,  1732-December  14,  1799),  the  first 
President  of  the  United  States,  was  born  in  Westmoreland  County,  Va. 
Some  of  the  familiar  anecdotes  of  his  early  life  rest  on  the  more  than  doubt- 
ful authority  of  Weems,  one  of  his  first  chroniclers.  At  the  age  of  sixteen 
he  was  compelled  to  leave  school,  and  he  became  a  surveyor.  His  appoint- 
ment as  adjutant-general  and  major  at  the  early  age  of  nineteen  was  prepara- 
tory to  his  selection  for  the  first  striking  public  event  of  his  life,  his  service 
as  messenger  from  the  Virginian  to  the  French  Governor  in  1753-1754. 
How  he  traversed  the  pathless  forests  of  Western  Pennsylvania  is  familiar; 
the  following  summer  a  battle  at  Great  Meadows  fought  by  his  small  force 
ushered  in  the  long  French  and  Indian  War.  Washington  was  obliged  to 
surrender  Fort  Necessity.  He  resigned,  but  the  next  year  served  on  Brad- 
dock's  staff  at  the  defeat  of  the  Monongahela,  and  had  a  miraculous  escape. 
Colonel  Washington  continued  in  the  army  until  1759,  and  had  a  part  in  the 
taking  of  Fort  Duquesne  in  1758.  He  married  in  1759,  and  the  same  year 
entered  the  Virginia  House  of  Burgesses.  For  several  years  he  now  led  the 
life  of  a  Virginia  planter,  at  Mount  Vernon.  He  was  a  delegate  to  the  first 
and  second  Continental  Congresses;  by  the  latter  body  he  was  appointed 
commander-in-chief,  June  17,  1775,  and  took  command  of  the  army  under 
the  historic  elm  at  Cambridge,  July  3.  It  was  his  task  to  put  into  the  form 
of  an  organized  force  the  raw  and  ill-equipped  soldiers.  His  first  enterprise 
succeeded;  Boston  was  evacuated  by  the  British,  March  17,  1776,  and  the 
army  was  transferred  to  New  York.  After  the  Declaration  of  Independence, 
a  disheartening  series  of  reverses  marked  the  half  year:  the  battle  of  Brook- 
lyn, the  withdrawal  from  New  York,  White  Plains,  the  fall  of  Fort  Wash- 
ington, and  the  melancholy  retreat  of  the  diminishing  army  across  New 
Jersey.  The  morale  of  the  troops  and  of  the  country  was  suddenly  raised 
by  Washington's  brilliant  surprise  of  Trenton  and  victory  of  Princeton.  In 
the  autumn  of  1777  his  army,  though  defeated  at  Brandywine  and  German- 
town,  kept  a  large  British  force  occupied,  and  so  contributed  to  the  d&noue- 
ment  of  the  year,  at  Saratoga.  Then  came  the  gloomy  winter  at  Valley 
Forge,  and  the  cabal  of  Conway  and  Gates.  The  battle  of  Monmouth  was 
won  in  the  summer,  but  thereafter  Washington's  part  was  for  some  -years  in 
other  phases  of  the  war  than  in  battles,  and  active  hostilities  drifted  away 
principally  to  the  south.  The  treason  of  Arnold  in  1780  was  a  severe  blow. 
In  the  following  summer  Washington  showed  the  qualities  of  a  great  general 


LADIES   OF  THE   WHITE   HOUSE. 


rs    John  Adams.  Mrs.  Franklin  Pierce.        Mrs.  James  Madison.  Mrs.  Andrew  Johnson.         Mrs.  John  Quincy  Adams. 

rs.  John  Tyler.        Mrs.  Mary  Arthur  McElroy.   Mrs.  James  A.  Garfield.      Rose  Elizabeth  Cleveland.       Mrs    Millard  Fillmore. 

(dialer  of  Chester  A.  Arthur.)  ^——^  (Sinter  of  Grorer  C'/ereland.) 

.  Benjamin  Harrison.       Mrs.  Abraham    Lincoln.  /  \  Mrs.    George  Washington.          Mrs.  Grover  Cleveland. 

riet  Lane  Johnston.        Mrs.  William  McKinley.  V.  Mrs.  Rutherford  B.  Hayes.  Angelica  Van  Buren. 

ecf  of  James  liuchanan.)  ^——  -^  (Daughter-in-law  of  Martin  Van  Harm.) 

Mrs.  Ulysses  S.  Grant. 

Martha  Johnson  Patterson.  Mrs.  Martin  Van  Buren. 

(Daughter  of  Andreir  Johnson.) 

s   James  K.  Polk.  Mrs.  James  Monroe.  Mrs.  Andrew  Jackson.          Martha  Jefferson  Randolph. 

(Daughter  of  Thomas  Jefferson.) 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  695 

by  his  secret  and  rapid  march  from  the  Hudson  to  Chesapeake  Bay,  «a  march 
which  resulted  in  the  fall  of  Yorktown.  His  significance  in  the  war  was  largely 
moral;  there  was  a  widespread  confidence  in  his  thorough  devotion  to  the 
cause.  He  replied  severely  to  the  Newburg  address  of  1782  (which  had 
hinted  at  monarchy).  After  a  letter  to  the  State  Governors  he  took  leave 
of  the  army  and  officers,  and,  December  23,  1783,  resigned  to  Congress  at 
Annapoli:  his  commission.  Deeply  impressed  with  the  need  of  a  more 
efficient  government,  he  presided  over  the  Federal  Convention  of  1787.  He 
was  the  unanimous  choice  for  President,  and  was  inaugurated  at  New  York 
April  30,  1789.  x  Elected  again  without  opposition,  he  served  until  1797. 
Of  his  Cabinet,  Jefferson  was  Secretary  of  State,  Hamilton  of  the  Treasury, 
Knox  of  War,  and  Randolph  Attorney-General.  Washington  made  tours  to 
the  North  and  South.  In  1793  he  issued  a  neutrality  proclamation.  His 
part  in  Jay's  treaty  of  1795  caused  a  temporary  loss  of  his  popularity.  On 
September  19,  1796,  he  issued  his  Farewell  Address.  Perhaps  his  greatness 
was  even  better  shown  by  his  conduct  as  President  than  by  his  generalship. 
When  war  with  France  seemed  imminent  in  1798,  he  was  appointed  lieuten- 
ant-general, but  he  died  soon  after  at  Mount  Vernon.  He  has  been 
universally  deemed  the  greatest  of  Americans,  and  one  of  the  noblest  public 
characters  of  all  time.  His  writings  and  life  were  edited  by  Sparks,  twelve 
volumes,  and  more  recently  by  Ford.  Of  other  biographies  there  are:  by 
Marshall,  five  volumes;  Irving,  five  volumes;  Everett,  Hale,  H.  C.  Lodge. 

Washington,  Martha  (1732—1802),  born  Martha  Dandridge,  of  Virginia, 
married  Daniel  Parke  Custis  in  1749,  by  whom  she  had  four  children.  She 
inherited  his  vast  estates  and  was  one  of  the  wealthiest  women  in  Virginia. 
In  1759  she  married  George  Washington.  She  was  a  competent  housekeeper 
and  her  wealth  enabled  them  to  entertain  in  magnificent  style.  She  fully 
sympathized  with  Washington's  patriotic  feelings  and  suffered  many  priva- 
tions for  the  cause  of  independence. 

Washington,  Mary  Ball  (1707—1789),  mother  of  General  George  Wash- 
ington, was  the  second  wife  of  Augustine  Washington,  whom  she  married 
in  1730.  George  was  her  oldest  son.  Left  a  widow  in  1743,  she  managed 
her  affairs  with  prudence  and  discretion,  and  brought  up  her  six  children 
well.  She  was  an  excellent  mother  to  Washington,  and  was  regarded  by  him 
with  great  veneration  and  affection.  She  lived  many  years  at  Fredericks- 
burg,  Va.,  in  great  simplicity,  and  died  during  the  first  year  of  her  son's 
presidency. 

Washington,  William  Augustine  (1752-1810),  distinguished  himself  at 
Long  Island,  Trenton  and  Princeton.  In  1778  he  was  lieutenant  in  Colonel 
Baylor's  dragoons.  In  1779  he  joined  the  army  of  General  Lincoln  in  the 
South.  He  defeated  Colonel  Tarleton  at  Rantowles.  He  captured  the  post 
at  Rudgely's  in  1780.  He  commanded  a  light  corps  at  Cowpens,  Guilford 
Court  House,  Hobkirk's  Hill  and  Eutaw  Springs.  He  was  a  relative  of 
General  Washington. 

Washington  was  formed  from  the  Oregon  country,  which  was  claimed  by 
England  and  the  United  States,  and  was  recognized  as  belonging  to  the  latter 
by  the  treaty  of  1846.  It  was  organized  as  a  territory  by  an  Act  of  Congress 


696  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

of  March  2,  1853.  Washington  became  a  State,  November  n,  1889.  The 
State  is  usually  Republican,  but  in  1884  and  1886  the  Democrats  carried  the 
State.  The  population  of  the  State  in  1890  was  349,330.  History  by  Bancroft. 

Washington,  D.  C.,  capital  of  the  United  States,  was  selected  as  the  seat 
of  the  Government  in  1790.  In  1800  it  became  the  capital.  In  1814  it 
was  captured  by  the  British  troops  and  the  Capitol  and  other  public  buildings 
burned.  In  1871  Congress  abolished  the  charter  of  the  city  and  instituted  a 
form  of  territorial  government  which  resulted  in  a  great  number  of  improve- 
ments for  the  city.  In  1874  the  territorial  government  was  in  turn  abolished 
and  the  city's  affairs  placed  in  the  hands  of  three  commissioners.  (See  art. 
District  of  Columbia.) 

Washington,  Fort,  Battle  of,  November  16,  1776.  The  retreat  of  the 
Continental  army  had  made  Fort  Washington  untenable.  Greene  had  orders 
to  withdraw  men  and  stores,  but  Congress  interfered.  He  accordingly 
increased  the  garrison.  Howe  soon  appeared  before  the  fort  but  gained  it 
only  after  a  severe  struggle,  which  cost  him  500  men.  One  hundred  and 
fifty  Americans  fell,  3000  were  made  prisoners,  and  great  stores  of  artillery 
and  small  arms  fell  to  the  enemy. 

Washington,  Treaty  of,  ratified  in  1871  and  proclaimed  in  force,  July  4, 
of  that  year,  after  thirty-four  meetings  of  commissioners,  representing  Eng- 
land and  the  United  States,  and  assembled  at  Washington.  It  provided  for 
arbitration  as  to  the  Alabama  Claims;  as  to  claims  of  British  subjects  against 
the  United  States;  as  to  fisheries,  and  as  to  the  settlement  of  the  Northwest 
boundary  question.  The  arbitrators  upon  the  Alabama  Claims  were  to  be 
five  in  number  and  were  to  be  appointed  by  the  President  of  the  United 
States,  the  Queen  of  England,  the  King  of  Italy,  the  President  of  the  Swiss 
Confederation,  and  the  Emperor  of  Brazil.  Their  sessions  were  to  be  held  at 
Geneva. 

Washington  and  Jefferson  College,  Washington,  Pa.,  Presbyterian,  was 
formed  in  1865  bY  tne  union  of  Jefferson  College,  chartered  1802,  and  Wash- 
ington College,  chartered  1806. 

Washington  and  Lee  University,  Lexington,  Va.  An  academy  founded 
about  1773,  and  called  Liberty  Hall,  was  chartered  in  1782,  and  named  in 
1796  Washington  College  in  honor  of  a  gift  received  from  George  Washing- 
ton. In  1870  at  the  death  of  General  R.  E.  Lee,  its  president,  the  name  was 
changed  to  its  present  form.  A  law  school  was  founded  in  1867. 

Washington  College,  Chestertown,  Md.,  was  founded  in  1782. 

Washington  Elm,  a  tree  at  Cambridge,  Mass.,  beneath  which  General 
Washington  took  command  of  the  Continental  army,  July  3,  1775.  The 
army  then  numbered  15,000  men  fit  for  duty.  The  Washington  Elm  still 
stands. 

"  Washington  Gazette,"  the  earliest  news  publication  of  the  District  of 
Columbia.  The  paper  was  established  at  Washington  by  Benjamin  Moore, 
January  11,  1796.  It  was  published  semi-weekly,  but  has  been  discon- 
tinued. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  697 

Washington  Monument,  at  Washington,  D.  C.,  an  obelisk  555  feet  high, 
was  begun  in  1848  by  the  Washington  National  Monument  Society,  and  fin- 
ished in  1884  by  the  U.  S.  Government. 

"  Wasp,"  sloop-of-war,  eighteen  guns,  Captain  Jones,  left  the  Delaware 
October  13,  1812,  for  the  West  Indies.  Five  days  later  it  attacked  the 
"  Frolic,"  twenty  guns,  convoying  a  fleet  of  merchantmen.  The  "  Frolic  " 
was  soon  disabled,  boarded  and  captured,  losing  ninety  of  its  108  men. 
Within  two  hours  after  the  capture  the  "  Wasp  "  and  its  prize  were  captured 
by  the  British  frigate  the  "  Poictiers,"  seventy-four  guns,  and  the  Ameri- 
cans taken  to  Bermuda  as  prisoners. 

"  Wasp  "  (No.  2),  eighteen  guns,  Captain  Blakeley.  In  the  British 
Channel  he  harassed  British  merchant-ships,  and  on  June  28,  1814,  fought 
with  the  "  Reindeer."  Both  vessels  were  badly  damaged,  but  finally  the 
"  Reindeer  "  was  boarded  and  captured,  losing  twenty-five  killed  and  forty- 
two  wounded.  The  Americans  lost  twenty-seven  in  all.  On  September  I 
it  conquered  the  "  Avon,"  eighteen  guns,  but  was  driven  off  by  the  arrival 
of  several  warships.  September  21,  near  the  Azores,  it  captured  and  sent 
home  a  valuable  prize,  the  "Atlanta."  On  October  9  the  "Wasp"  was 
spoken  by  a  Swedish  bark,  but  was  never  heard  of  afterward. 

Watauga  Association,  an  organization  formed  in  1769  for  the  settlement 
of  that  territory  now  comprised  in  the  State  of  Tennessee.  The  colonies 
thus  established  continued  to  be  known  as  the  settlements  of  the  Watauga 
Association  until  1777. 

Waterbury,  David  (1722-1801),  served  in  the  French  and  Indian  War. 
In  1776  he  was  second  in  command  at  Valcour  Bay  and  was  defeated.  He 
commanded  a  brigade  under  Washington  from  1781  to  1783. 

Waterman,  Robert  W.,  born  in  1826,  was  prominent  in  the  political  cam- 
paign in  Illinois  in  1856  and  1858.  He  was  Lieutenant-Governor  of  Cali- 
fornia from  1886  to  1887,  when  he  became  Governor  and  served  till  1891. 

Watertown,  Mass.,  was  settled  in  1630  by  colonists  under  Sir  Richard 
Saltonstall.  In  1631  the  townspeople  declined  to  pay  a  tax  of  £60  levied 
by  the  "  assistants,"  thus  protesting  against  their  autocratic  rule,  which 
bore  fruit  in  the  establishment  of  a  more  popular  governmental  plan  in  1632. 
In  1775  the  Provincial  Congress  met  at  Watertown. 

Watson,  Elkanah  (1758-1842),  was  a  zealous  promoter  of  internal  im- 
provements, and  conceived  the  project  of  the  canals  of  New  York.  He 
founded  the  first  agricultural  society  in  New  York. 

Watson,  James  C.  (1838  1880),  was  professor  of  astronomy  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Wisconsin  from  1859  to  1869.  His  discoveries  in  astronomy  have 
been  numerous,  and  he  has  made  valuable  contributions  to  the  science. 

Watson,  Fort,  Capture  of,  April  23,  1781.  This  post  commanded  the 
road  between  Camden  and  Charleston,  S.  C.  It  was  captured  by  Marion's 
men  who  erected  a  tower  of  pine  logs  so  as  to  command  the  fort.  As  the 
fort  had  no  artillery  it  was  soon  forced  to  surrender. 


6gS 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 


Watterson,  Henry,  born  in  1840,  was  a  staff  officer  in  the  Confederate 
service  from  1861  to  1863  and  chief  of  scouts  in  General  Johnston's  army  in 
1864.  He  has  edited  the  Louisville  Courier-Journal  since  1868.  He  repre- 
sented Kentucky  in  the  U.  S.  Congress  as  a  Democrat  from  1876  to  1877. 
He  is  an  aggressive  advocate  of  free-trade  and  revenue  reform.  He  wrote 
"  Oddities  of  Southern  Life  and  Character." 

Waxhaw,  Battle  of,  May  29,  1780.  After  the  capture  of  Charleston,  S.  C., 
detachments  of  British  troops  set  out  to  seize  strategic  points  in  the  interior. 
One  of  these,  700  cavalry  under  Tarleton,  pursued  a  Virginian  regiment 
under  Colonel  Buford  and  overtook  it  at  Waxhaw,  S.  C.  Buford  and  100 
infantry  saved  themselves  by  flight.  Though  the  rest  sued  for  quarter,  113 
of  them  were  killed  on  the  spot  and  150  more  were  too  badly  hacked  to  be 
moved.  Only  53  were  taken  prisoners. 

Wayland,  Francis  (1796-1865),  was  pastor  of  the  First  Baptist  Church, 
Boston,  from  1821  to  1826.  He  was  president  of  Brown  University  from 
1827  to  1855.  He  was  celebrated  as  an  instructor,  preacher  and  author. 
He  possessed  a  strong  personality  which  was  stimulating  to  his  pupils.  He 
wrote  "  Elements  of  Moral  Science,"  "  Elements  of  Political  Economy," 
"  The  I/imitations  of  Human  Responsibility,"  and  "  Slavery  and  Reli- 
gion." 

Wayne,  Anthony  (1745-1796),  a  noted  general  of  the  Revolution,  was  a 
native  of  Pennsylvania.  A  surveyor  in  early  life,  he  became  a  member  of 
the  Legislature  and  Committee  of  Public  Safety,  and  commanded  a  regiment 
in  the  Canadian  invasion  of  1775-1776.  Later  he  had  charge  of  the  Ticon- 
deroga  forts.  Being  appointed  brigadier-general  he  was  in  charge  of  a  divi- 
sion at  Brandy  wine  and  conducted  a  successful  retreat.  He  was  surprised  at 
Paoli,  commanded  the  right  wing  at  Germantown,  and  was  distinguished  at 
Monmouth.  His  famous  exploit  was  the  storm  of  Stony  Point,  July  15, 
1779.  General  Wayne  suppressed  the  mutiny  of  the  troops  at  Morristown, 
in  January,  1781,  had  an  honorable  part  in  Virginia  the  same  year  and  in 
Georgia  in  1782.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Pennsylvania  ratifying  conven- 
tion of  1787.  When  the  Indian  affairs  required  a  decisive  policy,  "  Mad 
Anthony "  was  made  major-general,  and  inflicted  an  overwhelming  blow 
at  the  battle  of  Fallen  Timbers,  1794,  which  led  to  an  Indian  treaty  the 
following  year.  Life  by  Stille*. 

Wayne,  James  M.  (1790-1867),  was  Judge  of  the  Georgia  Supreme  Court 
from  1824  to  1829.  He  represented  Georgia  in  the  U.  S.  Congress  as  a 
Democrat  from  1829  to  ^35-  He  was  a  Justice  of  the  U.  S.  Supreme  Court 
from  1835  to  1867. 

Waynesboro,  Va.,  scene  of  a  victory  in  March,  1865,  for  10,000  Federals 
under  Sheridan,  then  commanding  in  the  Shenandoah  Valley,  over  Early 
who  was  intrenched  at  Waynesboro  with  2500  Confederates.  Early  was 
completely  routed,  losing  1600  men,  eleven  guns,  seventeen  flags  and  200 
loaded  wagons. 

Ways  and  Means,  a  standing  committee  first  created  in  the  House  of 
Representatives  in  1795  (December  21).  It  has  charge  of  the  methods  and 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  699 

provisions  for  collecting  the  government  revenues,  including  the  tariff  system, 
internal  taxation,  financial  measures  and  the  public  debt. 

Weather  Bureau,  first  suggested  in  1817  by  Josiah  Meigs,  then  Commis- 
sioner of  the  Land  Office,  who  established  a  system  of  meteorological  registers 
in  connection  with  the  office.  In  1819  a  co-operative  movement  was  begun 
by  Surgeon-General  Lovell,  of  the  Army,  who  had  weather  reports  made 
each  month  by  the  officers  of  different  military  posts.  Some  twenty  years 
later  the  lake  system  of  meteorological  observations  was  established  by  the 
Engineer  Department.  In  1836  predictions  of  meteorological  phenomena 
began  to  be  made  by  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  and  the  results  of  these, 
together  with  those  of  the  Land  Office  and  War  Department,  being  published 
in  1839,  formed  the  basis  for  a  scientific  meteorological  bureau.  In  1869  the 
"  Weather  Bulletin  of  the  Cincinnati  Bureau  "  appeared.  In  1870  Congress 
made  a  money  appropriation  for  the  establishment  of  a  Weather  Bureau  at 
Washington  and  ordered  arrangements  to  be  made  for  telegraphic  communi- 
cations between  posts  of  observation  all  over  the  country.  Until  1891  the 
Bureau  was  a  bureau  of  the  War  Department;  in  that  year  it  was  transferred 
to  the  Department  of  Agriculture.  . 

Weathersford,  William  (1770?-! 824),  Indian  chief,  led  the  Creeks  against 
the  U.  S.  forces  during  the  War  of  1812.  In  1814  he  voluntarily  surrendered 
to  General  Jackson. 

Weaver,  James  B.,  born  in  1833,  attained  the  rank  of  brigadier-general 
during  the  Civil  War.  He  was  a  district  attorney  of  Iowa  in  1866.  He 
became  an  editor  of  the  Iowa  Tribune.  He  was  elected  to  Congress  from 
Iowa  as  a  Nationalist  in  1879.  In  1880  he  was  the  candidate  of  the 
National  party  for  the  Presidency.  He  was  again  elected  to  Congress  in 
1884  and  1886.  In  1892  he  was  the  Presidential  candidate  of  the  People's 
party. 

Webb,  Alexander  S.,  born  in  1835,  fought  at  Bull  Run  and  commanded 
a  brigade  at  Gettysburg,  the  Wilderness  and  Spottsylvania.  He  was  chief 
of  staff  at  Petersburg.  He  wrote  "  McClellan's  Campaign  of  1862." 

Webb,  James  W.  (1802-1884),  edited  the  New  York  Courier  and  Enquirer 
from  1829  to  1861,  which  was  the  chief  organ  of  the  Whig  party.  He  was 
Minister  to  Brazil  from  1861  to  1869. 

Webster,  Daniel  (January  18,  1782-October  24,  1852),  a  distinguished 
American  orator  and  statesman,  was  born  at  Salisbury,  N.  H.,  was  educated 
at  Phillips  (Exeter)  Academy  and  at  Dartmouth,  where  he  was  graduated  in 
1801.  He  taught  school  at  Fryeburg,  in  Maine,  studied  law,  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1805,  and  began  the  practice  of  law  in  Boscawen,  N.  H.  In 
1807  he  removed  to  Portsmouth.  He  was  soon  a  leader  of  the  bar,  and 
from  1813  to  1817  was  Congressman.  In  views  he  was  then  a  moderate  Fed- 
eralist. He  now  settled  in  Boston,  and  in  1818  rose  to  the  front  rank  of 
lawyers  by  his  plea  before  the  U.  S.  Supreme  Court  in  the  famous  "  Dart- 
mouth College  case,"  which  involved  the  obligation  of  contracts  and  the 
powers  of  the  Government.  From  1823  to  1827  he  was  Congressman  from 
Massachusetts,  was  chairman  of  the  Judiciary  Committee,  and  had  attracted 


yoo  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

attention  by  his  speeches  on  Greece  and  on  free  trade.  He  had  become  widely 
known  as  an  orator.  Among  his  great  speeches  were  :  at  Plymouth,  1820, 
on  the  bi-centennial;  at  the  laying  of  the  corner-stone  of  Bunker  Hill 
Monument,  1825;  the  eulogy  on  Adams  and  Jefferson,  1826.  In  1827  Webster 
entered  the  U.  S.  Senate,  and  ranked  chief  among  the  orators,  of  the 
"  giants  "  in  Congress ;  Clay,  Calhoun,  Benton,  to  mention  no  others,  were 
his  contemporaries.  He  favored  the  protective  tariff  of  1828.  Two  years 
later  he  reached  his  highest  point,  in  the  debate  on  the  "  Foote  resolution," 
where  his  reply  to  Hayne  won  for  him  the  title  of  "  Expounder  of  the  Con- 
stitution." Webster  opposed  Nullification,  was  often  pitted  against  Calhoun, 
took  an  active  part  in  the  Bank  controversy,  and  was,  with  Clay,  highest  in 
the  Whig  party.  He  came  within  reach  of  the  nomination  for  President. 
In  1836  he  received  the  electoral  vote  of  Massachusetts.  President  Harri- 
son chose  him  for  Secretary  of  State  in  1841,  and  he — alone  of  the  members 
of  Tyler's  Cabinet — refused  to  resign  in  September,  1841.  He  negotiated 
the  Ashburton  Treaty  with  Great  Britain  in  1842,  and  resigned  in  1843.  In 
1845  he  re-entered  the  Senate.  He  spoke  on  the  Oregon  question,  gave  a  lame 
support  to  Taylor  in  1848,  and  in  1850  in  the  Compromise  excitement  he 
alienated  many  former  friends  by  his  famous  "  seventh  of  March  speech." 
He  was  again  Secretary  of  State  in  1850-1852.  He  received  a  few  votes  in 
the  Convention  of  1852,  refused  to  support  Scott,  and  died  soon  after  at  his 
home  in  Marshfield,  Mass.  Works  and  life  in  six  volumes,  edited  by 
Everett.  Life  by  G.  T.  Curtis  and  by  H.  C.  Lodge. 

Webster,  Joseph  D.  (1811-1876),  served  during  the  Mexican  War.  He 
was  chief  of  staff  to  General  Grant  in  1862  and  during  the  Vicksburg  cam- 
paign and  to  General  Sherman  from  1864  to  1865. 

Webster,  Noah  (1758—1843),  born  in  Connecticut,  first  came  to  promi- 
nence by  the  publication  of  a  spelling  book,  of  which  62,000,000  copies  have 
been  issued.  In  1784  he  published  "  Sketches  of  American  Policy,"  which 
had  influence  upon  the  movement  toward  a  national  constitution.  In  1787 
he  published  "  The  Leading  Principles  of  the  Federal  Constitution."  In 
1795  he  wrote  articles  signed  "  Curtius,"  which  were  influential  in  behalf  of 
the  Jay  treaty.  In  1828  his  first  "Dictionary  of  the  English  Language" 
was  published.  He  served  in  the  legislatures  of  Connecticut  and  Massa- 
chusetts. Life  by  Scudder.  , 

Webster,  Pelatiah  (1725-1795),  was  an  ardent  patriot  during  the  Revolu- 
tion. He  was  well  versed  in  politics  and  finance.  He  wrote  "  Essays  on 
Free  Trade  and  Finance  "  and  "  The  Union  and  Constitution  of  the  Thirteen 
United  States." 

Wedderburn,  Alexander  (1733-1805),  Attorney-General  of  England,  was 
one  of  the  greatest  foes  of  the  colonists  in  the  Cabinet  of  Lord  North  and 
violently  opposed  their  claims  and  advocated  unlimited  subjection. 

Weed,  Thurlow  (1797-1882),  one  of  the  most  influential  journalists  and 
politicians  that  the  country  has  ever  produced.  He  was  early  employed 
in  a  printing  establishment  and  as  a  country  journalist.  He  became  con- 
nected with  the  Rochester  Telegraph  and  with  the  Anti-Masonic  Enquirer. 
In  1825  ne  was  in  the  New  York  Legislature,  but  afterward  avoided  office. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  701 

Already  influential  in  State  and  national  politics,  Weed,  in  1830,  founded 
the  Albany  Evening  Journal,  which  he  conducted  until  1856  as  a  Whig,  and 
later  as  a  Republican  organ.  His  influence  was  felt  in  nearly  every  nomi- 
nation of  the  Whigs  and  Republicans  from  1836  to  1876.  For  years  he 
was  a  political  partner  of  Seward,  whom  he  favored  for  President  in  1860. 
During  the  Civil  War  he  was  in  Europe  acting  as  an  agent  in  behalf  of  the 
Union  cause.  Life  by  Barnes. 

Weems,  Mason  L.  (1760-1825),  a  wandering  Virginian  parson,  wrote 
lives  of  Washington,  Francis  Marion,  Benjamin  Franklin  and  William  Penn. 
They  are  unreliable.  With  him  originated  many  anecdotes  about  Washing- 
ton, including  the  story  of  the  cherry-tree. 

Weights  and  Measures,  International  Bureau  of.  To  secure  interna- 
tional uniformity  and  precision  in  standards  of  weight  and  measure  an  inter- 
national bureau  was  established  at  Paris  by  a  convention  concluded  May  20, 
1875,  between  the  United  States,  Germany,  Austro-Hungary,  Belgium, 
Brazil,  the  Argentine  Confederation,  Denmark,  Spain,  France,  Italy,  Peru, 
Portugal,  Russia,  Sweden  and  Norway,  Switzerland,  Turkey  and  Venezuela. 

Weitzel,  Godfrey  (1835-1884),  planned  the  capture  of  New  Orleans  in 
1862.  He  commanded  a  division  at  Port  Hudson  and  in  the  Lafourche 
campaign.  He  superintended  the  construction  of  defenses  at  Bermuda 
Hundred,  James  River  and  Deep  Bottom.  He  commanded  a  corps  at  Fort 
Harrison  in  1864,  and  was  second  in  command  at  Fort  Fisher.  He  com- 
manded all  the  forces  north  of  the  Potomac  after  March,  1865. 

Weldon  Road,  Va.  General  Grant,  during  his  memorable  operations 
about  Richmond  and  Petersburg,  attempted  to  capture  this  road  from  the 
Confederates  under  Lee,  June  22  and  23,  1864.  Hancock's  and  Wright's 
corps  were  detailed  to  effect  this  capture.  A  gap  occurred  between  the  two 
corps  during  the  necessary  movements,  and  into  this  the  Confederate  Hill 
threw  a  strong  column.  Both  corps  were  struck  upon  the  flank  and  thrown 
into  confusion.  The  attack  was  finally  repelled.  On  the  twenty-third, 
Wright  again  made  the  attempt  to  seize  the  road  and  cut  the  telegraph 
wires.  Hill  drove  him  off,  inflicting  severe  loss  upon  his  troops.  Grant  lost 
4000  men  in  these  ineffectual  attempts.  Again,  August  18,  1864,  during  the 
campaign  about  Petersburg,  Grant  seized  the  opportunity,  while  the  main 
body  of  Lee's  army  was  massed  toward  Richmond,  of  attacking  the  Weldon 
Railroad.  Warren  moved  with  the  eighteenth  and  fifth  corps  and  struck  the 
road  four  miles  from  Petersburg.  A  gap  occurring  between  the  two  corps, 
Lee  thrust  Mahone's  division  into  the  opening  and  captured  2000  prisoners, 
but  was  eventually  driven  back  to  his  lines.  Warren  spent  the  next  day  in 
fortifying  himself,  and  Lee,  having  attempted  to  dislodge  him,  was  severely 
defeated.  On  the  twenty-fifth,  Gregg's  cavalry  were  defeated  while  destroy- 
ing the  road. 

Welles,  Gideon  (1802-1878),  was  from  1826  to  1854  an  editor  of  the 
Hartford  Times  which  became  the  chief  organ  of  the  Democratic  party  in 
Connecticut.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Connecticut  Legislature  from  1827 
to  1835,  and  State  Comptroller  in  1835,  1842  and  1843.  He  was  an  ardent 


7o2  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

opponent  of  slavery,  and  identified  himself  with  the  Republican  party  when 
it  was  organized.  He  was  Secretary  of  the  Navy  in  the  Cabinets  of  Lincoln 
and  Johnson  from  1861  to  1869.  He  was  an  unsparing  critic  of  official 
conduct.  He  wrote  "  Lincoln  and  Seward." 

Wellesley  College,  Wellesley,  Mass.,  founded  by  Henry  F.  Durant,  for  the 
higher  education  of  women,  was  chartered  in  1870,  but  first  opened  five 
years  later. 

Welling,  James  C.,  born  in  1825,  was  an  editor  of  the  National  Intelli- 
gencer from  1850  to  1865.  This  journal  exerted  great  influence  during  the 
war.  He  became  president  of  Columbian  University  in  1871.  Died  1894. 

Wells,  David  A.  (1828-1898),  suggested  the  idea  of  folding  newspapers 
and  books  by  machinery.  In  1864  he  published  "Our  Burden  and  Our 
Strength,"  a  political  essay  of  great  originality.  He  served  on  several  U.  S. 
commissions  of  revenue.  He  has  written  many  pamphlets  on  economic  sub- 
jects and  "  Our  Merchant  Marine,"  "  A  Primer  of  Tariff  Reform  "  and  "  The 
Relation  of  the  Tariff  to  Wages,"  and  "Recent  Economic  Changes." 

Wells  College,  Aurora,  N.  Y.,  for  girls,  was  chartered  in  1867. 

Welsh.  The  Welsh  early  began  to  settle  in  Pennsylvania  and  seem  to 
have  been  a  valuable  addition  to  the  population.  By  1765  several  flourish- 
ing Welsh  colonies  had  been  established. 

Welsh  Barony,  a  tract  of  40,000  acres  granted  by  William  Penn  to  a 
Welsh  colony.  The  colonists  were  granted  the  right  of  local  self-govern- 
ment. The  Barony  was  conducted  after  the  methods  of  the  English 
manor. 

Wentworth,  Benning  (1696-1770),  was  Governor  of  New  Hampshire 
from  1741  to  1767.  His  grants  of  land  in  what  is  now  southern  Vermont, 
which  was  claimed  by  New  York,  are  known  in  history  as  the  "  New  Hamp- 
shire Grants." 

Wentworth,  Sir  John  (1737-1820),  went  to  England  as  an  agent  of  the 
New  Hampshire  colony  in  1765  and  was  appointed  Governor,  serving  till 
1775.  He  was  an  able  Governor  and  did  much  to  increase  the  importance 
and  prosperity  of  the  colony.  He  became  unpopular  by  complying  with  a 
request  for  aid  by  the  British  in  Boston  and  went  to  England  in  1775.  He 
was  Governor  of  Nova  Scotia  from  1792  to  1808. 

Wentworth,  John  (1815-1888),  was,  from  1837  to  1861,  editor  and  pro- 
prietor of  the  Chicago  Democrat,  which  was  the  chief  daily  paper  of  the 
Northwest.  He  represented  Illinois  in  the  U.  S.  Congress  as  a  Democrat 
from  1843  to  1851,  and  from  1853  to  l855-  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of 
the  Republican  party  and  served  as  a  Republican  in  the  U.  S.  Congress  from 
1865  to  1867. 

Wesley,  Charles  (1708-1788),  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  society 
which  was  the  beginning  of  Arminian  Methodism.  He  wrote  7000  hymns, 
some  of  great  merit,  many  of  which  are  now  in  use.  From  1735  to  1736 
he  was  in  Georgia,  secretary  to  Governor  Oglethorpe. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  703 

Wesley,  John  (1703-1791),  of  England,  was  the  founder  of  the  society 
called  in  derision  the  "  Methodists,"  because  of  their  methodical  habits. 
From  1735  to  1738  he  labored  in  Georgia.  He  formed  a  Methodist  society 
in  London.  In  1769  some  of  his  followers  introduced  Methodism  in  America. 

Wesleyan  University,  Middletown,  Conn.,  was  chartered  in  1831.  It  was 
founded  by  the  Methodists,  especially  Wilbur  Fisk. 

West,  Benjamin  (1738-1820),  born  in  Pennsylvania,  went  to  Italy  in  1760 
and  settled  in  England  in  1763.  He  was  one  of  the  most  famous  painters 
of  the  day.  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Royal  Academy  and  was  its 
president  from  1792  to  1802  and  from  1803  to  1815.  He  painted  many 
famous  religious  pieces  and  "  The  Death  of  Wolfe  "  and  "  The  Treaty  of 
Penn." 

West,  Lionel  Sackville  Sackville-,  born  in  1827,  was  British  Minister  to 
the  United  States  from  1881  to  1888,  when  he  was  recalled  for  publishing  a 
letter  giving  advice  in  regard  to  voting  in  the  United  States.  In  1888  he 
became  Lord  Sackville.  (See  Murcheson  Letter.) 

"West  India  Company,  Dutch,  or  Chartered  West  India  Company  (Geoc- 
troyeerde  Westindische  Compagnie).  This  company  was  chartered  by  the 
States-General  of  the  United  Netherlands  in  1621,  at  the  instance  of  Willem 
Qsselinx.  It  was  given  a  monopoly  of  trade  with  America  for  twenty-four 
/ears,  with  the  right  to  colonize  and  to  make  wars  and  alliances.  .  It  colo- 
nized and  governed  New  Netherland  (till  1664)  and  also  certain  West  India 
islands  and  a  part  of  Brazil.  It  was  rechartered  for  twenty-five  years  in 
1647.  Its  preoccupation  with  military  efforts  in  Brazil  prevented  its  doing 
much  for  New  Netherland.  (For  the  Swedish  company  of  similar  name  see 
Swedish  West  India  Company.) 

"West  Jersey.     (See  New  Jersey.) 

"West  Point,  N.  Y.,  the  chief  of  the  Continental  fortifications  in  the  Hud- 
son River  Valley  during  the  Revolution.  In  August,  1780,  Benedict 
Arnold,  already  contemplating  treason,  obtained  command  of  the  post  from 
Washington,  and  immediately  entered  into  communication  with  Clinton,  the 
British  general.  Major  Andre  was  sent  to  arrange  with  Arnold  for  the 
surprise  and  surrender  of  the  post.  He  was  captured  by  three  "  Skinners," 
Continental  marauders,  while  returning  to  New  York  after  his  interview  with 
Arnold,  having  settled  upon  September  25  as  the  night  for  the  surprise, 
When  Arnold  heard  of  his  capture  he  immediately  fled  to  the  "  Vulture,"  a 
British  warship  lying  in  the  river,  and  Washington  was  quickly  informed 
of  his  treason. — The  Military  Academy  of  the  United  States  was  established 
here  in  1802.  (See  art.  Military  Academy.) 

West  Point,  Va.  Here,  May  7, 1862,  several  strong  detachments  of  Fed- 
erals were  landed  from  gunboats,  and,  under  the  command  of  Franklin  and 
Sedgewick,  attacked  some  Confederates  led  by  Whiting  and  Wade  Hampton. 
These  latter,  charging  on  the  Federals  from  the  woods,  easily  routed  them, 
but  were  themselves  compelled  to  retreat  before  the  firing  from  the  vessels. 
The  losses  were  trifling  on  both  sides. 


704  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

West  Virginia.  The  western  and  northwestern  parts  of  Virginia  refused 
to  be  bound  by  the  ordinance  of  secession  of  April  17,  1861.  A  convention 
was  called  at  Wheeling  in  May,  1861,  which  summoned  a  State  convention. 
This  convention  refused  to  recognize  the  State  officers  who  were  in  opposi- 
tion to  the  National  Government,  elected  Frank  Pierpont  Governor  of  Vir- 
ginia, and  called  a  State  Legislature  to  meet  at  Wheeling.  The  convention 
voted  to  erect  a  new  State  to  be  called  Kanawha,  and  the  State  Legislature, 
which  had  been  called  by  this  convention  and  which  claimed  to  be  the  Leg- 
islature of  the  State  of  Virginia,  gave  its  consent  to  the  division  of  the 
State.  West  Virginia  became  a  State  of  the  Union  June  19,  1863.  An 
amendment  to  the  State  constitution  of  date  1866  disfranchised  all  per- 
sons who  had  aided  the  Rebellion.  Until  1870  the  State  was  controlled  by 
the  Republicans.  The  "Flick  Amendment,"  1871,  extended  the  suffrage  to 
negroes  and  removed  the  disfranchising  clause  of  1866.  In  1872  Grant  car- 
ried the  State  by  a  small  majority,  since  which  time  the  State  has  been 
steadily  Democratic.  The  population  of  West  Virginia  in  1870  was  442,- 
014;  in  1890  it  was  762,794. 

Western  Company.     (See  Compagnie  de  1'Occident.) 

Western  Reserve,  or  Connecticut  Western  Reserve.  When  Connec- 
ticut, in  1786,  ceded  her  western  lands  to  the  United  States,  she  reserved  a 
large  tract  adjoining  Pennsylvania,  now  forming  the  northeastern  corner 
of  Ohio.  Hence  this  name.  Complete  cession  of  jurisdiction  was  made  in 
1800. 

Westminster,  Treaty  of,  negotiated  in  1674,  concluding  a  war  between 
England  and  the  Netherlands,  is  memorable  in  America  from  the  fact  that 
New  Netherland,  which  had  been  taken  from  England  by  the  Dutch,  was 
restored  under  its  provisions. 

Weston,  Thomas  (1575-1624),  formed  a  joint  stock  company  for  fitting 
out  the  expedition  of  the  Pilgrims  to  America  in  1620,  but  soon  afterward 
withdrew  from  it  as  unprofitable.  He  organized  a  company  of  his  own  and 
sent  an  advance  party  in  1622  which  founded  a  settlement  at  Wessagussett 
under  a  grant  by  the  king  to  Sir  Ferdinando  Gorges.  The  settlers  were 
improvident  and  soon  returned  to  England. 

Westover,  a  Virginia  parish  formed  in  1720  of  land  along  both  sides  of 
the  James  River,  beginning  at  the  Chickahominy.  The  famous  old  West- 
over  mansion,  still  in  existence,  was  the  home  of  Colonel  William  Byrd. 

Wethersfield,  Conn.,  first  settled  in  1634,  was  one  of  the  earliest  settle- 
ments in  the  State,  and  one  of  the  three  towns  which  united  in  1639  in 
framing  the  "  Fundamental  Orders  "  of  the  colony. 

Whale-fishery  began  in  the  New  England  colonies  as  early  as  1690, 
where  it  was  prosecuted  during  nearly  fifty  years  in  small  boats,  since  the 
whale  frequented  the  northern  coast  during  that  period.  In  1740  the  Arctic 
and  Antarctic  coasts  began  to  be  explored  in  search  of  whales.  In  1758 
Massachusetts  alone  employed  304  vessels  in  the  whale-fishery.  The  right 
whale  was  at  first  the  object  of  capture,  but  after  1812  sperm-whales  became 
equally  desirable.  In  1815  there  were  only  164  ships  engaged  in  it.  In  1830 


DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  705 

the  products  of  the  fishery  were  106,800  barrels  of  sperm,  115,000  barrels  of 
whale  oil,  120,000  pounds  of  whalebone,  and  2,500,000  pounds  of  sperm 
candles.  Since  1840  the  whale-fishery  has  decreased,  chiefly  because  of  the 
scarcity  of  whale. 

Whalley,  Edward  (1620-1676),  regicide,  joined  the  Parliamentary  party 
in  1642.  He  led  the  horse  at  Bristol,  Banbury,  Worcester  and  elsewhere, 
and  was  entrusted  with  the  custody  of  the  king  at  Hampton  Court.  He  sat 
in  the  high  court  of  justice  that  condemned  King  Charles  and  signed  the 
death  warrant.  He  was  a  member  of  Cromwell's  second  and  third  Parlia- 
ments and  the  House  of  Lords.  He  fled  to  America  with  Goffe  (q.  v.)  in 
1660.  (See  Regicides.) 

Wharton,  Francis  (1820-1889),  was  professor  of  international  law  at 
Boston  University  from  1866  to  1885,  and  from  1885  to  1889  was  examiner 
of  claims  in  the  Department  of  State.  He  wrote  "  The  State  Trials  of  the 
United  States  during  the  Administrations  of  Washington  and  Adams,"  and 
"  Digest  of  International  Law,"  and  edited  "  The  Revolutionary  Diplomatic 
Correspondence  of  the  United  States." 

Wharton,  Thomas  (1735-1778),  was  a  zealous  opponent  of  the  oppressive 
measures  of  England  toward  the  colonies.  He  was  chosen  a  member  of  the 
Philadelphia  Committee  of  Correspondence  in  1774.  He  became  one  of  the 
Committee  of  Safety  in  1775,  and  in  1776  became  president  of  the  Council 
of  Safety,  in  which  the  executive  authority  temporarily  resided.  He  was 
president  of  Pennsylvania  from  1777  to  1778. 

Wheatley,  Phillis  (1753-1784),  was  brought  from  Africa  to  America  in 
1761,  and  purchased  in  the  slave  market  by  John  Wheatley.  She  showed  re- 
markable ability,  and  learned  easily.  She  acquired  prominence  by  her  poems. 

Wheaton,  Frank,  born  in  1833,  of  Rhode  Island,  commanded  a  brigade 
at  Antietam,  Fredericksburg,  the  Wilderness  and  Spottsylvania.  He  led  a 
division  at  Cedar  Creek  and  Petersburg,  and  is  now  (1894)  a  brigadier-general 
in  the  U.  S.  army. 

Wheaton,  Henry  (1785-1848),  of  Rhode  Island,  edited  the  New  York 
National  Advocate  from  1812  to  1815,  in  which  the  question  of  neutral  rights 
was  ably  discussed  during  the  war.  From  1816  to  1827  he  was  reporter  for 
the  U.  S.  Supreme  Court.  His  reports  are  exceedingly  valuable,  containing 
carefully  prepared  notes  and  citation  of  authorities  on  all  difficult  points. 
He  was  Charge  d'Aifaires  in  Denmark  from  1827  to  1835,  Minister  Resident 
to  Prussia  from  1835  to  1837,  and  Minister  Plenipotentiary  from  1837  to 
1846.  He  wrote  "Elements  of  International  Law"  which  is  acknowledged 
a  standard  authority,  a  "  History  of  the  Law  of  Nations,"  and  a  "  History 
of  the  Northmen." 

Wheaton's  Reports,  twelve  volumes  of  law  reports  by  Henry  Wheaton, 
containing  cases  from  the  U.  S.  Supreme  Courts  from  1816  to  1827,  wi^ 
appendices  containing  discussions  of  the  "  Principles  and  Practice  of  Prize 
Courts,"  many  of  them  written  by  Judge  Story. 

Wheeler,  Joseph,  born  in  1836,  entered  the  Confederate  service  and  com- 
manded a  brigade  at  Shiloh.  He  commanded  General  Bragg' s  cavalry  at 

45 


7o6  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Green  River  and  Perryville.  He  led  the  cavalry  at  Murfreesboro  and  at 
Chickamauga.  In  a  raid  in  1863  in  Tennessee  he  destroyed  national  stores 
valued  at  $3,000,000.  He  engaged  at  Knoxville,  Missionary  Ridge  and 
Lookout  Mountain.  He  harassed  General  Sherman  in  his  inarch  to  Atlanta, 
and  fought  at  Atlanta  and  Aiken.  He  was  elected  to  Congress  from  Alabama 
as  a  Democrat  in  1880  and  has  served  continuously  since  1885.  Major-Gen- 
eral, and  commander  of  cavalry  in  the  Santiago  campaign  of  the  Spanish- 
American  War. 

Wheeler,  William  A.  (1819-1887),  was  a  U.  S.  District  Attorney  in  New 
York  from  1845  to  1849.  He  represented  New  York  in  the  U.  S.  Congress 
as  a  Republican  from  1861  to  1863  and  from  1867  to  1877.  He  was  author 
of  the  compromise  in  settlement  of  the  political  disturbances  in  Louisiana 
in  1876.  He  was  elected  Vice- President  of  the  United  States  in  1877  on  the 
ticket  with  President  Hayes  and  served  till  1881. 

Wheeling  Bridge  Case,  a  case  of  original  jurisdiction  in  the  Supreme 
Court  of  the  United  States  in  1855.  The  Wheeling  and  Belmont  Bridge 
Company  prepared  to  rebuild  a  bridge  over  the  Ohio  River,  according  to 
the  plan  of  the  original  bridge,  which  an  Act  of  Congress  had  declared  not 
obstructive  to  commerce.  The  State  of  Pennsylvania  declared  it  to  be 
obstructive  to  commerce  and  applied  to  Justice  Grier  for  an  injunction  to 
prevent  its  erection.  This  was  granted,  but  the  bridge  was  erected  in 
defiance  thereof.  A  majority  of  the  Supreme  Court  refused  to  pass  judg- 
ment against  the  Bridge  Company  for  contempt,  though  acknowledging  the 
right  of  Grier  to  issue  the  injunction.  Judgment  was  given  for  the  defend- 
ant on  the  ground  that  it  was  within  the  jurisdiction  of  Congress  to  deter- 
mine what  was  and  what  was  not  an  obstruction  to  commerce. 

Wheelock,  Eleazar  (1711-1779),  established  an  Indian  missionary  school 
at  Lebanon,  Conn.,  in  1754,  which  was  removed  to  Dresden  (now  Hanover) 
N.  H.,  in  1770,  and  became  Dartmouth  College. 

Wheelock,  John  (1754-1817),  was  a  lieutenant-colonel  in  the  Continental 
army.  He  became  president  of  Dartmouth  College  in  1779,  succeeding  his 
father.  His  quarrel  with  the  trustees,  culminating  in  1815,  led  to  the  cele- 
brated "  Dartmouth  College  case." 

Wheelwright,  John  (1592-1679),  came  from  England  as  a  Puritan  to  the 
United  States  in  1636.  He  was  banished  from  Massachusetts  in  1637  for 
sympathizing  with  Anne  Hutchinson,  and  founded  Exeter,  N.  H.,  in  1638. 

Whigs.  The  name  of  Whigs  was  taken  by  the  party  in  the  colonies  which 
furthered  the  Revolution,  because  their  principles  were  but  the  application 
to  America  of  those  principles  which  the  Whigs  of  England  had  advocated, 
and  had  secured  through  the  Revolution  of  1688.  In  1834  the  name  was  re- 
vived. The  Federal  party  had  virtually  come  to  an  end  about  1817.  Hence- 
forth all  American  politicians  were  simply  Republicans.  But,  as  will 
usually  happen  in  such  cases,  a  divergence  of  views  developed  itself  within 
the  party.  Adams  and  Clay  and  their  followers,  on  the  one  hand,  advocated 
a  policy  of  protection  and  federal  internal  improvements  and  a  broad  or  loose 
construction  of  the  Constitution.  Others,  on  the  other  hand,  construing  the 
Constitution  strictly,  opposed  these  things;  these  found  a  leader  in  Jackson, 
The  former  took  the  name  of  "  National  Republicans."  Adams  was  their 


DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  707 

candidate  in  1828.  After  his  defeat  their  chief  leader  was  Clay,  whom  they 
nominated  for  President  in  1831.  Their  opposition  to  Jackson  drew  to  them 
various  elements  and,  as  opponents  of  executive  usurpation,  the  coalition 
took  the  old  name  of  Whigs  (1834).  The  Whig  body  always  formed  rather 
a  coalition  than  a  party.  They  were  united  in  opposition  to  Jackson,  but 
the  Northern  Whigs  favored  the  U.  S.  Bank,  a'  protective  tariff,  etc.,  while 
the  Southern  Whigs  were  strict  constructionists.  In  the  election  of  1836 
these  various  elements  supported  various  candidates.  In  that  of  1840  they 
united  upon  the  "  available  "  Harrison,  and  triumphantly  elected  him  and 
Tyler  in  a  campaign  of  unthinking  enthusiasm.  Harrison  died,  and  the 
Whigs  quarreled  violently  with  Tyler.  In  1844  tneY  nominated  their  real 
leader,  Clay,  who  narrowly  missed  election.  The  annexation  of  Texas  and 
the  Mexican  War  and  the  Wilmot  proviso  now  brought  slavery  to  the  front 
as  the  leading  issue  of  politics.  This  was  fatal  to  the  Whigs,  for  it  was 
sure  to  divide  the  Northern  and  the  Southern  Whigs.  In  1848  they  pre- 
served themselves  temporarily  by  passing  over  Clay  and  Webster  and  nomi- 
nating a  military  candidate,  Taylor.  He  was  elected.  But  when  similar 
tactics  were  tried  in  1852  (with  Scott),  the  party  was  decisively  defeated.  It 
was  disintegrating  because  of  its  inability  to  maintain  any  opinion  on  sla- 
very. The  Northern  Whigs  became  Free-soilers,  and  by  1856,  Republicans; 
the  Southern,  Democrats.  Many  Whigs  went  temporarily  into  the  American 
party.  A  small  portion  of  them  formed  the  Constitutional  Union  Party, 
which  nominated  Bell  and  Everett  in  1860.  Parties  became  sectional,  and 
the  Whig  party  ceased  to  exist.  Its  chief  leaders  were,  beside  those  men- 
tioned, in  the  North,  Winthrop,  Choate,  Seward,  Weed  and  Greeley;  in  the 
South,  Mangum,  Berrien,  Forsyth,  Stephens,  Toombs,  Prentiss  and  Critten- 
den;  in  the  West,  McLean,  Giddings,  Ewing  and  Corwin. 

Whipple,  Abraham  (1733-1819),  of  Rhode  Island,  commanded  the  pri- 
vateer "  Gamecock  "  during  the  French  War  from  1759  to  1760.  He  headed 
the  expedition  which  burned  the  "Gaspe""  in  Narragansett  Bay  in  1772. 
In  1775  he  was  placed  in  command  of  two  Rhode  Island  vessels  and  fought 
one*  of  the  first  naval  engagements  of  the  Revolution.  In  1776  he  commanded 
the  "  Providence,"  which  captured  more  prizes  than  any  other  American  vessel. 

Whipple,  Edwin  P.  (1819-1886),  was  a  frequent  contributor  to  periodi- 
cals. He  was  famous  as  a  lecturer,  and  his  portraitures  of  eminent  men  were 
keen  and  critical.  He  was  superintendent  of  the  Merchants'  Exchange  in 
Boston  from  1837  to  1860.  He  wrote  "Recollections  of  Rufus  Choate," 
"  Character  and  Characteristic  Men,"  "  Washington  and  the  Principles  of 
the  Revolution,"  and  "  Outlooks  on  Society,  Literature  and  Politics." 

Whipple,  Henry  B.,  born  in  1822,  became  Episcopal  Bishop  of  Minne- 
sota in  1859.  He  has  attained  great  influence  with  the  Indians  of  the  North- 
west and  is  often  consulted  by  Government  authorities  concerning  the 
"  Indian  problem." 

Whipple,  William  (1730-1785),  was  a  delegate  from  New  Hampshire  to 
the  Continental  Congress  in  1775,  1776  and  1778,  and  signed  the  Declaration 
of  Independence.  In  1777  he  commanded  a  brigade  at  Saratoga  and  Still- 
water,  and  he  participated  in  General  Sullivan's  Rhode  Island  campaign  in 


7o8  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

1778.     He  was  a  member  of  the  State  Assembly  from  1780  to  1784,  and 
Judge  of  its  Supreme  Court  from  1782  to  1785. 

Whisky  Insurrection,  a  revolt  against  the  execution  of  a  Federal  excise 
law,  which  came  to  a  head  in  western  Pennsylvania  in  August,  1794,  and 
was  suppressed  the  same  y«ar.  Scarcity  of  cash  in  the  wild  districts  of 
North  Carolina,  Virginia  and  Pennsylvania,  had  made  distillation  the 
chief  means  of  support  among  the  mountaineers,  whisky  being  used  as  a 
medium  of  exchange.  The  excise  law  was  passed  March  3,  1791.  During 
the  next  three  years  there  were  constant  protests  and  insurrectionary  mass 
meetings  headed  by  one  Bradford.  William  Findley,  John  Smilie  and 
Albert  Gallatin  were  the  quieter  leaders.  Revenue  officers  were  tarred  and 
feathered  by  Bradford  and  his  followers,  and  there  was  a  general  state  of 
lawless  opposition  despite  the  efforts  of  Findley  and  Gallatin.  In  October, 
1794,  15,000  militia  were  ordered  out  by  President  Washington,  and  under 
General  Henry  Lee  marched  into  western  Pennsylvania,  and  the  revolt  was 
promptly  suppressed.  Bradford  fled  the  country,  but  a  number  of  the  ring- 
leaders were  arrested  and  imprisoned.  The  affair  was  important  as  exhi- 
biting the  power  of  the  new  Federal  Government. 

Whisky  Ring,  the  name  applied  to  an  association  of  revenue  officers  and 
distillers,  formed  in  St.  Louis  in  1872  to  defraud  the  Government  of  the 
internal  revenue  tax  on  distilled  liquors.  By  1874  it  had  spread  into 
national  proportions.  Distillers  were  often  forced  to  enter  the  ring  or  expect 
ruin  in  their  business.  There  were  branches  of  the  ring  at  Chicago,  Mil- 
waukee, Peoria,  Cincinnati  and  New  Orleans,  and  an  agent  at  Washington 
to  corrupt  the  Treasury  agents.  In  1874  about  $1,200,000  of  taxes  were 
unpaid.  In  1875,  at  the  suggestion  of  Mr.  George  Fishback,  editor  of  the 
St.  Louis  Democrat,  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  appointed  Mr.  Myron 
Colony,  of  the  Cotton  Exchange,  to  make  a  secret  investigation  of  the 
frauds.  Through  his  efforts  indictments  were  brought  against  238  persons, 
and  the  Government  was  shown  to  have  been  defrauded  of  $1,650,000  in  ten 
months.  Among  those  concerned  was  General  Babcock,  President  Grant's 
private  secretary,  and  many  other  Government  officials. 

Whitcomb,  James  (1795-1852),  was  Commissioner  of  the  General  Land 
Office  from  1836  to  1841.  He  was  Governor  of  Indiana  from  1843  to  1848, 
and  represented  Indiana  in  the  U.  S.  Senate  as  a  Democrat  from  1849  to  1852. 

White,  Andrew  D.,  born  in  1832,  was  a  member  of  the  New  York  Senate 
from  1 863  to  1866.  He  was  active  in  legislation  for  educational  improvements 
and  the  incorporation  of  Cornell  University.  He  was  president  of  Cornell 
from  1867  to  1885.  He  was  one  of  the  commissioners  to  San  Domingo  in 
1871.  He  was  Minister  to  Germany  from  1879  to  1881  and  to  Russia  from 
1892  to  1894.  Became  Ambassador  to  Germany  May,  1897.  Delegate  to 
the  Peace  Conference  1899. 

White,  Hugh  L.  (1773-1840),  was  a  Justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  of 
Tennessee  from  1801  to  1807,  when  he  became  a  U.  S.  District  Attorney. 
He  was  again  a  Judge  of  the  State  Supreme  Court  from  1809  to  1817.  He 
was  a  commissioner  to  adjust  the  claims  of  American  citizens  against  Spain 
from  1820  to  1824.  He  represented  Tennessee  in  the  U.  S.  Senate  as  a 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  709 

Democrat  from  1825  to  1835  and  from  1836  to  1839.  He  received  the 
electoral  votes  of  Tennessee  and  Georgia  for  President  of  the  United  States 
in  1836,  as  a  Whig. 

White,  John  (1575-1648),  English  clergyman,  was  one  of  the  promoters 
of  the  Massachusetts  colony.  He  established  a  colony  of  Puritans  at  Dor- 
chester in  1630. 

White,  John  (1805-1845),  represented  Kentucky  in  the  U.  S.  Congress  as 
a  Whig  from  1835  to  1845,  when  he  became  a  district  judge.  He  was 
Speaker  of  the  House  from  1841  to  1843. 

White,  Peregrine  (1620-1704),  son  of  one  of  the  Pilgrims,  was  the  first 
white  child  born  in  New  England.  He  became  a  citizen  of  Marshfield, 
Mass.,  and  filled  several  minor  civil  and  military  offices. 

White,  Richard  Grant  (1821-1885),  critic,  was  connected  with  the  New 
York  Courier  and  Enquirer  from  1845  to  1859.  He  wrote  patriotic  articles 
for  periodicals  during  the  Rebellion.  He  published  u  Poetry,  Lyrical,  Nar- 
rative and  Satirical,  of  the  Civil  War,"  various  literary  essays  and  an  edition 
of  Shakespeare. 

White,  William  (1748-1836),  presided  at  the  first  American  Episcopal 
Convention  in  1785,  and  drafted  the  church  constitution  then  adopted.  He 
was  made  bishop  of  Pennsylvania  in  1786,  one  of  the  first  three  American 
bishops.  He  was  chaplain  to  Congress  from  1787  to  1801. 

White  House,  the  President's  house  or  executive  mansion  at  Washington, 
called  the  "White  House"  because  it  is  painted  white.  The  corner- 
stone was  laid  in  1792,  and  President  Adams  was  the  first  President  who 
occupied  the  mansion.  It  was  completed  in  1800.  When  the  British  held 
Washington  for  a  single  day  in  1814,  the  White  House  was  burned  together 
with  the  Capitol  and  other  buildings.  Congress  authorized  its  restoration  in 
1815,  and  it  was  again  ready  for  occupation  in  1818  and  has  been  occupied 
by  each  successive  President  since  that  time.  Its  model  was  the  house  of 
the  Duke  of  Leinster  at  Dublin. 

White  House,  Va.  (near  Mount  Vernon).  In  the  War  of  1812  batteries 
were  erected  at  this  point  September  i,  1814,  to  prevent  the  British  fleet 
from  descending  the  Potomac.  This  was  successful  for  several  days,  but  at 
last  the  fleet  by  a  heavy  bombardment  forced  the  Americans  to  retire. 

White  House  (on  the  Pamunkey),  Va.,  a  battle  of  the  Civil  War  during 
Grant's  expedition  against  Richmond.  It  occurred  June  21,  1864,  and  the 
Confederates  were  defeated.  A  small  Federal  force  held  White  House,  and 
upon  this  Wade  Hampton  had  contemplated  an  attack  with  a  strong  com- 
pany of  Confederates,  chiefly  cavalry.  Just  as  the  assault  was  about  to  be 
begun,  Sheridan,  who  had  been  absent  on  an  expedition  against  the  West 
Virginia  Central  Railroad,  came  up  with  6000  men.  He  immediately 
attacked  Hampton's  troops.  These  were  utterly  defeated  and  had  to  retreat 
with  all  possible  haste.  Sheridan  captured  a  considerable  number  of 
prisoners. 


7IO  DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

White  League,  an  organization  formed  in  the  South  in  1874  to  check 
the  growth  of  political  power  among  the  negroes. 

White  Oak  Swamp,  Va.,  a  battle  occurring  immediately  subsequent  to 
the  battle  of  Savage's  Station,  June  30,  1862.  Jackson,  leading  his  own 
command  and  the  brigades  of  A.  P.  Hill  and  Longstreet,  had  been  ordered 
to  sweep  around  the  Chickahominy  River  and  destroy  the  retreating  Feder- 
als as  they  emerged  from  the  swamp.  Finding  the  bridge  over  this  stream 
destroyed,  he  changed  his  course  and  pursued  them  through  the  swamp. 
Upon  arriving  at  the  White  Oak  Swamp  bridge  he  found  that  demolished 
also.  There  he  was  met  by  Smith,  Richardson  and  Naglee,  and  Ayres  and 
Hazard  of  Franklin's  Federal  brigade.  These  troops  immediately  offered 
battle.  Hazard  was  mortally  wounded  and  his  force  literally  cut  to  pieces. 
Ayres  and  the  others  held  out  for  some  time,  but  retired  during  the  night 
leaving  305  sick  and  wounded. 

White  Plains,  Battle  of,  October  28,  1776.  After  his  occupation  of 
New  York,  Howe  attempted  unsuccessfully  to  break  the  blockade  by  getting 
in  the  rear  of  the  American  position.  Washington  at  length  concentrated 
at  White  Plains  and  Howe  tried  an  attack  in  front.  He  succeeded  in  gain- 
ing an  unimportant  position,  losing  229  men  to  the  enemies'  140.  He  was 
discouraged  and  fell  back  on  Dobbs  Ferry,  making  a  feint  upon  Fort  Wash- 
ington and  Philadelphia. 

Whitefield,  George  (1714-1770),  was  influenced  by  Charles  Wesley  to 
join  the  Methodists,  and  in  1738  made  his  first  voyage  to  America.  He 
returned  to  England  after  a  few  months  to  obtain  funds  for  building  an 
orphanage  in  Savannah,  Ga.  The  orthodox  churches  were  closed  to  him, 
and  he  addressed  vast  assemblages  in  the  open  air.  His  eloquence  and 
graceful  delivery  exerted  a  powerful  influence  over  his  hearers.  A  consid- 
erable sum  was  collected  for  his  project.  In  1740  he  made  a  tour  through 
the  colonies.  He  made  seven  visits  to  America,  and  had  immense  revivalist 
success. 

Whiting,  William  H.  C.  (1825-1865),  commanded  the  Confederate 
brigade  whose  arrival  won  the  battle  of  Bull  Run.  He  constructed  Fort 
Fisher  and  took  command  in  1864,  defending  it  until  1865. 

Whitman,  Marcus  (1802-1847),  was  sent  to  Oregon  as  a  missionary  phy- 
sician in  1836.  He  reported  to  the  U.  S.  Government  the  value  of  the  then 
disputed  territory.  His  colonization  efforts  did  much  to  secure  that  region 
for  the  United  States. 

Whitman,  Walt  (1819-1892),  was  noted  for  the  originality  of  his  poetical 
writings,  both  as  to  thought  and  style.  He  wrote  "  Leaves  of  Grass," 
dealing  with  nineteenth  century  American  life,  "  Democratic  Vistas,"  etc. 

Whitney,  Eli  (1765-1825),  of  Connecticut,  was  the  inventor  of  the  cot- 
ton-gin, which  so  facilitated  the  preparation  of  cotton  that  it  increased  its 
exportation  from  189,500  pounds  in  1791  to  41,000,000  pounds  in  1803.  In 
1798  he  established  an  arms-factory  near  New  Haven,  Conn.,  which  was  the 
first  one  in  America.  He  supplied  the  Government  with  arms  of  a  superior 
quality. 


William  Cullen   Bryant. 
John  G.  Whittier. 


AMERICAN    POETS. 

Henry  W.   Longfellow. 

Oliver  Wendell    Holmes. 

Edgar  A.  Poe. 


James   Russell   Lowell. 
Ralph  Waldo  Emerson. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  711 

Whitney,  Josiah  D.,  born  in  1819,  has  made  valuable  geological  surveys 
of  Ohio,  the  Lake  Superior  region,  Mississippi  and  California.  He  became 
professor  of  geology  at  Harvard  in  1865.  Died  1896. 

Whitney,  William  C.,  born  in  1839,  was  prominent  in  the  overthrow  of 
the  Tweed  ring  in  1871.  He  was  corporation  counsel  for  New  York  City  in 
1875,  1876  and  from  1880  to  1882.  He  has  been  active  in  the  organization 
of  the  Democracy  of  New  York.  He  was  Secretary  of  the  Navy  in  Cleve- 
land's Cabinet  from  1885  to  1889. 

Whitney,  William  D.,  (1827-1894),  became  professor  of  Sanskrit  in  Yale 
College  in  1854  and  of  comparative  philology  in  1870.  He  was  president 
of  the  American  Oriental  Society  from  1884  to  1894.  He  was  editor-in- 
chief  of  the  "  Century  Dictionary." 

Whittier,  John  G.  (1807-1892),  poet,  was  a  member  of  the  Massachusetts 
Legislature  from  1835  to  1836.  He  was  appointed  secretary  of  the  Ameri- 
can Anti-Slavery  Society  in  1836.  He  edited  the  Pennsylvania  Freeman 
from  1838  to  1839.  He  contributed  editorials  to  the  National  Era,  a  Wash- 
ington anti-slavery  paper,  from  1847  to  1859.  With  the  exception  of  Long- 
fellow he  was  the  most  popular  American  poet.  He  was  a  Quaker,  and  a 
man  of  philanthropic  spirit.  Prominent  among  his  works  are  "  Legends  of 
New  England  "  and  "  Snowbound." 

Wicker,  Lambert  (1735-1778),  was  one  of  the  first  naval  officers  appointed 
in  the  Revolution.  He  conveyed  Franklin  to  France  in  1776  in  the  "Re- 
prisal." He  captured  fourteen  British  vessels  in  five  days. 

Wickliffe,  Charles  A.  (1788-1869),  represented  Kentucky  in  the  U.  S. 
Congress  as  a  Democrat  from  1823  to  1833.  He  was  Postmaster-General  in 
Tyler's  Cabinet  from  1841  to  1845. 

Wide-Awakes,  a  political  division  of  the  Republican  party,  organized  in 
1860  to  promote  the  election  of  Lincoln;  one  of  the  first  organizations  of 
uniformed  torchlight-parade  enthusiasts  in  American  politics. 

Wigglesworth,  Michael  (1631—1705),  came  to  America  from  England  in 
1638.  He  was  a  pastor  in  Maiden,  Mass.,  from  1657  to  1705.  He  wrote 
"  The  Day  of  Doom,"  a  famous  Puritan  poem  which  passed  through  ten 
editions. 

Wilde,  Richard  H.  (1789-1847),  represented  Georgia  in  the  U.  S.  Congress 
as  a  Democrat  from  1815  to  1817  and  from  1827  to  1835.  He  composed  the 
popular  song,  "  My  Life  is  Like  the  Summer  Rose." 

Wilderness,  The,  Va.,  a  bloody  and  irregular  fight  during  the  Civil  War 
between  the  Army  of  the  Potomac,  118,000  strong,  under  Grant,  and  the 
Army  of  Northern  Virginia,  numbering  about  61,000  Confederates,  under 
Lee.  The  battle  occurred  March  6  and  7,  1864.  Grant's  lieutenants  were 
Meade,  Burnside  and  Hancock;  Lee's  were  Ewell,  A.  P.  Hill,  Stuart  and 
Longstreet.  The  Wilderness  is  an  almost  impenetrable  waste  of  forest  and 
underbrush,  and  in  this  the  Confederates  were  posted.  Grant's  army  crossed 
the  Rapidan  River  on  pontoons  the  night  of  March  5.  Grant  had  planned 
to  attaclr  the  Confederates,  but  Lee  anticipated  him,  beginning  the  fight 


o*  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

early  March  6t  Hancock's  and  Burnside's  corps  were  hurried  to  the  front 
An  day  the  fight  continued.  Artillery  and  cavalry  were  useless  in  the  dense 
brush,  so  the  fighting  was  confined  to  musketry  at  close  range.  The  night 
was  spent  by  both  armies  in  constructing  intrenchments.  Early  the  next 
morning  Lee  feigned  an  attack  upon  the  Union  left,  not  wishing  to  make 
the  battle  general  until  Longstreet  should  come  up.  Hancock  was  ordered  to 
assault  Lee's  right,  which  was  weakest  About  midday  Longstreet  arrived, 
but  was  soon  wounded  by  his  own  men  by  mistake.  At  night  the  battle 
was  undecided.  Both  sides  lost  heavily.  Grant  withdrew,  and  shifted  his 
general  line  of  attack. 

Wilkes,  Charles  (1798-1877),  an  American  naval  officer,  was  lieutenant 
and  commander  of  the  squadron  which  in  1838-1842  sailed  on  an  exploring 
expedition  through  the  Pacific,  along  its  American  coasts  and  in  the  Ant- 
arctic regions.  He  became  captain  in  1855.  While  in  command  of  the 
tt  San  Jacinto,''  November  8, 1861,  he  stopped  the  British  ship  "  Trent,"  and 
took  the  Confederate  commissioners,  Mason  and  SlidelL  This  celebrated 
"Trent  Affair,"  which  nearly  involved  the  United  States  in  war  with  Great 
Britain,  brought  to  Wilkes  the  thanks  of  the  Navy  Department,  approval  of 
Congress  and  popular  praise,  but  was  disavowed  by  the  Government  He 
commanded  the  James  River  squadron,  was  commodore  in  1862,  was  retired 
in  1864,  and  made  a  rear-admiral  on  the  retired  list 

Wilkins,  William  (1779-1865),  represented  Pennsylvania  in  the  U.  S. 
Senate  as  a  Democrat  from  1831  to  1834  and  in  the  U.  S.  Congress  from  1842 
to  1844.  He  was  Secretary  of  War  in  Tyler's  Cabinet  from  1844  to  1845. 

Wilkinson,  James  (1757—1825),  served  in  the  Revolutionary  War  as 
adjutant-general  and  brigadier-general  and  Secretary  of  the  Board  of  War. 
In  1794  he  commanded  the  right  wing  under  Wayne  in  his  victory  over  the 
TnJiati^  Made  general  of  the  army  in  1796,  he  was  stationed  in  the  West, 
ad  was  Governor  of  Louisiana  Territory  1805—1806.  For  intrigues  with 
Burr  and  Spain  he  was  conrt-martialled  in  1811,  but  acquitted,  though  not 
innocent  In  the  War  of  1812  he  was  a  major-general,  but  his  efforts  on  the 
northern  frontier  ended  in  a  fiasco.  He  was  discharged  from  the  army  in 
1815.  His  memoirs  were  published. 

Wilkinson,  John,  born  in  1821,  commanded  the  Confederate  ram  "  Louis- 
iana" at  New  Orleans  in  1862.  He  ran  a  regular  blockade  runner  from 
Wilmington  to  Bermuda  in  1863.  I"  l8^4  ne  destroyed  merchant  vessels 
with  the  "  Chickamanga." 

Wfflard,  Emma  (1787-1870),  founded  the  Troy  Female  Seminary  in  1821, 
which  she  conducted  till  1838.  She  is  considered  the  pioneer  in  the  higher 
education  of  women  in  America.  She  wrote  many  popular  school  books. 

Wfflard,  Frances  E.  (1830-1898),  has  been  prominent  in  reform  move- 
ments. She  has  been  president  of  the  Women's  Christian  Temperance 
Union  since  1879.  She  became  editor  of  the  Chicago  Evening  Post  in  1879, 

Wfllcox,  Orlando  B.,  born  in  1823,  commanded  a  brigade  at  Bull  Run. 
He  led  a  division  at  Antietam  and  South  Mountain  and  a  corps  at  Freder- 
krksburg.  He  commanded  a  division  during  the  Richmond  campaign  from 
1864  to  1865. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  IIisTOfcY.  7*3 

Willett,  Marinus  (1740-1830),  of  New  York,  served  in  the  expeditions 
against  Fort  Ticonderoga  and  Fort  Frontenac.  He  defended  Fort  Stanwix 
against  the  Tories  and  Indians  in  1777.  He  commanded  the  forces  in  the 
Mohawk  Valley  from  1780.310  1783. 

William  III.  (1650-1702),  King  of  Great  Britain  from  1689  to  1702 
(William  and  Mary  king  and  queen  1689-1694),  attempted  in  October,  1692, 
a  union  of  the  American  colonies  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  on  his  war 
with  the  French.  To  this  end  a  requisition  was  made  on  each  colony  north 
of  the  Carolinas  for  a  fixed  quota  of  men  and  money  for  the  defence  of  New 
York,  "  the  outguard  of  his  Majesty's  neighboring  plantations  in  America." 
This  is  memorable  as  the  first  form  of  British  regulation  of  the  colonies 
after  the  revolution  of  1688.  William  proposed  to  follow  the  policy  of 
James  IL  for  consolidating  the  colonies.  In  May,  1696,  William  appointed 
a  board  of  commissioners  for  trade  and  plantations,  which  had  a  general 
supervision  of  the  colonies  till  1768.  (See  King  William's  War.) 

William  and  Mary,  College  of,  was  founded  at  Williamsburg,  Va.,  in 
1693,  upon  the  basis  of  a  charter  granted  by  King  William  and  Queen  Maty. 
Next  to  Harvard  it  is  the  oldest  of  American  colleges.  In  colonial  times  it 
was  of  great  importance.  Jefferson,  Monroe  and  Marshall  studied  here. 
The  Revolution,  the  removal  of  the  capital  to  Richmond,  the  foundation  of 
the  University  of  Virginia,  and  finally,  in  1862,  the  destruction  of  the 
college  buildings  by  Union  soldiers,  destroyed  its  prosperity.  It  has  lately 
taken  a  new  lease  of  life. 

William  Henry,  Fort,  erected  on  the  shores  of  Lake  George  in  1755, 
during  the  French  and  Indian  Wars  by  General  Johnson,  who  then  com- 
manded the  English  and  Continental  troops  in  New  York.  During  two 
years  expeditions  were  sent  out  against  the  Canadian  border.  In  1757  a 
French  expedition  against  it,  under  Vaudreuil  and  Rigaud,  failed.  The 
garrison,  however,  was  in  a  wretched  disorganized  condition.  The  fort  was 
again  attacked  in  1757  by  a  strong  French  and  Indian  force  under  General 
Montcalm.  The  latter  besieged  and  bombarded  it  for  several  days,  but 
Colonel  Munro,  the  commanding  officer,  refused  tb  surrender.  Finally  the 
fortifications  were  carried  by  storm,  the  fort  was  captured,  many  of  the  gar- 
rison murdered  by  the  Indians,  and  the  rest  pursued  to  Fort  Edward,  on  the 
Hudson. 

Williams,  Alpheus  S.  (1810-1878),  commanded  a  corps  at  South  Moun- 
tain, Antietam  and  Gettysburg  and  during  Sherman's  march  to  the  sea, 
represented  Michigan  in  the  U.  S.  Congress  as  a  Democrat  from  1875 
1878. 

Williams,  David  (1754—1831),  served  under  Montgomery  in  the  Canadi 
campaign  from  1775  to  1776.     He  was  one  of  the  captors  of  Major 
with  John  Paulding  and  Isaac  Van  Wart. 

Williams,    Ephraim  (1715-1755),   of  Massachusetts,   Colonel, 
Canada  in  the  French  War  from  1740  to  1748.     He  erected  Fort 
setts  in  1751.     He  bequeathed  funds  for  founding  Williams  Coll( 
was  chartered  in  1793. 


yI4  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Williams,  George  H.,  born  in  1823,  was  a  District  Judge  in  Iowa  from 
1847  to  1852.  He  was  Chief  Justice  of  Oregon  Territory  from  1853  to 
1857,  and  represented  Oregon  in  the  U.  S.  Senate  as  a  Republican  from  1865 
to  1871.  He  was  a  member  of  the  joint  commission  that  arranged  the 
Treaty  of  Washington  in  1871.  He  was  Attorney-General  in  Grant's  Cabi- 
net from  1872  to  1875. 

Williams,  James  D.  (1808-1880),  was  almost  continuously  a  member  of 
the  Indiana  Legislature  from  1843  to  1874.  He  represented  Indiana  in  the 
U.  S.  Congress  as  a  Democrat  from  1875  to  1876,  and  was  Governor  of 
Indiana  from  1876  to  1880.  He  was  a  member  of  the  State  Board  of  Agri- 
culture for  seventeen  years,  and  its  president  four  years.  He  greatly 
improved  educational  facilities. 

Williams,  John  (1644-1729),  became  pastor  at  Deerfield,  Mass.,  in  1686. 
He  was  carried  away  captive  to  Montreal  by  Indians  with  his  family  in 
1704.  He  wrote  "The  Redeemed  Captive,"  a  very  popular  account  of  his 
experiences. 

Williams,  Jonathan  (1750-1815),  was  secretary  to  Benjamin  Franklin  in 
France  from  1777  to  1785.  He  was  chief  engineer  of  the  U.  S.  army  from 
1805  to  1812,  and  planned  and  constructed  Forts  Columbus,  Clinton  and 
Williams  in  New  York  harbor. 

Williams,  Roger  (born  about  1599,  died  1683),  founder  of  Rhode  Island, 
was  graduated  at  Pembroke  College,  Cambridge,  England.  He  took 
orders,  but  soon  became  a  Nonconformist.  In  1631  he  came  to  Massa- 
chusetts, and  was  an  assistant  pastor  in  Plymouth  and  Salem.  In  1634  he 
became  pastor  in  Salem.  His  opinions  on  civil  and  ecclesiastical  matters 
did  not  meet  with  approval.  He  withdrew  from  the  church  in  1635;  was 
summoned  before  the  General  Court  and  expelled  from  the  colony.  In 
January,  1636,  he  left  Salem  and  founded  Providence  the  same  year,  estab- 
lishing friendly  relations  with  the  Indians.  He  formed  a  Baptist  church  in 
1639,  but  soon  withdrew  from  it.  Visiting  England  he  obtained  a  charter 
for  the  colony  in  1644.  He  was  a^  one  time  president  of  the  colony,  was 
engaged  in  various  religious  controversies  and  exerted  his  influence  generally 
in  favor  of  toleration  and  peace  with  the  Indians.  Rhode  Island's  religious 
freedom  was  due  to  him. 

Williams,  Samuel  Wells  (1812-1884),  went  to  China  as  printer  to  the 
American  Mission  in  1833.  He  was  U.  S.  Secretary  of  Legation  and  inter- 
preter in  China  from  1855  to  1876,  and  Charge*  d' Affaires  nine  times.  He 
wrote  "  The  Middle  Kingdom,"  a  standard  book  on  China,  and  became  pro- 
"essor  of  Chinese  at  Yale  College. 

Williams,  William  (1731-1811),  accompanied  Colonel  Williams'  expedi- 
^  to  Lake  George  in  1755.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Connecticut 
j-^mbly  for  more  than  fifty  years  and  a  judge  of  probate  for  forty  years, 
^presented  Connecticut  in  the  Continental  Congress  from  1776  to  1777 
om  1783  to  1784,  and  signed  the  Declaration  of  Independence. 

in  iv^3"18  College.  Williamstown,  Mass.,  was  first  started  as  a  free  school 
79-  and  incorporated  as  a  college  two  year*  later.     Dr.  Mark  Hopkins 


DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  715 

was  its  most  famous  president.     At  different  times  it  has  received  aid  from 
the  State,  the  last  being  a  gift  of  $75,000,  given  in  1868. 

Williamsburg,  Va.,  formerly  capital  of  the  colony,  was  built  under  an  act 
of  the  Colonial  Legislature  of  1699.  The  city  received  a  charter  in  1722. 
In  1780  the  seat  of  government  was  removed  to  Richmond.  A  battle 
between  the  Union  and  Confederate  forces  occurred  here  May  6,  1862.  It 
was  a  nine  hours'  engagement  between  the  rear  columns  of  Magruder's 
army,  retreating  from  Yorktown,  and  Hooker's  division  of  McClellan's 
army,  at  the  opening  of  the  Peninsular  campaign.  Magruder  had  been 
reinforced  from  Johnston's  army.  Hooker  had  been  sent  in  pursuit  of  the 
retreating  Confederates,  and  he  overtook  them  at  Williamsburg.  Long- 
street's  division  had  already  passed  the  town,  but  returned.  Hooker  held 
his  ground  bravely,  but  was  compelled  to  retreat  before  such  odds. 

Williamson,  Hugh  (1735—1819),  while  in  London  in  1774  was  examined 
before  the  Privy  Council  regarding  the  Boston  tea  party.  He  was  a  dele- 
gate from  North  Carolina  to  the  Continental  Congress  in  1784,  1785  and 
1786.  He  was  a  member  of  the  convention  that  framed  the  Federal  Con- 
stitution in  1787.  He  represented  North  Carolina  in  the  U.  S.  Congress  as 
a  Federalist  from  1790  to  1793.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  North  Carolina." 

Willich,  August  (1810-1878),  came  to  America  from  Germany  in  1853. 
He  commanded  a  German  regiment  from  1861  to  1862.  He  led  a  brigade 
at  Chickamauga,  in  the  Atlanta  campaign  and  in  Sherman's  march  to  the  sea. 

Willing,  Thomas  (1731-1821),  was  head  of  the  firm  of  Willing  and  Morris 
[Robert  Morris]  from  1754  to  1793,  which  was  an  agent  of  Congress  during 
the  Revolution.  He  represented  Pennsylvania  in  the  Continental  Congress 
from  1775  to  1776.  He  was  the  first  president  of  the  U.  S.  Bank  in  1791. 

Willis,  Nathaniel  P.  (1806-1867),  poet,  was  connected  with  the  New 
York  Mirror  from  1823  to  1842,  and  the  Home  Journal  from  1848  to  1867. 
He  wrote  "  Scenery  of  the  United  States  and  Canada,"  etc. 

Wilmington,  Del.,  was  originally  settled  by  Swedes,  who  at  Christiana 
Creek,  now  a  part  of  the  city  of  Wilmington,  established  the  first  Swedish 
colony  in  America,  April,  1638.  The  town,  i.  e.,  its  central  portion,  was 
founded  in  1732,  and  incorporated  as  a  borough  in  1740.  It  became  a  city 
in  1832. 

Wilmington,  N.  C.,  was  founded  in  1733.  This  town  was  wrested  from 
the  Confederates  and  occupied  by  the  Federal  troops  20,000  strong,  under 
Schofield.  February  22,  1865.  The  actual  capture  of  the  town  itself  was 
accomplished  without  bloodshed.  Its  protecting  fortifications,  Forts  Fisher 
and  Anderson,  had  been  captured  January  15  and  February  18  respectively. 
After  the  Confederates  Bragg  and  Hoke,  who  had  held  Fort  Anderson  with 
6000  men,  abandoned  that  stronghold,  they  retreated,  February  20,  through 
Wilmington,  burning  the  steamers,  cotton,  naval  and  military  stores,  to  pre- 
vent their  falling  into  the  hands  of  the  Federals.  On  February  22,  therefore, 
the  town  was  occupied  by  Schofield  without  opposition. 

Wilmot,  David  (1814-1868),  represented  Pennsylvania  in  the  U.  S.  Con- 
gress as  a  Democrat  from  1845  to  1851.  He  was  author  of  the  "Wilmot 


716  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

proviso,"  providing  that  slavery  be  excluded  from  territory  to  be  purchased 
from  Mexico  in  1846.  He  was  president  judge  of  the  Thirteenth  District 
of  Pennsylvania  from  1853  to  1861.  He  presided  over  the  Republican  Con- 
vention of  1860,  and  served  in  the  U.  S.  Senate  as  a  Republican  from  1861 
to  1863,  when  he  became  Judge  of  the  U.  S.  Court  of  Claims. 

Wilmot  Proviso.  August  8,  1846,  President  Polk,  in  a  special  message 
to  Congress,  requested  "money  for  the  adjustment  of  a  boundary  with 
Mexico,"  that  is,  for  the  purchase  of  Mexican  territory  outside  of  Texas!  A 
bill  appropriating  $2,000,000  was  at  once  introduced  into  the  House.  David 
Wilmot,  a  Democrat,  of  Pennsylvania,  proposed  as  an  amendment  the  since 
famous  "  Wilmot  Proviso,"  which  "  provided  that  neither  slavery  nor  invol- 
untary servitude  shall  ever  exist  in  any  part  of  said  territory,  except  for 
crime,  whereof  the  party  shall  first  be  duly  convicted."  The  bill  thus 
amended  passed  the  House,  but  failed  in  the  Senate.  January  4,  1847,  a  bill 
appropriating  $3,000,000  instead  of  $2,000,000  was  proposed  by  Preston 
King.  It  passed  the  House  with  the  proviso  attached,  but  the  latter  was 
dropped  in  the  Senate*  For  a  number  of  years  the  Wilmot  Proviso  was 
brought  up  and  debated  whenever  new  territories  were  to  be  organized.  It 
was  discussed  in  the  case  of  Oregon,  California,  Utah  and  New  Mexico,  but 
was  not  finally  established  until  June  9,  1861,  when  Congress  passed  an  act 
prohibiting  "  slavery  in  any  territories  of  the  United  States  now  existing,  or 
which  may  be  hereafter  formed  or  acquired." 

Wilson,  Alexander  (1766-1813),  naturalist,  came  to  America  from  Scot- 
land in  1794.  He  made  a  valuable  collection  of  American  birds  and  pub- 
lished nine  volumes  of  an  "  American  Ornithology."  He  enjoyed  considerable 
reputation  as  a  poet. 

Wilson,  Henry  (February  16,  i8i2-November  22,  1875),  Vice-President 
of  the  United  States,  was  born  in  New  Hampshire.  He  was  in  his  early  life 
a  farmer,  and  a  shoemaker  in  Natick,  Mass.  He  was  a  Whig  member  of  the 
Massachusetts  Legislature,  but  renounced  the  Whig  policy  at  the  convention 
of  1848,  and  aided  in  forming  the  Free-Soil  party.  In  1853  he  was  the 
defeated  Free-Soil  candidate  for  Governor.  A  coalition  of  parties  sent  him  to 
the  U.  S.  Senate  in  1855,  and  he  was  continued  there  by  Republican  votes  until 
1873.  Senator  Wilson  was  one  of  the  principal  opponents  of  slavery. 
During  the  war  he  was  chairman  of  the  Committee  on  Military  Affairs. 
When  President  Grant  was  re-nominated  in  1872,  Senator  Wilson  received 
the  second  place  on  the  ticket.  They  carried  the  country,  and  Wilson  was 
Vice-President  1873-1875.  He  wrote  various  historical  works,  chief  of  which 
is  "  Rise  and  Fall  of  the  Slave  Power,"  in  three  volumes.  Life  by  Nason. 

Wilson,  James  (1742-1798),  an  American  statesman,  was  born  in  Scot- 
land, received  a  university  education,  and  emigrated  to  Pennsylvania  in 
1766.  He  became  an  able  lawyer,  and  was  a  delegate  to  the  Continental 
Congress.  He  signed  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  and  was  one  of  the 
signers  who  also  sat  in  the  Federal  Convention  of  1787.  Of  this  body  he 
was  one  of  the  foremost  members,  and  was  on  the  Committee  which  drafted 
the  Constitution.  On  him  fell  the  burden  of  its  defence  in  the  ensuing 


DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  717 

ratifying  convention  of  Pennsylvania.  In  1789  lie  was  appointed  by  Wash- 
ington an  Associate  Justice  of  the  U.  S.  Supreme  Court. 

Wilson,  James  F.,  born  in  1828,  represented  Iowa  in  the  U.  S.  Congress 
as  a  Republican  from  1861  to  1869.  He  was  chairman  of  the  Judiciary 
Committee  from  1863  to  1869.  He  became  a  U.  S.  Senator  in  1883.  His 
present  term  expires  in  1895.  Died  1895. 

Wilson,  James,  born  in  1835,  in  Scotland,  member  of  Iowa  State  Legis- 
lature, member  of  Congress  1879  to  1885,  appointed  Secretary  of  Agriculture 
in  1897. 

Wilson,  James  H.,  born  in  1837,  served  at  Fort  Pulaski  in  1862  He  led  a 
divison  at  the  Wilderness  and  Petersburg.  He  captured  Selma,  Montgomery, 
Columbus  and  Macon.  He  took  Jefferson  Davis  prisoner  in  1865. 

Wilson,  John  (1588-1667),  clergyman,  came  to  America  from  England 
with  the  Puritans  in  1630,  and  organized  the  first  church  in  Boston,  of  which 
he  was  pastor  till  1667. 

Wilson,  William  L.,  born  in  1843,  nas  represented  West  Virginia  in  the 
U.  S.  Congress  as  a  Democrat  since  1883.  He  was  a  prominent  member  of 
the  Ways  and  Means  Committee  that  prepared  the  tariff  bill  of  1888,  and, 
as  chairman  of  that  committee  in  1893,  prepared  the  new  tariff  bill  of  that 
year.  Became  Postmaster-General  in  Cleveland's  Cabinet  February,  1895. 
Chosen  President  of  Washington  and  Lee  University  in  1898. 

Wilson,  Woodrow,  born  in  1856,  professor  at  Princeton  College,  has 
become  prominent  for  his  writings  upon  political  science.  He  wrote  "  Con- 
gressional Government,  a  Study  in  American  Politics,"  and  "  The  State  ;" 
also  a  historical  book,  "  Division  and  Reunion,  1830—1880." 

Wilson's  and  Kautz's  Raid,  Va.,  an  expedition  against  the  Confederate 
railroads  and  storehouses  south  of  Richmond  during  Grant's  campaign 
against  that  city,  June  22-30,  1864.  Wilson  and  Kautz,  commanding  7000 
cavalry  troops  from  the  Army  of  the  Potomac  and  the  Army  of  the  James, 
succeeded  in  destroying  several  miles  of  the  Weldon  Railroad,  a  number  of 
depots  on  the  South  Side  Road  and  twenty-five  miles  of  the  Danville  Road. 
They  also  attempted  to  dislodge  Fitzhugh  Lee  from  Roanoke  Bridge,  but 
failed. 

Wilson's  Creek,  Mo.  The  Federal  leaders,  Lyon  and  Sigel,  were  here 
defeated  with  great  loss  by  McCulloch  and  his  Missouri  and  Arkansas  volun- 
teers, August  10,  1861.  Lyon  was  killed  and  Sigel  was  compelled  to  retreat 
to  Springfield.  Lyon  had  come  upon  the  Confederates  by  night,  hoping  to 
surprise  them.  The  plan  was  well  executed,  but  the  disparity  of  force  was 
too  great,  his  army  numbering  only  some  5000  men,  while  that  of  McCulloch 
was  considerably  over  12,000.  In  this  fight  the  Federals  lost  over  1200  men, 
and  the  Confederates,  though  victorious,  likewise  sustained  heavy  casualties. 

Wilson's  Landing,  Va.,  an  outpost  of  General  Butler's  Army  of  the 
James  in  1864.  It  was  held  by  Wild  with  two  colored  regiments.  May  24 
Fitzhugh  Lee's  cavalry  charged  the  post,  but  were  defeated  and  driven  back. 

Winchell,  Alexander  (1824-1891),  was  professor  of  geology,  zoology  and 
botany  at  the  University  of  Michigan  from  1855  to  1873.  He  made  valu- 
able geological  investigations  in  Michigan  and  Minnesota. 

Winchester,  James  (1752—1826),  served  in  the  Revolutionary  army.  He 
was  made  commander  of  Fort  Wayne  in  1812.  He  fortified  Maumee  Rapids 


7Ig  DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

in  1813.     He  was  defeated  by  a  superior  force  of  British  and  Indians  under 
Colonel  Proctor  at  Rasin  River  in  1813.     (See  Rasin  River.) 

Winchester,  Va.  Here  occurred,  during  the  Civil  War,  three  sharp 
battles.  March  u,  1862,  Jackson,  having  evacuated  Winchester,  where  he 
had  been  stationed,  marched  up  the  valley  to  be  in  easy  communication 
with  Johnston's  army.  Learning  that  Shields,  weakened  by  the  withdrawal 
of  part  of  his  force,  was  pursuing  him,  Jackson  determined  to  engage  that 
general.  He  commanded  10,000  Confederates,  while  Shields  had  7000  Fed- 
erals. However,  the  latter  concealed  his  true  strength  by  feigning  retreat. 
The  battle  took  place  just  outside  of  Winchester,  Shields  holding  a  strong 
position.  The  Confederates  suffered  a  severe  defeat. — Again,  June  15,  1863, 
the  Federal  leader,  Milroy,  lay  encamped  near  Winchester  with  about  7000 
troops.  Hooker  was  following  Lee,  who  was  then  supposed  to  be  marching 
on  Washington.  Ewell  and  Longstreet,  leading  18,000  Confederates,  came 
upon  Milroy  as  they  were  hastening  to  join  Lee.  Milroy,  ignorant  of  their 
superiority  in  numbers,  held  his  post  until  it  was  too  late  to  retreat.  Then 
he  defended  himself  as  best  he  could,  but  in  vain.  The  Confederate  lines 
closed  around  him,  defeating  him  utterly.  Part  of  his  army  escaped  to 
Harper's  Ferry  and  part  fled  into  Pennsylvania.  Twenty-nine  guns  and 
4000  prisoners  were  captured. — Also  during  Early's  raid  through  the  Shen- 
andoah  Valley  part  of  his  army  encountered  near  Winchester,  July  12,  1864, 
a  small  force  of  Federals  under  General  Averell.  The  battle  did  not  last  long 
for  Averell  was  greatly  outnumbered.  He  was  easily  defeated,  losing  three 
guns  and  about  400  men.  Early  then  marched  on  Chambersburg,  Pa. — In 
1864,  while  Sheridan,  commanding  40,000  Federals,  and  Early  with  nearly 
as  large  an  army  of  Confederates,  were  manoeuvring  around  Winchester,  an 
engagement  occurred  near  that  town,  in  which  the  Confederates  were 
defeated,  Sheridan  capturing  nearly  25,000  prisoners.  The  battle  occurred 
September  19,  and  is  sometimes  called  the  battle  of  Opequon,  from  Early's 
position  along  the  banks  of  that  creek.  The  Federals  opened  the  fight  by 
charging  upon  and  breaking  Early's  first  line.  This  attack  was  repelled, 
but,  being  struck  upon  the  flank,  the  Confederates  gave  way  and  fled  in  con- 
fusion to  Winchester. 

Winder,  John  H.  (1800-1865),  served  with  distinction  at  Contreras, 
Churubusco,  Chapultepec  and  the  City  of  Mexico.  He  entered  the  Confed- 
erate service  and  was  commandant  at  Libby  Prison,  Belle  Isle  and  Anderson- 
ville.  He  is  charged  with  extreme  cruelty. 

Winder,  William  H.  (1775-1824),  led  a  successful  expedition  into  Canada 
below  Fort  Erie  in  1812.  His  brigade  repelled  the  British  attack  at  Stony 
Creek  in  1813.  He  was  in  command  at  Bladensburg  in  1814,  and  was  disas- 
trously defeated. 

Windom,  William  (1827-1891),  represented  Minnesota  in  the  U.  S.  Con- 
gress as  a  Republican  from  1859  to  l869-  He  served  in  the  U.  S.  Senate 
from  1870  to  1881.  He  was  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  in  Garfield's  Cabinet 
in  1881,  again  a  U.  S.  Senator  from  1881  to  1883,  and  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury  in  Harrison's  Cabinet  from  1889  to  1891. 


DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  719 

Windsor,  Conn.,  was  permanently  settled  in  1636  by  Massachusetts 
settlers.  A  "trading  house"  was  erected  here  by  William  Holmes  and 
several  associates  for  the  Plymouth  Colony  in  1633.  Windsor  was  one  of 
the  three  towns  which,  in  1639,  united  in  framing  the  "  Fundamental  Orders  " 
of  Connecticut. 

Winebrenner,  John  (1797-1860),  seceded  from  the  German  Reformed 
Church  in  Pennsylvania  and  founded  a  sect  called  the  "  Winebrennerians  " 
in  1830.  Their  distinctive  ordinances  are  baptism  by  immersion,  washing 
of  feet,  and  the  Lord's  Supper. 

Winebrennerians  (Church  of  God),  a  denomination  organized  in  1830  by 
Rev.  John  Winebrenner,  of  Harrisburg,  Pa.,  in  order  to  advocate  a  more  intense 
Christian  life.  They  have  a  church  government  like  that  of  the  Presbyterians 
and  hold  views  like  those,  partly  of  the  Baptists,  partly  of  the  Methodists. 

Wines,  Enoch  C.  (1806-1879),  was  prominent  in  the  reform  of  penal 
institutions  throughout  the  world.  He  secured  the  assembling  of  the  first 
National  Prison  Congress  in  1870,  and  was  its  secretary  from  1870  to  1879. 

Wingfield,  Edward  Maria,  was  active  in  colonizing  Virginia  under  the 
patent  of  1606.  He  came  to  Virginia  from  England  in  1607.  He  was 
named  first  president  of  the  colony,  but  was  deposed  in  1608.  He  wrote  a 
"  Discourse  of  Virginia." 

Winnebagoes,  a  tribe  of  Dakota  Indians,  migrated  east  early,  but  were 
forced  back  to  Green  Bay.  Early  in  the  seventeenth  century  an  alliance  of 
tribes  attacked  and  greatly  reduced  them.  Later  they  were  nearly  extermi- 
nated by  the  Illinois.  They  joined  with  the  French,  and  in  the  Revolution 
favored  the  English.  They  were  also  active  in  the  Indian  War  of  1793—4, 
being  zeduced  by  Wayne.  In  1812  they  were  friendly  to  the  English.  In 
1816  they  made  a  treaty  of  peace.  Treaties  in  1826  and  1827  fixed  their 
boundaries.  In  1829  tneY  ceded  large  tracts  of  land.  They  made  subse- 
quent treaties  and  were  removed  from  place  to  place  until  in  1866  they 
were  given  lands  at  Winnebago,  Neb. 

Winslow,  Edward  (1595—1655),  one  of  the  Pilgrim  leaders,  joined  Robin- 
son's congregation  at  Leyden  in  1617,  and  was  one  of  the  prominent  mem- 
bers of  the  "  Mayflower  "  band.  He  was  the  diplomatist  and  commercial 
head  of  the  colony.  The  first  year  he  negotiated  a  lasting  treaty  with 
Massasoit,  whose  life  he  saved  two  years  later.  He  conducted  an  exploring 
expedition  into  the  interior,  and  visited  England  several  times  in  the  interests 
of  the  settlement.  Winslow  was  often  chosen  assistant,  and  was  three  times 
Governor.  In  1633  ne  dispatched  a  vessel  up  the  Connecticut  whose  crew 
built  a  house  on  the  site  of  Hartford,  in  rivalry  with  the  Dutch  claims.  He 
represented  his  colony  in  the  New  England  Confederation,  and  by  Cromwell 
was  appointed  head  commissioner  of  an  expedition  against  the  Spanish  West 
Indies,  which  was,  however,  unsuccessful;  Winslow  died  during  its  course. 
He  wrote  a  historical  work,  the  "  Relation  "  or  "  Good  Newes  from  New 
England,"  and  several  religious  works,  "  Hypocrisie  Unmasked,"  etc. 

Winslow,  John  (1702-1774),  of  Massachusetts,  was  a  member  of  the 
unsuccessful  British  expedition  against  Cuba  in  1740.  He  executed  the 


720  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

order  for  removing  the  Acadians  from  their  homes  in  1755.  He  commanded 
^  men  against  the  French  in  1756  and  took  command  of  Fort  William 
Henry  He  was  a  major-general  in  the  Kennebec  expedition  against  the 
French  from  1758  to  1759-  He  became  Chief  Justice  of  the  Court  of 
Common  Pleas  in  Plymouth  County  in  1762.  He  was  prominent  m  the 
Stamp- Act  troubles.  He  founded  the  town  of  Wmslow,  Maine,  in  1766. 

Winslow,  John  A.  (1811-1873),  of  Massachusetts,  entered  the  U  S.  navy 
in  1827  He  served  with  distinction  during  the  Mexican  War.  While  com- 
manding the  "Kearsarge"  of  seven  guns  and  163  men,  he  won  a  brilliant 
victory  over  the  "  Alabama,"  Captain  Semmes,  of  eight  guns  and  149  men. 
The  engagement  lasted  about  an  hour,  at  the  end  of  which  the  "  Alabama  " 
sank  The  "  Alabama  "  lost  forty  killed,  seventy  taken  prisoners,  and  thirty- 
nine  efcaped  on  the  British  yacht  "  Deerhound."  The  "Kearsarge"  lost 
three  men  wounded,  of  whom  one  died.  This  was  the  most  noted  engage- 
ment between  two  vessels  during  the  war. 

Winslow,  Josiah  (1629-1680),  was  an  "  assistant "  in  the  Plymouth  colony 
from  1657  to  1673.  He  was  one  of  the  commissioners  of  the  United  Col- 
onies from  1658  to  1672.  He  became  commander  of  the  Plymouth  forces  in 
1659.  He  was  Governor  of  the  Plymouth  colony  from  1673  to  1680.  He 
was  elected  general-in-chief  of  all  the  forces  of  the  United  Colonies  in  1675. 

Winsor,  Justin,  born  in  1831,  was  superintendent  of  the  Boston  Public 
Library  from  1868  to  1878,  when  he  became  librarian  of  Harvard  Univer- 
sity. He  has  written  much  upon  American  history,  and  has  edited  the 
co-operative  works,  "  Memorial  History  of  Boston "  and  "  Narrative  and 
Critical  History  of  America."  He  wrote  a  "Reader's  Handbook  of  the 
American  Revolution "  and  numerous  bibliographies ;  also,  "  Christopher 
Columbus  "  and  "  From  Cartier  to  Frontenac."  Died  1897. 

Winthrop,  John  (January  22,  1588-March  26,  1649),  one  °f  the  chief 
founders  and  historians  of  New  England,  was  born  near  Groton,  in  England. 
He  was  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  and  became  a  justice  of  the 
peace  and  attorney.  His  sympathies  were  with  the  Parliamentary  opposition 
to  the  Stuart  policy,  and  in  1629  ne  was  chosen  Governor  of  Massachusetts. 
He  arrived  in  Salem  in  the  summer  of  1630,  and  soon  proceeded  to  the  site 
of  Boston.  He  continued  as  the  chief  magistrate  until  1-634.  In  the  short 
following  period,  when  Vane  was  Governor,  and  the  Anne  Hutchinson  con- 
troversy was  the  burning  question,  Winthrop  opposed  Vane.  He  was 
Governor  again  from  1637  to  1640  and  from  1646  until  his  death.  No  name 
stands  higher  among  the  colonists  in  respect  to  ability  and  character 
combined.  Governor  Winthrop  wrote  a  valuable  journal  of  events  in  the 
colony,  published  by  Savage  under  the  title  "  History  of  New  England." 
His  "  Life  and  Letters  "  were  edited  by  R.  C.  Winthrop. 

Winthrop,  John  (1606-1676),  son  of  the  preceding,  came  to  Massachusetts 
from  England  in  1631.  He  was  an  assistant  of  the  Massachusetts  colony 
from  163;  to  1649.  He  went  to  England  in  1634  and  obtained  a  commission 
to  build  a  fort  at  the  mouth  of  the  Connecticut  River.  In  1646  he  founded 
what  is  now  New  London,  and  became  a  Connecticut  magistrate  in  1650. 
He  Was  elected  Governor  pf  Connecticut  in  1657,  and  held  office  till  his 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  721 

death,  except  one  year.     In  1663  he  obtained  a  charter  from  Charles  II. 
uniting  the  colonies  of  Connecticut  and  New  Haven. 

Winthrop,  John  (Fitz-John)  (1639-1707),  son  of  John  Winthrop  the 
younger,  was  a  highly  efficient  agent  of  the  Connecticut  colony  in  London 
from  1693  to  1697.  He  was  Governor  of  Connecticut  from  1698  to  1707. 

Winthrop,  Robert  C.,  born  in  1809,  a  descendant  of  Governor  Winthrop, 
was  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1828.  He  was  a  Whig  in  politics,  and  was 
Speaker  of  the  Massachusetts  House  of  Representatives.  From  1841  to  1850 
he  represented  his  State  in  the  lower  House  of  Congress,  where  he  acquired 
a  reputation  as  a  debater  and  orator.  He  was  Speaker  of  the  House  in 
1847-1849,  and  was  defeated  in  1849  f°r  re-election  to  the  chair.  In 
1850-1851  he  was  U.  S.  Senator,  but  a  coalition  of  Democrats  and  Free- 
Soilers  defeated  him.  The  same  year  he  failed  as  the  Whig  candidate  for 
Governor.  Winthrop  received  a  plurality  of  votes,  but  as  the  law  then 
required  a  majority  the  choice  went  to  the  legislature,  where  he  was  beaten. 
Mr.  Winthrop  has  long  been  noted  as  a  classic  orator,  particularly  on  histori- 
cal themes.  His  addresses  on  anniversary  occasions,  as  at  the  Yorktown 
Centennial  in  1881,  were  greatly  admired.  He  died  November  17,  1894. 

Winthrop,  Theodore  (1828-1861),  was  military  secretary  to  General  Butler 
at  Fort  Monroe.  He  aided  in  planning  the  attack  on  Little  and  Great  Bethel, 
where  he  was  killed.  His  posthumous  novels  attracted  wide  attention. 

Wirt,  William  (1772-1834),  a  cabinet  officer,  and  one  of  the  ablest  and 
most  eloquent  lawyers  in  the  country.  He  was  a  Virginian  and  sat  at  one 
time  in  the  State  House  of  Delegates,  but  agide  from  that  office  he  was  not 
active  in  political  life.  One  of  his  most  celebrated  speeches  was  that  deliv- 
ered in  1807  in  the  prosecution  of  Aaron  Burr.  From  1817  until  1829  Wirt 
was  Attorney-General  of  the  United  States.  In  1832  he  was  the  Anti- 
Masonic  candidate  for  President,  and  received  seven  electoral  votes.  Even 
better  known  than  his  addresses  and  essays  were  his  "  Letters  of  the  British 
Spy,"  and  his  "  Life  of  Patrick  Henry."  Life  by  Kennedy. 

Wisconsin,  a  State  of  the  Union,  was  the  last  State  to  be  formed  from 
the  "Old  Northwest."  It  was  early  explored  by  Nicolet»  La  Salle  and 
French  traders,  who  made  the  first  settlement  at  Green  Bay  in  1639.  In 
1763  the  treaty  of  Paris  gave  the  territory  to  the  English,  under  whose  jur- 
isdiction it  remained  until  1796,  when  it  was  ceded  to  the  United  States. 
In  1836  it  was  formed  into  a  separate  territory,  and  included  besides  its  pres- 
ent area  the  present  territory  of  Iowa  and  Minnesota  and  parts  of  the 
Dakotas.  May  29,  1848,  the  State  was  finally  admitted  into  the  Union. 
The  State  was  Democratic  in  national  politics  until  1856,  when  it  was  car- 
ried by  the  Republicans  as  at  every  subsequent  Presidential  election  until 
1892.  In  1872  the  Graham  liquor  law  was  passed  requiring  a  license  for 
the  sale  of  liquor  and  a  bond  for  payment  of  any  damages  from  its  sale.  In 
1874  the  Potter  law  fixed  the  railroad  rates  for  passengers  and  freight.  In 
1890  the  Democrats  elected  the  Governor,  and  in  1892  the  Presidential 
electors.  The  present  constitution  dates  from  1848,  The  population  of  the 
State  in  1850,  was  305,391;  in  1890,  1,686,880, 

4$ 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Wisconsin,  Historical  Society  of,  founded  in  1849  and  reorganized  in 
1854  It  hi  published  several  volumes  of  collections,  and  has  formed  a 
large  library. 

Wisconsin,  University  of,  at  Madison,  was  incorporated  in  1838,  but  not 
organized  till  1848.  Grants  of  land  from  the  nation  and  State  aid  have 
placed  it  upon  a  firm  foundation.  Besides  its  college  course  it  has  a  depart- 
ment of  law,  founded  in  1863,  and  colleges  of  mechanics  and  agriculture. 

Wise  Henry  A.  (1806-1876),  represented  Virginia  in  the  U.  S.  Congress 
as  a  Democrat  from  1833  to  1843,  but  supported  the  Whig  party  in  opposi- 
tion to  Jackson's  bank  policy.  He  was  Minister  to  Brazil  from  1844  to 
1847.  He  was  elected  Governor  of  Virginia  in  1856,  after  a  severe  struggle 
with'the  Know-nothings,  whom  he  denounced  as  abolitionists  in  disguise. 
He  served  till  1859.  During  his  administration  occurred  John  Brown's  raid. 
As  a  member  of  the  Virginia  Convention  in  1861  he  labored  for  conciliation. 
He  led  a  Confederate  brigade  in  the  Kanawha  Valley  and  defended  Roanoke 
Island.  He  wrote  a  book  of  political  history  called  "  Seven  Decades  of  the 
Union." 

Wisner,  Henry  (1725-1790),  was  a  delegate  from  New  York  to  the  Con- 
tinental Congress  from  1774  to  1776.  He  rendered  valuable  service  to  the 
patriot  cause  in  the  manufacture  of  munitions.  He  opposed  the  adoption 
of  the  Constitution  as  creating  too  centralized  a  government. 

Witchcraft.  The  early  New  Englanders  believed  that  human  beings 
could,  by  compact  with  evil  spirits,  obtain  power  to  suspend  the  laws  of 
nature  and  thus  injure  their  fellows.  In  1671  Samuel  Willard,  a  minister  of 
Massachusetts,  proclaimed  that  a  woman  of  his  congregation,  Knapp  by 
name,  was  bewitched,  though  her  insanity  was  clearly  proven.  Between 
1684  and  1693  more  than  100  persons  were  tried  and  convicted  of  witch- 
craft and  many  of  them  were  hanged.  Special  courts  were  appointed  by 
Governor  Phipps  for  the  trial  of  witches.  Witnesses  were  frequently  guilty 
of  open  perjury,  for  the  charge  of  witchcraft  soon  came  to  be  used  as  a 
means  of  striking  a  private  enemy.  The  witchcraft  epidemic  was  especially 
prevalent  at  Salem,  where  a  number  of  persons  professed  themselves  be- 
witched and  singled  out  those  who  had  bewitched  them.  Educated  men 
like  Increase  Mather  firmly  believed  in  it.  In  1693  the  superstition  began 
to  weaken  chiefly  through  the  writings  and  protests  of  Thomas  Brattle  and 
Robert  Calef,  of  Boston.  The  same  belief  prevailed  elsewhere  at  that  time. 

Witherspoon,  John  (1722-1794),  came  to  America  from  Scotland  in  1768 
to  accept  the  presidency  of  Princeton  College,  N.  J.  He  was  a  prominent 
patriot  at  the  beginning  of  the  Revolution,  and  did  much  to  influence  the 
Scotch  and  Scotch-Irish  to  defend  the  patriot  cause.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
Continental  Congress  from  1776  to  1779  and  from  1780  to  1783.  He  signed 
and_  strongly  advocated  the  Declaration  of*  Independence,  and  signed  the 
Articles  of  Confederation.  He  wrote  "  Considerations  on  the  Nature  and 
Extent  of  the  Legislative  Authority  of  the  British  Parliament." 

Wolcott,  Oliver  (1726-1797),  was  a  member  of  the  Connecticut  executive 
council  from  1774  to  1786.  He  was  Commissioner  of  Indian  Affairs  for 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  723 

the  Northern  Department  in  1775.  He  was  a  delegate  from  Connecticut  to 
the  Continental  Congress  from  1776  to  1778,  and  signed  the  Declaration  of 
Independence.  He  was  placed  in  command  of  fourteen  Connecticut  regi- 
ments which  he  organized  for  the  defence  of  New  York.  He  led  a  brigade 
under  General  Gates  at  Saratoga.  He  served  in  Congress  from  1780  to 
1784.  He  was  Lieutenant-Governor  of  Connecticut  from  1786  to  1796, 
when  he  became  Governor. 

Wolcott,  Oliver  (1760-1833),  was  comptroller  of  public  accounts  of  the 
United  States  from  1788  to  1789,  auditor  of  the  U.  S.  Treasury  from  1789 
to  1791,  and  Comptroller  from  1791  to  1795.  He  was  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury  in  the  Cabinets  of  Washington  and  Adams  from  1795  to  1801,  but 
opposed  Adams'  policy,  being  guided  by  Hamilton.  He  was  a  U.  S.  Circuit 
Judge  from  1801  to  1802,  and  Governor  of  Connecticut  from  1817  to 
1827. 

Wolfe,  James  (1727-1759),  one  of  the  chief  heroes  in  the  "  expansion  of 
England,"  entered  the  army  at  an  early  age  and  fought  in  the  war  of  the 
Austrian  Succession  and  against  the  rising  of  the  Young  Pretender  in  1745. 
He  was  a  brigadier-general  and  commander  of  a  division  under  General 
Amherst  in  the  siege  and  taking  of  Louisbourg  in  1758,  and  displayed  great 
gallantry.  He  was  promoted  to  be  major-general  and  selected  by  Pitt  for 
the  great  stroke  of  1759,  the  capture  of  Quebec.  In  June  with  eight  thou- 
sand troops  Wolfe  appeared  near  the  city.  Strongly  fortified  by  nature  and 
art,  and  under  command  of  the  ablest  French  general  of  the  time,  Mont- 
calm,  the  Gibraltar  of  the  New  World  resisted  all  attempts,  direct  and  other- 
wise. Wolfe  and  the  Hnglish  became  discouraged.  A  steep  but  practicable 
path  from  the  river  gave  Wolfe  his  opportunity  to  surprise  his  enemy.  On 
the  heights  of  Abraham  the  French  were  completely  defeated,  September 
13,  1759,  and  the  surrender  of  Quebec  soon  followed.  But  Wolfe  was  killed 
in  the  moment  of  victory.  See  Parkman's  "  Montcalm  and  Wolfe." 

Woman  Suffrage.  Twenty-eight  States,  a  large  majority  of  the  Union, 
have  given  women  some  form  of  suffrage.  In  Arizona,  Delaware,  Idaho, 
Illinois,  Indiana,  Kansas,  Kentucky,  Massachusetts,  Michigan,  Minnesota, 
Montana,  Nebraska,  New  Hampshire,  New  Jersey,  North  Dakota,  Oklahoma, 
Oregon,  South  Dakota,  Texas,  Vermont,  Washington  and  Wisconsin,  women 
have  various  forms  of  school  suffrage.  In  Wyoming  women  have  had  the 
same  vote  with  men  since  1869.  This  right  was  confirmed  by  the  Constitu- 
tional Convention  of  1889,  and  Wyoming  was  admitted  to  the  Union  in 
1890.  They  have  generally  voted  the  Republican  ticket,  that  party  having 
been  mainly  instrumental  in  enfranchising  them.  In  Utah  women  voted 
from  1870  until  disfranchised  by  Congress  in  the  "  Edmunds  Law"  of  1882. 
A  law  was  passed  by  the  New  York  Assembly  in  1891  enabling  women  to 
vote.  This  bill  had  been  proposed  in  1880.  No  vote  was  taken  in  the 
Senate.  In  Kansas  they  have  equal  suffrage  with  men  at  municipal  elections. 
In  Arkansas  and  Missouri  they  vote,  by  signing  or  refusing  to  sign  petitions, 
on  liquor  license  in  many  cases.  In  Louisiana  they  vote  on  allowing  rail- 
roads to  run  through  their  parish.  In  Mississippi  they  were  admitted  in 
1892,  to  vote  on  fence  questions  by  the  stock  law.  In  Montana  they  vote 


?24  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

on  local  taxation.  In  Delaware  suffrage  is  granted  them  in  several  munici- 
palities. In  Colorado  they  have  recently  been  allowed  the  same  rights  of 
suffrage  with  men. 

Woman's  Rights.  The  first  woman's  rights  convention  in  the  United 
States  met  at  Rochester  in  1848.  (See  Woman  Suffrage,  Equal  Rights  Party.) 

Women's  Christian  Temperance  Union,  organized  in  1874  for  reforming 
the  drinking  class  and  securing  the  abolition  of  the  liquor  tramc.  An 
organization,  called  the  "  Non-Partisan  W.  C.  T.  U,"  was  formed  at  Cleve- 
land in  January,  1890,  as  a  protest  against  the  attitude  of  the  W.  C.  T.  U. 
in  politics. 

Wood,  Fernando  (1812-1881),  represented  New  York  in  the  U.  S.  Con- 
gress as  a  Democrat  from  1841  to  1843.  He  was  elected  mayor  of  New 
York  City  from  1855  to  1858  and  from  1861  to  1863.  At  the  outbreak  of 
the  Rebellion  he  recommended  that  New  York  secede  and  become  a  free 
city.  He  again  served  in  the  U.  S.  Congress  from  1863  to  1865.  He  was  a 
great  power  in  the  politics  of  the  city. 

Wood,  Leonard,  army-surgeon,  colonel  of  the  "Rough  Riders,"  made 
brigadier-general  for  bravery,  and  appointed  Governor  of  Santiago. 

Wood,  Thomas  J.,  born  in  1823,  served  during  the  Mexican  War.  He 
commanded  a  division  at  Shiloh,  Corinth,  Stone  River,  Murfreesboro  and 
Chickamauga.  He  engaged  in  Sherman's  invasion  of  Georgia,  and  led  a 
corps  at  Nashville  in  1864. 

Woodbridge,  William  (1780-1861),  was  Judge  of  the  Michigan  Supreme 
Court  from  1828  to  1832,  and  Governor  of  Michigan  from  1840  to  1841. 
He  was  a  Democratic  U.  S.  Congressman  from  1841  to  1847. 

Woodbury,  Levi  (1789-1851),  was  an  earnest  supporter  of  the  War  of 
1812.  He  was  appointed  a  Judge  of  the  New  Hampshire  Supreme  Court  in 
1817,  and  was  Governor  of  New  Hampshire  from  1823  to  1824.  He  repre- 
sented New  Hampshire  in  the  U.  S.  Senate  as  a  Democrat  from  1825  to 
1831.  He  was  Secretary  of  the  Navy  in  Jackson's  Cabinet  from  1831  to 
1834,  when  he  was  transferred  to  the  Treasury  Department,  and  continued 
in  Van  Buren's  Cabinet  till  1841.  He  again  served  in  the  U.  S.  Senate 
from  1841  to  1845,  and  was  of  great  influence  in  the  Democratic  party. 
He  was  a  Justice  of  the  U.  S.  Supreme  Court  from  1845  to  1851. 

Woodford,  Stewart  L.,  born  in  1835.  Entered  the  Civil  War  as  a  private, 
rising  to  rank  of  general,  Lieutenant-Governor  of  New  York  in  1866,  went 
to  Congress  in  1872,  became  United  States  District  Attorney  in  1877,  Minis- 
ter to  Spain  at  the  time  of  the  Spanish-American  War. 

Woods,  Charles  R.  (1827-1885),  commanded  a  regiment  at  Fort  Donel- 
son  and  Shiloh,  a  brigade  at  Corinth  and  a  regiment  at  Vicksburg.  He  led 
a  division  in  Sherman's  Georgia  campaign. 

Woods,  William  B.  (1824-1887),  was  a  member  of  the  Ohio  Legislature 
from  1857  to  1860,  serving  as  Speaker  of  the  House  in  1858.  He  was  com- 
missioned a  lieutenant-colonel  of  Ohio  volunteers,  and  fought  at  Shiloh, 
Arkansas  Post,  Resaca,  Dallas,  Atlanta,  Lovejoy  Station  and  Bentonville. 
He  led  a  division  in  Sherman's  march  to  the  sea.  He  was  a  U.  S.  Circuit 
Judge  from  1869  to  1880,  when  he  became  a  Justice  of  the  U.  S.  Supreme 
Court 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  725 

Wood's  Coins  (see  Rosa  Americana),  coins  issued  by  Great  Britain  for  use 
in  America  in  1722  and  made  by  William  Wood  after  whom  they  were  called 
Wood's  coins,  or  Rosa  Americana.  They  were  of  a  mixed  metal  resembling 
brass,  and  the  royal  letters  patent  denominated  them  two  pence,  pence  and 
half  pence.  Ob  versed  stamped  with  laureated  head  of  George  the  First; 
reverse  with  a  double  rose  from  which  issued  five  barbed  points.  Legend, 
Rosa  Americana  1722,  Utile  Dulci. 

Woodworth,  Samuel  (1785-1842),  was  engaged  in  numerous  journalistic 
ventures.  He  is  chiefly  memorable  for  his  poems,  of  which  the  "  Old  Oaken 
Bucket "  is  the  most  popular. 

Wool,  John  E.  (1784-1869),  served  with  great  distinction  at  Queenstown 
Heights  in  1812  and  at  Plattsburgh  in  1814.  He  was  inspector-general  of  the 
army  from  1816  to  1841.  He  was  active  in  organizing  troops  for  the  Mexi- 
can War.  He  was  second  in  command  to  General  Taylor  at  Buena  Vista, 
where  he  selected  the  ground  and  arranged  the  forces.  He  commanded  the 
Eastern  Department  from  1857  to  1860,  Fort  Monroe  from  1861  to  1862,  the 
Middle  Military  Department  from  1862  to  1863,  and  the  Department  of  the 
East  in  1863. 

Woollens  Bill,  the  term  applied  to  a  celebrated  tariff  measure  of  1827, 
because  its  most  important  provision  was  the  advancement  of  the  sliding 
scale,  so  carefully  adjusted  in  1824,  fr°m  33 1A  to  4°  an(*  45  per  cent  on  all 
woollen  imports.  The  bill  was  introduced  in  the  House  in  February, 
1827,  but  failed  in  the  Senate. 

Woolsey,  Melancthon  T.  (1782-1838),  defeated  the  British  at  Sackett's 
Harbor  in  1812.  He  was  second  in  command  on  Lake  Ontario  in  1813, 
and  captured  several  prizes  with  the  "  Sylph."  He  again  defeated  the 
British  at  Sackett's  Harbor  in  1814. 

Woolsey,  Theodore  D.  (1801-1889),  was  professor  of  Greek  at  Yale  from 
1831  to  1846,  and  president  from  1846  to  1871.  His  opinions  in  interna- 
tional law  were  of  great  weight.  He  wrote  "  Introduction  to  the  Study  of 
International  Law,"  "  Political  Science,"  "  Communism  and  Socialism  in 
their  History  and  Theory,"  a  "  Manual  of  Political  Ethics,"  and  annotated 
editions  of  Lieber's  "  Civil  Liberty  and  Self  Government." 

Wooster,  David  (1710-1777),  general,  commanded  a  sloop-of-war  in  the 
expedition  against  Louisbourg  in  1745.  He  was  a  brigadier-general  in  the 
French  War  from  1756  to  1763.  He  was  one  of  the  originators  of  Arnold's 
expedition  for  the  capture  of  Quebec  in  1775.  He  was  appointed  one  of 
the  eight  brigadier-generals  of  the  Continental  army  and  stationed  in 
Canada,  where  he  succeeded  Montgomery  in  command  for  a  short  time.  He 
was  in  command  of  Danbury  when  attacked  by  Governor  Tryon's  troops  in 
1777.  He  was  killed  in  an  assault  on  the  enemy  near  Ridgefield,  Conn. 

Worcester,  Joseph  E.  (1784-1865),  edited  the  "American  Almanac" 
from  1831  to  1843.  He  published  valuable  textbooks  on  history  and  geog- 
raphy, and  his  "  Dictionary  of  the  English  Language,"  which  attempted  to 
represent  the  English  language  as  it  was,  while  Noah  Webster's,  in  the 
original  editions,  represented  it  as  Webster  thought  it  ought  to  be. 


726  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

Worcester  vs.  Georgia,  an  important  case  decided  by  the  Supreme  Court. 
Samuel  Worcester,  a  missionary  among  the  Cherokee  Indians,  was  in  1831 
se^ed  by  the  authorities  of  Gwinnett  County,  Ga.,  indicted  and  sentenced 
to  four  years'  imprisonment  for  residing  among  the  Indians  in  defiance  of  an 
act  of  the  Geor^a  Legislature  of  1830.  This  act  recites  that  any  white 
person  found  living  among  the  Indians  without  license  from  the  Governor 
of  Georgia  is  liable  to  imprisonment.  Worcester  pleaded  the  unconstitu- 
tionality  of  the  act,  and  by  writ  of  error  the  case  was  brought  before  the 
Supreme  Court,  1832.  That  body  confirmed  Worcester's  plea  and  found 
iudement  in  his  favor,  on  the  ground  that  the  Georgia  Act,  being  repugnant 
to  the  treaties  made  between  the  United  States  and  the  Cherokee  nation,  was 
unconstitutional  and  void. 

Worden.  John  Lorimer  (1818-1897),  an  American  naval  officer,  entered 
the  navy  at  the  age  of  seventeen.  The  great  deed  with  which  his  name  is 
principally  associated  is  the  battle  of  the  "  Monitor  "  and  "  Merrimac  "  in 
Hampton  Roads,  March  9,  1862.  Worden  commanded  the  "  Monitor  "  with 
great  skill,  in  an  action  which  must  be  ranked  among  the  decisive  struggles 
of  the  war.  He  received  a  vote  of  thanks  from  Congress  and  was  promoted 
to  be  commander.  He  was  engaged  in  the  blockade,  destroyed  the  privateer 
"Nashville,"  and  took  part  in  the  attack  on  the  Charleston  forts  in  1863. 
From  1870  to  1874  he  was  superintendent  of  the  Naval  Academy.  Worden 
became  commodore  in  1868,  rear-admiral  in  1872,  and  was  retired  in  1886. 

World's  Fair.  The  World's  Columbian  Exposition  was  created  by  Act 
of  Congress  April  25,  1890.  President  Harrison,  on  December  24,  1890,  pro- 
claimed the  Exposition  to  the  world  and  invited  foreign  nations  to  participate. 
On  October  21,  1892,  the  Exposition  grounds  and  buildings  at  Chicago  were 
formally  opened  and  dedicated  with  appropriate  ceremonies  by  Levi  P.  Mor- 
ton, Vice-President  of  the  United  States,  and  presented  by  President  Higin- 
botham,  of  the  World's  Columbian  Exposition,  to  President  Palmer,  of  the 
World's  Columbian  Commission.  The  Exposition  opened  May  i,  1893,  and 
closed  October  30,  of  the  same  year.  The  Exposition  Act  provided  for  a 
naval  review,  which  took  place  in  New  York  Harbor  in  April,  1893,  many 
foreign  nations  participating.  There  were  about  22,000,000  paid  admissions 
to  the  Fair,  and  the  receipts  exceeded  the  expenditures  by  nearly  $2,000,000. 
See  Exhibitions  and  Centennial. 

Worth,  William  J.  (1794-1849),  entered  the  army  in  1812.  He  served  as 
an  aide  to  General  Winfield  Scott  in  the  campaigns  of  1813  and  1814.  He 
distinguished  himself  at  the  battles  of  Chippewa  and  Niagara.  He  was  in 
command  of  the  Department  of  Florida  from  1841  to  1846  and  was  active 
in  subduing  the  Seminole  Indians.  He  was  second  in  command  to  General 
Taylor  at  the  outbreak  of  the  Mexican  War.  He  conducted  an  assault  at 
Monterey  and  led  his  brigade  in  the  battles  from  Vera  Cruz  to  the  City  of 
Mexico. 

Wright,  Carroll  D.,  born  in  1840,  was  chief  of  the  Massachusetts  Bureau 
of  Labor  Statistics  from  1873  to  .1888,  of  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Labor  from 
its  organization  in  1884,  and  of  the  Department  of  Labor  since  1888.  He 
is  prominent  as  a  statistician  and  investigator  of  social  problems. 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  727 

Wright,  Elizur  (1804-1885),  became  secretary  of  the  American  Anti- 
Slavery  Society  in  1833.  He  was  an  editor  of  numerous  anti-slavery  publica- 
tions including  the  "  Emancipator,"  "  Human  Rights,"  "  The  Massachusetts 
Abolitionist,"  the  "  Chronotype "  and  the  "  Commonwealth."  He  was 
prominent  in  insurance  improvements,  and  was  Insurance  Commissioner 
of  Massachusetts  from  1858  to  1866.  He  aided  in  organizing  the  National 
Liberal  League  and  was  its  president  for  three  years. 

Wright,  Horatio  G.  (1820-1899),  fought  at  Bull  Run  and  was  chief  engi- 
neer of  the  Port  Royal  expedition.  He  led  a  division  at  Secessionville  and 
commanded  the  Department  of  the  Ohio  till  1863.  He  led  a  division  at 
Gettysburg  and  a  corps  at  Rappahannock  Station,  the  Wilderness  and  Spott- 
sylvania.  He  repulsed  General  Early's  threatened  invasion  of  Washington 
in  1864.  He  commanded  at  Cedar  Creek  and  led  a  corps  at  Petersburg. 

Wright,  Sir  James  (1714  P-i^),  was  appointed  Chief  Justice  and  Lieu- 
tenant-Governor  of  South  Carolina  in  1760.  He  became  royal  Governor  of 
Georgia  in  1764,  but  was  compelled  to  retire  in  1776. 

Wright,  Silas  (1795-1847),  was  graduated  at  Middlebury  College,  and  be- 
came a  lawyer  and  influential  politician  in  the  State  of  New  York.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  State  Senate,  and  Congressman  from  1827  t°  J829.  For  the 
next  four  years  he  was  Comptroller  of  New  York.  Then,  1833-1844,  he 
was  U.  S.  Senator,  and  one  of  the  Democratic  leaders  in  the  Senate.  From 
1845  to  J^47  he  was  Governor  of  the  State.  One  of  his  acts  was  the  calling 
out  the  militia  to  suppress  the  Anti-Renters.  The  local  Democracy  was  at 
that  time  engaged  in  bitter  factional  fights,  and  Governor  Wright  was 
defeated  for  re-election  in  1846.  Life  by  Hammond. 

Wright;  William  (1794-1866),  represented  New  Jersey  in  the  U.  S.  Con- 
gress as  a  Whig  from  1843  to  1847,  and  in  the  U.  S.  Senate  as  a  Democrat 
from  1853  to  1859  and  from  1863  to  1866. 

Writs  of  Assistance.  In  1754  Parliament,  at  the  petition  of  Shirley, 
then  Governor  of  Massachusetts,  passed  an  act  providing  for  a  more  thorough 
enforcement  of  the  navigation  and  revenue  laws.  General  warrants  were  to 
be  issued  by  the  courts  to  revenue  officers  to  continue  for  an  indefinite 
period,  and  not  returnable  into  the  court,  for  the  seizure  and  examination  of 
goods  imported  by  illicit  traders.  These  were  called  writs  of  assistance. 
They  were  legalized  by  the  Townshend  Acts  of  1767.  The  colonists  vehe- 
mently objected  to  them,  because  their  vague  and  general  terms  left  the  way 
open  to  great  abuses  against  the  liberty  of  the  subjects,  in  the  search  of  prem. 
ises.  In  February,  1761,  arguing  against  an  application  for  such  writs  before 
the  Superior  Court  of  Massachusetts,  James  Otis  declared  the  navigation  laws 
illegal,  and  denied  the  claim  of  Parliament  to  legislate  for  the  colonies. 

Wiirttemberg.  The  abolition  of  droit  d'aubaine  and  taxes  on  emigration 
was  agreed  to  by  the  Convention  of  1844  between  the  United  States  and 
Wiirttemberg.  A  naturalization  and  extradition  convention  was  concluded 
in  1868. 

Wyandotte  Constitution,  the  final  constitution  of  Kansas,  adopted  Octo- 
ber 4,  1859,  by  a  convention  appointed  by  the  Territorial  Legislature  of 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  SfAtiis  HISTORY. 

and  under  the  provisions  of  which  Kansas  was  admitted  to  the  Union. 
SituSon  prohibited  slavery;  the  Governor  was  to  be  elected  for  two 
years;  suffrage  was  limited  to  whites,  and  Topeka  was  made  the  capital. 


Wyatt,  Sir  Francis  (1575  M644),  ^as  appointed  Governor  of  Virginia  in 
1621  He  brought  from  England  a  constitution  upon  which  subsequent 
forms  of  government  in  the  colonies  were  modeled.  Trial  by  jury,  an 
annual  assembly  convoked  by  the  Governor,  an  executive  veto  power,  and 
the  concurrence  of  the  Virginia  Company  and  the  Colonial  Assembly  in  all 
acts,  were  features.  He  governed  from  1621  to  1626  and  from  1639  to  1642. 

Wyoming  was  organized  as  a  territory  in  1868.  It  was  admitted  as  a 
State  by  Act  of  Congress  approved  July  10,  1890.  Both  male  and  female 
citizens  are  allowed  the  suffrage.  The  State  has  been  Republican.  The 
population  in  1890  was  60,705. 

Wyoming  Controversy,  a  controversy  which  arose  between  Pennsylvania 
and  Connecticut  in  1782  regarding  the  jurisdiction  of  certain  lands  within 
the  limits  of  the  former  State,  but  which  had  been  settled  by  Connecti- 
cut adventurers.  In  1784  the  Pennsylvanians  attempted  to  dispossess  the 
Connecticut  claimants.  This  led  to  bloodshed  and  to  a  revival  of  the  Susque- 
hanna  Company  in  Connecticut  for  the  establishment  of  the  latter' s  claims. 
John  Franklin,  the  moving  spirit  of  the  Susquehanna  Company,  was  seized 
and  imprisoned  by  Timothy  Pickering,  clerk  and  commissioner  of  the  new 
county  of  Luzerne,  formed  by  Pennsylvania  from  the  Connecticut  claims  in 
1787.  The  question  was  finally  settled  in  favor  of  Pennsylvania's  juris- 
diction in  1790. 

Wyoming  Massacre,  Pa.  In  1776  two  Continental  companies  had  been 
placed  in  the  Wyoming  Valley  for  the  protection  of  the  settlers,  chiefly  Con- 
necticut emigrants.  Two  years  later  Major  John  Butler,  commanding  a  force 
800  strong,  of  Indians,  British  and  Tories,  descended  upon  the  valley.  July  3, 
230  Americans,  in  six  companies,  led  by  Colonel  Zebulon  Butler,  attempted 
to  oppose  the  British  raids.  Their  unorganized  lines  fell  upon  the  enemy 
about  four  o'clock  in  the  afternoon.  The  Continentals  were  utterly  routed 
and  a  brutal  massacre  followed.  Butler  could  not  restrain  his  Indians,  who 
took  227  scalps.  Women  and  children  were,  however,  spared. 

Wythe,  George  (1726-1806),  jurist,  became  a  member  of  the  Virginia 
House  of  Burgesses  in  1758  and  served  until  the  beginning  of  the  Revolu- 
tion. He  drafted  a  remonstrance  to  Parliament  against  the  Stamp  Act  in 
1764.  He  was  a  delegate  to  the  Continental  Congress  from  1775  to  1776 
and  signed  the  Declaration  of  Independence.  He  became  Judge  of  the 
High  Court  of  Chancery  in  1777,  and  was  sole  chancellor  of  that  court  from 
1786  to  1806.  He  was  an  ardent  supporter  of  the  Federal  Constitution  in 
the  Virginia  Convention  of  1788,  and  was  of  great  note  as  a  lawyer. 

X. 

XvY/  Mission-  In  October,  1797,  Marshall,  Pinckney  and  Gerry  were  dis- 
patched to  France  to  treat  with  Talleyrand  and  endeavor  to  restore  harmony 


DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  729 

and  a  good  understanding,  and  commercial  and  friendly  intercourse  between 
the  two  republics.  They  had  great  difficulty  in  obtaining  an  interview 
with  Talleyrand,  being  met  instead  by  the  latter's  special  agents,  Hottin- 
guer,  Bellamy  and  Hauteval.  In  dispatches  to  the  home  Government  the 
United  States  Commissioners  designated  these  agents  respectively  as  "X," 
"  Y  "  and  "  Z,"  and  hence  the  name.  The  special  agents  suggested  that  the 
Americans  propose  to  Talleyrand  the  loan  of  a  large  sum  of  money  by  the 
United  States,  or  that  the  latter  Government  accept  the  assignment  from 
France  of  an  extorted  Dutch  loan,  and  that  one  of  the  envoys  return  to 
America  to  arrange  matters.  The  Commission  indignantly  refused  these 
proposals,  and  broke  up  in  1798,  having  accomplished  nothing  definite. 
The  envoys'  report  of  their  negotiations  aroused  intense  feeling  against  France 
in  the  United  States. 

Y. 

Yale,  Elihu  (1649-1721),  Governor  of  Madras,  went  to  England  from  New 
England  in  1652.  He  gave  various  gifts  amounting  to  about  ^900  to  Yale 
College  in  a  time  of  need,  for  which  the  college  was  named  in  his  honor. 

Yale  University,  New  Haven,  Conn.,  was  chartered  in  1701.  During  its 
first  year  it  had  only  one  student.  Established  first  at  Saybrook,  it  was  moved 
in  1716  to  New  Haven.  The  college  received  its  name  from  Elihu  Yale, 
who  gave  gifts  amounting  to  ^900.  The  Medical  School  was  opened  in  1813, 
the  Theological  School  in  1822,  the  Law  School  in  1824,  the  Sheffield  Scien- 
tific School  in  1847. 

Yancey,  "William  L.  (1814— 1863),  served  in  both  branches  of  the  Alabama 
Legislature.  He  represented  Alabama  in  the  U.  S.  Congress  as  a  Democrat 
from  1844  to  1847.  He  was  a  leader  of  the  extreme  party  in  the  South. 
He  proposed  the  formation  of  committees  of  safety  in  the  Southern  States 
"  to  fire  the  Southern  heart."  He  made  a  tour  through  the  North  and  West 
during  the  campaign  of  1860,  urging  the  rejection  of  the  Republican  candi- 
date. He  was  a  Confederate  Commissioner  to  Europe  from  1861  to  1862, 
when  he  became  a  member  of  the  Confederate  Senate.  Life  by  Du  Bose. 

Yankee.  The  most  probable  explanation  of  this  designation  is  that  it  is  a 
corruption  by  the  Massachusetts  Indians  of  the  word  English,  or  perhaps  of 
the  French  word  Anglais. 

Yankee  Doodle.  The  history  of  the  song  is  uncertain,  but  the  air  existed 
in  England  as  far  back  as  the  middle  of  the  last  century. 

Yates,  Richard  (1818-1873),  was  a  member  of  the  Illinois  Legislature 
from  1842  to  1849.  He  represented  Illinois  in  the  U.  S.  Congress  as  a 
Whig  from  1850  to  1854.  He  was  Governor  of  the  State  from  1860  to 
1864,  and  was  active  in  the  support  of  the  Union.  He  represented  Illinois 
in  the  U.  S.  Senate  from  1865  to  1871. 

Yates,  Robert  (1738-1801),  of  New  York,  was  the  author  of  numerous 
essays  signed  "  The  Rough  Hewer,"  which  advocated  the  patriot  cause.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  New  York  Provincial  Congress  from  1775  to  1778, 


DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

73" 

He  became  one  of  the  Committee  of  Safety  in  1776.  He  became  a  Judge 
of  the  New  York  Supreme  Court  in  1776,  and  was  Chief  Justice  from  1790 
to  1798.  He  was  a  member  of  the  convention  that  framed  the  Federal  Con- 
stitution, but  left  the  convention  and  opposed  the  ratification  of  the  Consti- 
tution. 

Yazoo  City,  Miss.,  wrested  from  the  Confederates  of  Johnston's  command 
by  Herron  and  5000  Union  troops,  July  13, 1863.  Herron  had  been  sent  by 
Grant  for  this  purpose.  Chrisman  commanded  the  garrison  of  800.  Her- 
ron was  assisted  by  DeKalb  with  a  gunboat,  but  the  latter  was  sunk  by  a 
torpedo.  Herron  captured  300  prisoners,  800  horses,  200  bales  of  cotton 
and  250  small  arms,  besides  a  Confederate  steamboat 

Yazoo  Frauds.  Georgia  began  her  existence  as  a  State  with  doubtful 
claims  to  the  territory  west  of  her  present  area,  but  she  did  not  hesitate  to 
pass  laws  regulating  their  disposal.  In  1795  four  land  companies  were 
formed  and  combined,  in  their  operations  in  bribing  the  Georgia  Legislature, 
under  the  name  of  the  Yazoo  Companies.  By  successfully  bribing  every 
member  of  the  Legislature,  except  one,  Robert  Watkins,  they  induced  that 
body  to  grant  the  companies,  for  a  nominal  consideration  of  $500,000,  a 
tract  of  land  containing  35,000,000  acres.  These  frauds  aroused  great 
indignation  through  the  State.  The  act  was  declared  unconstitutional  and 
void  by  the  grand  jury  of  every  county  except  two.  February  13,  1796, 
the  Anti-Yazoo  party,  having  the  majority  in  the  Legislature,  reyoked  the 
sale  as  a  violation  of  the  State  Constitution.  Immediately  numerous  claims 
sprang  up,  which  had  to  be  decided  by  Congress.  Madison,  Gallatin  and 
Lincoln  were  appointed  commissioners  to  investigate  the  claims.  In  1802 
Georgia  ceded  her  western  claims  to  the  United  States.  The  claims  arising 
from  the  Yazoo  Frauds  were  not  decided  until  1814.  (See  art.  on  the  case 
of  Fletcher  vs.  Peck.) 

Yeamans,  Sir  John  (1605  7-1676?),  born  in  England,  was  Governor  of  an 
unsuccessful  colony  called  "Clarendon,"  founded  in  1665  on  Cape  Fear 
River.  He  was  Governor  of  South  Carolina  from  1671  to  1674,  and  intro- 
duced the  first  slaves  into  that  colony  in  1671. 

Yeardley,  Sir  George  (15807-1627),  was  an  early  immigrant  to  Virginia 
from  England,  and  was  appointed  Deputy-Governor  in  1616.  He  was  dis- 
placed by  Samuel  Argall,  but  was  appointed  Governor  in  1619,  and  con- 
vened the  first  representative  assembly  in  the  Western  Hemisphere.  He  was 
succeeded  by  Sir  Francis  Wyatt  in  1621,  but  again  held  office  from  1626  till 
his  death. 

Yellow  Bayou,  La.,  a  brief  skirmish,  May  18,  1864,  during  Banks'  Red 
River  campaign,  between  the  rear-guard  of  Bailey's  troops  under  Mower  and 
a  small  body  of  Confederates  led  by  Polignac.  The  Confederates  were 
worsted. 

Yellow  Fever.  This  disease  first  appeared  in  North  America  in  1780, 
ravaging  Boston  during  the  summer  of  that  year.  It  subsequently  visited 
New  York  and  Philadelphia,  especially  in  1793  and  1797,  the  latter  city 
having  sufficed  later  than  1822.  More  recent  and  malignant  appearances  of 


DICTIONARY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  731 

the  epidemic  have  occurred  in  the  Southern  and  Gulf  States,  the  worst  being 
that  of  1878. 

Yellow  Tavern.     (See  Sheridan's  Raid.) 

Yellowstone  Park.  This  tract  was  set  apart  by  Congress  in  1872  as  a 
national  park. 

Yeo,  Sir  James  L.  (1782-1819),  commanded  the  British  forces  on  Lake 
Ontario  during-  the  War  of  1812.  He  captured  Oswego  in  1814.  He  was 
defeated  in  York  Bay  by  Captain  Chauncey. 

York,  Me.,  second  town  settled  in  the  State.  The  place  was  chartered  by 
Sir  F.  Gorges  in  1641  as  a  borough,  and  in  1642  as  a  city  by  the  name  of 
Gorgeana.  On  February  5,  1692,  it  was  attacked  by  Indians,  over  160  in- 
habitants massacred  and  the  town  burned. 

York  (now  Toronto),  Ontario.  An  attack  was  planned  by  the  Americans 
preparatory  to  an  invasion  of  Canada.  April  27,  1813,  General  Pike  with 
1700  men  and  thirteen  armed  vessels  effected  a  landing,  and  against  a  deter- 
mined resistance  fought  his  way  to  the  town.  The  British,  despairing  of 
longer  holding  the  place,  blew  up  their  powder-magazine.  By  this  fifty-two 
Americans  were  killed,  180  wounded,  and  the  rest  thrown  into  confusion. 
During  the  dismay  caused  by  the  explosion  General  Sheaffe,  in  command  of 
the  British,  withdrew  with  the  larger  part  of  his  army,  after  having  destroyed 
some  vessels  on  the  stocks  and  a  large  amount  of  stores.  The  town  was  then 
surrendered  by  the  civil  authorities  together  with  290  regulars  and  militia, 
a  war-vessel  and  a  large  quantity  of  naval  and  military  stores.  The  Ameri- 
cans lost  in  killed  and  wounded  286  including  General  Pike  himself,  the 
British  149.  The  provincial  government  buildings  were  burned. 

Young,  Brigham  (1801—1877),  the  chief  exponent  of  Mormonism  and 
polygamy,  was  a  Verruonter  by  birth,  and  a  mechanic  in  New  York.  He 
was  converted  to  Mormonism  in  1831,  and  became  an  intimate  associate  of 
Smith.  Commencing  to  preach  the  next  year,  he  soon  removed  to  Kirtland, 
Ohio,  was  chosen  elder  in  1832  and  apostle  in  1835.  Brigham  Young  was 
ore  of  the  founders  of  the  Nauvoo  settlement  in  1840,  and  in  1844  he 
succeeded  Smith.  Owing  to  persecution  he  conducted  an  emigration  in 
1846,  and  passed  the  following  winter  among  the  Indians  of  Nebraska. 
Having  in  1847  explored  the  Salt  Lake  valley,  he  returned  and  led  his  band 
to  the  new  home  in  1848.  He  became  Governor  of  Deseret  in  1849,  and 
was  appointed  Governor  of  the  Territory  of  Utah  in  1851.  The  next  year 
he  announced  the  dogma  of  polygamy,  and  systematically  defied  the  National 
Government.  He  submitted,  however,  to  Johnston's  expedition  of  1857.  He 
remained  president  of  the  Mormon  Church  until  his  death. 

Young,  John  (18027-1852),  represented  New  York  in  the  U.  S.  Congress 
as  a  Whig  from  1836  to  1837  and  from  1841  to  1843.  He  was  Governor  of 
New  York  from  1847  to  1849,  when  he  became  Assistant  U.  S.  Treasurer  in 
New  York  City. 

Young,  John  R.,  born  in  1841,  became  connected  with  the  Philadelphia 
Press  in  1857,  and  was  its  war  correspondent.  He  has  since  been  an  editor 


732  DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

of  the  New  York  Tribune  and  Herald.     He  was  Minister  to  China  from 
1882  to  1884.     Became  librarian  of  Congress  1897.       Died  1899. 

Young  Men's  Christian  Association.  This  organization  was  first  estab- 
lished in  the  United  States  at  Boston  in  1851,  having  originated  in  London 
in  1844  The  present  (1894)  aggregate  membership  of  the  1438  American 
Associations  is  245,809,  and  the  net  value  of  their  property  $14,208,043. 

Yorktown  (October  19,  1781).  On  his  arrival  in  Virginia  in  May,  1781, 
Cornwallis  found  himself  in  command  of  5000  veterans.  Opposed  to  him 
was  Lafayette  with  3000  men,  mostly  raw  militia.  Cornwallis  burnt  and 
harried  southern  Virginia,  but  was  unable  to  bring  Lafayette  to  battle. 
Lafayette  was  continually  reinforced  and  finding  he  could  not  catch  him,  on 
June  15  Cornwallis  retreated  to  Richmond,  and  thence  on  the  2Oth  toward 
the  sea.  In  the  first  week  of  August,  Cornwallis  took  his  position  at  York- 
town  with  a  garrison  of  7000  men.  Lafayette  watched  him  from  Malvern 
Hill.  Washington  now  conceived  the  bold  scheme  of  leaving  Clinton 
unguarded  in  New  York  and  of  striking  at  Cornwallis  in  the  South.  The 
French  fleet  of  thirty-four  sail  and  20,000  men  under  De  Grasse  was  expected 
daily,  and  on  August  17  news  came  that  it  was  headed  for  the  Chesapeake. 
Without  giving  Clinton  any  clue  to  his  movements,  Washington  shifted  a 
body  of  2000  Continentals  and  4000  French  from  West  Point  to  Yorktown. 
The  march  was  one  of  400  miles  and  was  accomplished  between  August  19 
and  September  18.  The  French  fleet  had  already  arrived,  and  kept  the 
enemy's  fleet  at  bay.  Cornwallis  was  completely  hemmed  in  by  16,000  men 
and  the  fleet.  Each  day  the  lines  grew  closer  and  no  help  came  from  Clin- 
ton. On  October  14,  two  British  redoubts  were  taken  by  storm.  Next  day 
the  British  made  a  fruitless  sortie,  and  on  the  1 7th  a  white  flag  was  displayed. 
The  British  became  prisoners  of  war.  Cornwallis  was  directed  to  give  his 
sword  to  General  Lincoln.  He  sent  it  by  General  O'Hara.  The  number  of 
the  British  who  surrendered  was  7247  soldiers  and  840  seamen.  This  disas- 
ter utterly  crippled  the  British  forces  in  America  and  was  considered  by  all 
parties  the  end  of  the  war. 


z. 

Zalinski,  Edmund  L.  G.,  born  in  1849,  came  to  America  from  Poland  in 
1853.  He  served  with  distinction  on  the  staff  of  General  Miles  from  1864 
to  1865.  He  perfected  the  pneumatic  dynamite  torpedo  gun. 

Zanzibar.  A  treaty  relative  to  import  duty  and  consuls  was  concluded 
between  the  United  States  and  Zanzibar  in  1886. 

Zenger's  Case,  first  real  struggle  of  the  colonial  press  for  freedom  of 
speech  against  the  Government.  This  case  laid  the  foundation  of  the  liberty 
of  the  press  in  America.  In  1735  John  Peter  Zenger,  at  that  time  editor 
rn£  f ubllsher  of  the  New  York  Weekly  Journal,  which  had  been  estab- 
lished as  an  organ  of  the  popular  cause  against  the  colonial  government, 
was  brought  to  trial  for  the  publication  of  "false,  scandalous,  malicious, 


DICTIONARY  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  733 

seditious  libels"  against  the  royal  government  of  the  colony  of  New  York. 
Every  possible  means  was  employed  to  secure  Zenger's  condemnation,  but 
no  jury  could  be  found  or  compelled  to  return  a  verdict  of  guilty. 

Zeno  Brothers,  Nicolo  (1340  7-1391  ?)  and  Antonio,  were  Venetian  navi- 
gators who  visited  Greenland  and  Newfoundland  about  1380  or  1390,  and 
are  said  to  have  navigated  the  coast  of  North  America  as  far  south  as  Vir- 
ginia. The  accounts  written  by  Zeno  were  partially  destroyed  and  their 
authenticity  was  doubted.  Subsequent  researches  have  strengthened  belief 
in  their  authenticity.  Zeno's  map  of  Greenland  and  the  northern  coast  of 
North  America  shows  considerable  accuracy. 

Zinzendorf,  Nicholas  L.,  Count  (1700—1760),  visited  America  from  Sax- 
ony (1741—1743),  and  organized  the  Moravian  Church  in  America.  He  con- 
ducted seven  conventions,  preached  in  the  Lutheran  and  Reformed  Churches, 
and  organized  churches. 

Zoar.     (See  Separatists.) 

Zollicoffer,  Felix  K.  (1812-1862),  was  an  editor  of  the  Columbia,  Tenn., 
Observer  from  1834  to  1841.  He  became  an  editor  of  the  Nashville  Banner 
in  1841.  He  was  Comptroller  of  Tennessee  from  1844  to  1849,  represented 
Tennessee  in  the  U.  S.  Congress  as  a  Whig  from  1853  to  1859,  and  was  an 
advocate  of  extreme  Southern  views.  He  entered  the  Confederate  service 
as  a  brigadier-general,  and  was  killed  in  the  battle  of  Mill  Spring. 


412 


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